Class Notes – Lecture 7
Date: July 8
Topic: Memory Systems and the Mechanics of Remembering
Overview
Today’s lecture focused on different types of memory systems, how we
process and store information, why we forget, and strategies to improve
memory. The session built on last week's material about cognitive load
and introduced both theoretical models and practical applications related
to memory.
1. Memory Systems
We started by categorizing memory into three basic systems:
Sensory Memory
o Extremely brief (milliseconds to ~2 seconds) storage of raw
sensory input.
o Two main types:
Iconic memory: visual stimuli.
Echoic memory: auditory stimuli (slightly longer-lasting
than iconic).
o Acts as a buffer; info not attended to is lost almost instantly.
Short-Term Memory (STM)
o Holds information temporarily for immediate use.
o Capacity is limited (~7 ± 2 items).
o Duration is about 15–30 seconds without rehearsal.
o Information can be displaced if new data enters.
o Demonstrated with digit span and chunking examples.
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
o Essentially unlimited in capacity and duration.
o Divided into:
Declarative (explicit): facts and events. Includes
episodic (personal experiences) and semantic (general
knowledge).
Non-declarative (implicit): skills, habits, conditioning
(e.g., riding a bike).
2. Encoding and Retrieval
Encoding refers to the process of getting information into a
memory system.
o Depth of processing matters: shallow (e.g., visual features) vs.
deep (semantic meaning).
o Example: Remembering a word by its definition (deep) is more
effective than recalling its font style (shallow).
Retrieval is accessing stored information.
o Retrieval cues (like smells or context) can help.
o Retrieval can fail even if the memory is stored (tip-of-the-
tongue phenomenon).
3. Working Memory
Different from short-term memory in that it involves active
manipulation of information, not just passive storage.
The working memory model includes:
o Phonological loop: handles verbal and auditory info.
o Visuospatial sketchpad: processes visual and spatial info.
o Central executive: directs attention and coordinates
subsystems.
o Episodic buffer (later addition): links information across
domains and with LTM.
4. Theories of Forgetting
We covered why we forget, and it’s not always due to memory "decay"
over time:
Decay Theory: Memory fades if it’s not used, especially in STM.
Interference Theory: Memories compete, causing forgetting.
o Proactive interference: Old info disrupts new learning (e.g., old
password makes it hard to remember the new one).
o Retroactive interference: New info disrupts recall of old
material.
Retrieval Failure: Info is stored but temporarily inaccessible due to
missing retrieval cues.
Motivated Forgetting (brief mention): Repressing painful or
traumatic memories—controversial and debated.
5. Strategies for Improving Memory
Several memory techniques were discussed with examples:
Chunking: Grouping info (e.g., phone numbers).
Mnemonics: Acronyms, rhymes, or visual imagery to aid recall.
Elaborative Rehearsal: Connecting new info to things you already
know.
Spaced Repetition: Studying material over spaced intervals
improves long-term retention (compared to cramming).
Dual Coding: Using both verbal and visual info to enhance
understanding and memory (e.g., combining diagrams with text).
In-Class Demonstration
There was a quick in-class activity: a list of 20 random words was shown
briefly, then removed. Everyone tried to recall as many as possible. Most
remembered the beginning and end (primacy and recency effect),
supporting the serial position effect.
