🧬 Lecture Note: Punnett Square
What is a Punnett Square?
A Punnett Square is a diagram used in genetics to predict the possible
genotypes of offspring from a particular cross or breeding experiment. It
helps visualize how alleles from each parent combine.
Key Terms
Gene: A segment of DNA that codes for a trait.
Allele: Different forms of a gene (e.g., dominant A, recessive a).
Genotype: The genetic makeup (e.g., AA, Aa, aa).
Phenotype: The physical expression of the genotype (e.g., tall or
short).
Homozygous: Two identical alleles (e.g., AA or aa).
Heterozygous: Two different alleles (e.g., Aa).
How to Use a Punnett Square
1. Determine the genotypes of the parents.
2. Write the alleles from one parent across the top and the other down
the side.
3. Fill in the boxes by combining alleles from each parent.
4. Analyze the results to determine genotype and phenotype ratios.
Example: Monohybrid Cross
Parent Genotypes: Aa × Aa
A a
A AA Aa
a Aa aa
Genotype Ratio: 1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa
Phenotype Ratio (if A is dominant): 3 dominant : 1 recessive
Applications
Predicting inheritance of traits
Understanding genetic disorders
Breeding plants and animals
🧬 Expanded Explanation: Punnett Square
🔹 What is a Punnett Square?
A Punnett Square is a simple graphical tool used in genetics to predict the
probability of offspring inheriting particular traits from their parents. It was
developed by Reginald C. Punnett, a British geneticist, in the early 20th
century.
🔹 Why Use a Punnett Square?
It helps:
Predict genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring.
Understand inheritance patterns (dominant, recessive, co-dominant,
sex-linked).
Visualize how alleles from each parent combine during fertilization.
🔹 Structure of a Punnett Square
A basic Punnett Square is a grid:
Rows represent one parent's alleles.
Columns represent the other parent's alleles.
Boxes show all possible allele combinations in the offspring.
🔹 Types of Crosses
1. Monohybrid Cross
Involves one trait (e.g., flower color).
Example: Aa × Aa
2. Dihybrid Cross
Involves two traits (e.g., seed shape and color).
Example: RrYy × RrYy
3. Test Cross
Used to determine the genotype of an individual showing a
dominant trait.
Cross with a homozygous recessive individual.
4. Sex-Linked Cross
Involves genes located on sex chromosomes (usually X-linked).
Example: XᴺXᶜ × XᴺY
🔹 Interpreting Results
Genotype: The genetic makeup (e.g., Aa, aa).
Phenotype: The observable trait (e.g., tall, short).
Ratios:
Genotypic Ratio: Proportion of different genotypes.
Phenotypic Ratio: Proportion of observable traits.
🔹 Limitations of Punnett Squares
Assumes independent assortment and random fertilization.
Doesn’t account for gene linkage, mutations, or polygenic traits.
Only shows probabilities, not certainties.
🧬 Mendelian Genetics Lecture Note
1. Gregor Mendel's Background
Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, is known as the father of genetics. In
the mid-19th century, he conducted experiments on pea plants to
understand how traits are passed from one generation to the next. His work
laid the foundation for modern genetics.
2. Mendel's Pea Plant Experiments
Mendel chose pea plants because they:
Had easily observable traits (e.g., flower color, seed shape)
Could self-pollinate or be cross-pollinated
Grew quickly and produced many offspring
He tracked traits across generations and noticed predictable patterns of
inheritance.
3. Laws of Inheritance
🔹 Law of Segregation
Each organism has two alleles for each trait. These alleles separate during
gamete formation, so each gamete carries only one allele.
🔹 Law of Independent Assortment
Alleles for different traits are distributed to gametes independently. This
means the inheritance of one trait does not affect another.
4. Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses
🔹 Monohybrid Cross
Focuses on one trait.
Example:
Parent genotypes: Pp × Pp
Offspring genotypes: PP, Pp, pp
Genotypic ratio: 1:2:1
Phenotypic ratio: 3 purple : 1 white
🔹 Dihybrid Cross
Focuses on two traits.
Example:
Parent genotypes: RrYy × RrYy
Phenotypic ratio: 9 Round Yellow : 3 Round Green : 3 Wrinkled Yellow :
1 Wrinkled Green
5. Punnett Squares
Used to predict offspring outcomes by combining parental alleles.
Example: Monohybrid Cross (Pp × Pp)
P p
P PP Pp
p Pp pp
Genotypic ratio: 1 PP : 2 Pp : 1 pp
Phenotypic ratio: 3 purple : 1 white
6. Genotypic and Phenotypic Ratios
Genotypic Ratio: Ratio of genetic combinations (e.g., 1 PP : 2 Pp : 1 pp)
Phenotypic Ratio: Ratio of observable traits (e.g., 3 purple : 1 white)
7. Real-World Applications
Mendelian genetics is used in:
Predicting genetic disorders
Selective breeding in agriculture and livestock
Genetic counseling
Understanding heredity and evolution
🧬 Non-Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance
While Mendel’s laws explain many inheritance patterns, not all traits follow his rules. These
exceptions are known as Non-Mendelian inheritance.
🌸 1. Incomplete Dominance
Definition: The heterozygous phenotype is a blend of the two homozygous phenotypes.
Example: Red (RR) × White (WW) snapdragons produce Pink (RW) flowers.
🧪 2. Codominance
Definition: Both alleles are fully expressed in the heterozygote.
Example: Human blood type AB (IAIB) shows both A and B antigens.
🧬 3. Multiple Alleles
Definition: A gene has more than two alleles in the population.
Example: ABO blood group system has three alleles: IA, IB, and i.
🌈 4. Polygenic Inheritance
Definition: A trait is controlled by multiple genes, each contributing a small effect.
Examples: Skin color, height, and eye color in humans.
🧠 5. Pleiotropy
Definition: A single gene affects multiple traits.
Example: The gene for cystic fibrosis affects lungs, pancreas, and sweat glands.
🧬 6. Epistasis
Definition: One gene masks or modifies the expression of another gene.
Example: Coat color in Labrador retrievers involves two interacting genes.
♀️♂️7. Sex-Linked Inheritance
Definition: Traits controlled by genes on the sex chromosomes (usually X).
Examples: Color blindness and hemophilia (X-linked traits).
