Excretion in Humans

1. Definition of Excretion

• Excretion: The process by which metabolic waste products, toxic materials, and
substances in excess of requirements are removed from the body of an organism.

• Metabolic Waste: By-products of chemical reactions (metabolism) occurring within

cells. These can be harmful if allowed to accumulate.

• Key Distinction - Excretion vs. Egestion:

o Excretion: Removal of metabolic waste (e.g., urea, CO2). Involves substances

passing through cell membranes during metabolism.

o Egestion (Defecation): Removal of undigested or indigestible food material

(faeces) from the digestive tract. This material has never entered the body's cells
or participated in metabolism.

2. Importance of Excretion

• Prevents the build-up of toxic waste products (like urea and carbon dioxide) which can
poison cells and disrupt enzyme activity.

• Removes substances present in excess (like water and salts) to maintain a constant
internal environment (homeostasis), particularly regarding blood water potential and
ion concentration.

3. Major Metabolic Waste Products in Humans and their Origins

Waste
Origin Excretory Organ(s)
Product

Carbon Waste product of aerobic respiration in all

Lungs
Dioxide (CO₂) body cells.

Produced in the liver from the deamination

Urea Kidneys
of excess amino acids.

From diet (drinks, food) and metabolic Kidneys, Skin (sweat), Lungs
Excess Water
processes (e.g., respiration). (water vapour)

Excess
From diet. Kidneys, Skin (sweat)
Salts/Ions

From the breakdown of haemoglobin in the Liver (into bile -> faeces),
Bile Pigments liver (excreted in faeces, but originates Kidneys (small amount as
metabolically). urobilinogen)

• Deamination: The process where the amino group (-NH₂) is removed from an amino
acid molecule in the liver. This amino group is converted first to highly toxic ammonia
(NH₃) and then quickly into less toxic urea ((NH₂)₂CO) for safer transport and excretion.
 The remaining part of the amino acid (a keto acid) can be respired for energy or
converted to glucose/fat.

4. Excretory Organs in Humans

• Kidneys: Primary excretory organs. Filter blood to produce urine, removing urea, excess
water, and excess salts. Also play a vital role in osmoregulation.

• Lungs: Excrete carbon dioxide and water vapour during exhalation.

• Skin: Excretes water, salts, and a very small amount of urea in sweat. Sweating's
primary role is temperature regulation, but it does contribute slightly to excretion.

• Liver: While not directly expelling waste out of the body, it's crucial in processing waste
(deamination, urea formation, detoxification, breakdown of red blood cells).

5. The Human Urinary System

• Components:

o Two Kidneys: Bean-shaped organs located in the upper abdomen. Filter blood.

o Two Ureters: Tubes carrying urine from each kidney to the bladder.

o Bladder: Muscular sac that stores urine.

o Urethra: Tube carrying urine from the bladder out of the body. (Also carries
semen in males).

o Renal Artery: Brings oxygenated blood containing waste (urea, excess

salts/water) to the kidney. Branches off the aorta.

o Renal Vein: Takes deoxygenated blood with waste removed (less urea,
regulated salt/water) away from the kidney. Joins the vena cava.

• Function: To filter waste products from the blood and produce urine, regulate blood
water potential (osmoregulation), and regulate salt concentrations.

6. Structure of the Kidney (Longitudinal Section)

 • Fibrous Capsule: Outer protective layer.

• Cortex: Outer region, darker in colour. Contains Bowman's capsules, glomeruli, and
convoluted tubules of nephrons.

• Medulla: Inner region, lighter in colour, often appears striated. Contains Loops of Henlé
and collecting ducts of nephrons. Often arranged in pyramids.

• Pelvis: Central funnel-like cavity where urine collects before passing into the ureter.

7. The Nephron - The Functional Unit of the Kidney

• Each kidney contains approximately one million nephrons.

• Structure of a Nephron:

o Afferent Arteriole: Small artery bringing blood to the glomerulus. Wider than the
efferent arteriole.
 o Glomerulus: A dense capillary network where filtration occurs. High blood
pressure here.

o Efferent Arteriole: Small artery carrying blood away from the glomerulus.
Narrower than the afferent arteriole, contributing to high pressure in the
glomerulus. It then forms capillaries surrounding the rest of the tubule.

o Bowman's Capsule (Renal Capsule): Cup-shaped structure surrounding the

glomerulus. Collects the fluid filtered from the blood (glomerular filtrate).

o Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT): First coiled section of the tubule after the
Bowman's capsule. Site of most selective reabsorption.

o Loop of Henlé: Hairpin loop extending down into the medulla (in some
nephrons) and back up to the cortex. Important for creating a salt concentration
gradient in the medulla (involved in water reabsorption).

o Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT): Second coiled section of the tubule. Further
selective reabsorption and secretion occur here. Influenced by hormones (like
ADH indirectly via collecting duct).

o Collecting Duct: Tube receiving fluid from several nephrons. Passes down
through the medulla to the renal pelvis. Final water reabsorption occurs here,
regulated by ADH.

8. Urine Formation: Two Key Processes

• a) Ultrafiltration (Pressure Filtration):

o Location: Glomerulus and Bowman's Capsule.

o Process:

1. Blood enters the glomerulus via the wider afferent arteriole and leaves
via the narrower efferent arteriole.
 2. This difference in diameter creates high hydrostatic pressure within the
glomerulus.

3. This high pressure forces plasma and small solutes out of the glomerular
capillaries and into the Bowman's capsule.

4. The capillary walls and the inner wall of the Bowman's capsule act as
filters:

▪ They are permeable to water and small solutes (glucose, amino

acids, urea, salts/ions, hormones, vitamins).

▪ They are impermeable to large molecules (proteins) and cells

(red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets).

o Result: Glomerular Filtrate is formed in the Bowman's capsule. Its

composition is similar to blood plasma but without large proteins and cells.

• b) Selective Reabsorption:

o Location: Primarily the Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT), but also occurs
along the Loop of Henlé, Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT), and Collecting Duct.

o Process: As the glomerular filtrate flows through the nephron tubule, essential
and useful substances are transported back into the blood capillaries
surrounding the tubule. This is "selective" because only needed substances are
reabsorbed.

1. Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT):

▪ All Glucose: Reabsorbed by active transport. Requires energy

(ATP).

▪ Most Amino Acids: Reabsorbed by active transport.

▪ Some Salts/Ions: Reabsorbed by active transport (depending

on body's needs).

▪ Significant amount of Water: Reabsorbed by osmosis,

following the reabsorption of solutes (glucose, salts).

▪ Cells of the PCT are adapted with microvilli (large surface area)
and many mitochondria (for active transport).

2. Loop of Henlé: Establishes a salt gradient in the medulla, allowing for

further water reabsorption from the collecting duct later. Some salt
reabsorption occurs.

3. Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT): More selective reabsorption of salts

and water occurs, depending on the body's needs (influenced by
hormones).

4. Collecting Duct: Final water reabsorption occurs here, regulated by

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH). ADH increases the permeability of the
collecting duct walls to water, allowing more water to be reabsorbed by
 osmosis back into the blood if the body is dehydrated. Urea becomes
more concentrated.

o Result: Useful substances are returned to the blood. Waste products (mainly
urea), excess salts, and excess water remain in the tubule fluid, which becomes
urine.

9. Composition of Urine

• Urine is primarily composed of:

o Water: Amount varies depending on hydration level and ADH action.

o Urea: Main nitrogenous waste product.

o Salts/Ions: Excess salts (e.g., sodium chloride). Amount varies depending on

diet and body needs.

o Other waste products: Creatinine, uric acid, hormones (trace amounts), bile
pigments (urobilinogen - gives urine its colour).

• Healthy urine should NOT contain:

o Glucose (indicates diabetes mellitus).

o Proteins (indicates kidney damage/disease affecting filtration).

o Blood cells (indicates kidney damage/disease or infection).

Comparison Table: Blood Plasma vs. Glomerular Filtrate vs. Urine

Glomerular
Blood Plasma Filtrate (in Urine (in Collecting
Component Reason for Difference
(in Glomerulus) Bowman's Duct/Pelvis)
Capsule)

Variable conc. Reabsorbed by

High High
Water (usually lower than osmosis along
concentration concentration
filtrate) tubule/collecting duct

Present (large
Proteins Absent Absent Too large to be filtered
molecules)

Blood Cells Present Absent Absent Too large to be filtered

Selectively reabsorbed
Glucose Present Present Absent (normally) (active transport) in
PCT

Selectively reabsorbed
Amino
Present Present Absent (normally) (active transport) in
Acids
PCT
 Filtered; water
Low High
Urea Low concentration reabsorbed,
concentration concentration
concentrating urea

Variable conc. Filtered; some

Normal Normal
Salts/Ions (often higher than reabsorbed, excess
concentration concentration
filtrate) left in urine

10. Role of Kidney in Osmoregulation (Brief Overview - Often detailed in Homeostasis)

• Osmoregulation is the control of the water potential of body fluids (like blood).

• The kidneys regulate blood water potential by adjusting the amount of water reabsorbed
from the collecting ducts.

• This process is controlled by Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH), produced by the

hypothalamus and released from the pituitary gland.

o If dehydrated (blood water potential too low): More ADH released ->
collecting ducts become more permeable to water -> more water reabsorbed
into blood -> small volume of concentrated urine produced.

o If overhydrated (blood water potential too high): Less ADH released ->
collecting ducts become less permeable to water -> less water reabsorbed into
blood -> large volume of dilute urine produced.

11. Kidney Failure

• Occurs when the kidneys lose their ability to filter waste products effectively, leading to
a build-up of urea and other toxins in the blood, and inability to regulate water and salt
balance.

• Causes: Diabetes, high blood pressure, infections, certain drugs, genetic factors,
injury.

12. Treatments for Kidney Failure

• a) Kidney Dialysis (Haemodialysis):

o Principle: Uses an artificial kidney machine (dialyser) to clean the patient's

blood outside the body.

o Process:

1. Blood is drawn from an artery in the patient's arm.

2. Blood flows through dialysis tubing (made of a partially permeable

membrane) bathed in dialysis fluid (dialysate).

3. The dialysis fluid has:

▪ Normal concentrations of essential substances (e.g., glucose,

amino acids, some salts) - prevents their loss from the blood.

▪ NO urea - creates a steep concentration gradient for urea to

diffuse out of the blood into the dialysis fluid.
 ▪ Carefully controlled water potential (usually slightly lower than
normal blood) - allows excess water to move by osmosis from
the blood into the fluid.

▪ Normal ion concentrations - allows excess ions to diffuse out of

the blood.

4. Waste products (urea, excess salts) and excess water diffuse from the
blood into the dialysis fluid.

5. Cleaned blood is returned to a vein in the patient's arm.

o Frequency: Typically requires several hours (e.g., 3-5 hours), 2-3 times per
week, usually in a hospital or clinic.

o Advantages: Keeps patient alive; removes waste products effectively.

o Disadvantages: Restrictive (time-consuming, requires regular clinic visits); diet

needs careful control; risk of infection or blood clots; doesn't fully replicate all
kidney functions (like hormone production); expensive long-term.

• b) Kidney Transplant:

o Principle: Surgical replacement of a failed kidney with a healthy kidney from a

donor (living or deceased).

o Process: The donor kidney is placed in the lower abdomen and plumbed into
the patient's blood vessels and bladder. The failed kidneys are often left in place
unless causing problems.

o Donor Matching: Crucial to match blood group and tissue type (HLA antigens)
as closely as possible to reduce the risk of rejection.

o Rejection: The recipient's immune system may recognise the donor kidney as
foreign and attack it.

o Immunosuppressant Drugs: Patients must take these drugs for the rest of their
lives to suppress the immune system and prevent rejection. These drugs
increase susceptibility to infections.

o Advantages: Offers the best chance of a normal life; no need for regular dialysis
sessions; less restrictive diet; relatively cheaper in the long run than dialysis.

o Disadvantages: Requires major surgery (risks involved); risk of rejection;

lifelong need for immunosuppressant drugs (side effects, increased infection
risk); shortage of donor kidneys; requires a suitable match.

13. Exam Tips & Common Mistakes

• Don't confuse excretion with egestion. Remember excretion is metabolic waste.

• Know the precise location of ultrafiltration (glomerulus/Bowman's capsule) and

selective reabsorption (primarily PCT, but along the tubule).

• Understand why ultrafiltration occurs (high pressure due to afferent/efferent arteriole

diameter difference).
• Know what is filtered and what is not. (Small molecules vs. large proteins/cells).

• Know that glucose is completely reabsorbed in a healthy person, and how (active
transport).

• Be able to compare the composition of blood plasma, glomerular filtrate, and

urine. (Use the table format).

• Understand the basic principle of dialysis - diffusion across a partially permeable

membrane down a concentration gradient. Know the key components of dialysis fluid.

• Be able to list advantages and disadvantages of dialysis vs. transplant. Focus on

quality of life, risks, convenience, and long-term implications.

• Link ADH to water reabsorption in the collecting duct (covered more in Homeostasis,
but relevant here).