1.

English system:
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
𝟏. 𝟒𝟖𝟔 𝟐⁄𝟑 𝟏⁄𝟐
CE 112 – HYDRAULICS 𝑽= 𝑹 𝑺
𝒏
2nd Semester, S.Y 2023 – 2024
2. Metric system:
MODULE 4 (PART 1)
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 𝟏 𝟐⁄𝟑 𝟏⁄𝟐
𝑽= 𝑹 𝑺
𝒏
An open channel is a conduit in which a liquid flow with a free surface.
n = roughness coefficient
n = coefficient of rugosity
4.1 OPEN CHANNEL (UNIFORM FLOW)
D. BAZIN’S FORMULA
A. CHEZY’S FORMULAS
1. English system:
𝑽 = 𝑪√𝑹𝑺
𝑸 = 𝑨𝑽 𝟏𝟓𝟕. 𝟔
𝑪= 𝒎
𝟏+
V = velocity of water (uniform flow) √𝑹
A = cross-section area of channel
C = Chezy’s coefficient 2. Metric system:
R = hydraulic radius
𝟖𝟕
𝑨 𝑪= 𝒎
𝑹= 𝟏+
𝑷 √𝑹

P = wetted perimeter of channel c = Bazin’s Coefficient

S = slope of energy gradient m = hydraulic mean depth
𝑨
𝒎=
B. KUTTER’S FORMULA 𝑷

1. English system: E. MANNING’S COEFFICIENT

𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟏 𝟏. 𝟖𝟏𝟏 1. English system:

𝟒𝟏. 𝟔𝟓 + 𝑺 + 𝒏
𝑪=
𝒏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟏 𝟏. 𝟒𝟖𝟔𝑹𝟏⁄𝟔
𝟏+ (𝟒𝟏. 𝟔𝟓 + )
√𝑹 𝑺 𝑪=
𝒏
2. Metric system: 3. Metric system:
𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟓
𝟐𝟑 + 𝒏 + 𝑹𝟏⁄𝟔
𝑪= 𝑺 𝑪=
𝒏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟓 𝒏
𝟏+ (𝟐𝟑 + )
√𝑹 𝑺
F. DARCY WEISHBACK COEFFICIENT
n = roughness coefficient
C = Kutter’s coeffiecient 𝟖𝒈
S = Slope of energy gradient 𝑪=√
𝒇
R = hydraulic slope
f = friction factor
C. MANNING’S FORMULA
g = 9.81 m/sec²

ENGR. MELANIE ROSE P. PASCUA

 4.2 CROSS SECTION OF GREATEST EFFICIENCY D. Maximum flow of water in circular channel occurs when the channel is filled to a height of
0.938D.
a. Best Hydraulic section
b. Minimum wetted perimeter
c. Most economical section
d. Most advantageous section
e. Optimum section
f. Maximum discharge

E. Maximum velocity of water in circular channel occurs when the channel is filled to a height
A. RECTANGULAR SECTION
of 0.81D.

F. TRIANGULAR SECTION
𝒃 = 𝟐𝒉 (width at free water surface is equal to the sum of the sides)
𝒉 (Most efficient section when 𝜃=90°)
𝑹=
𝟐
𝑨 = 𝒃𝒉 Most efficient triangular section occurs when the angle at the apex is 90°
𝑸 = 𝑨𝑽
𝑽√𝑹𝑺
𝟏
𝑽 = 𝑹𝟐⁄𝟑 𝑺𝟏⁄𝟐
𝒏

B. TRAPEZOIDAL SECTION
(Most efficient section when 𝜃=30°)

G. For different cross-sections having the same area, the most efficient section is the one
having smaller wetted perimeter.

4.3 ALTERNATE STAGES OF FLOW

The channel shown in the figure below carries water at a depth of d and a mean velocity of V.
Width at the top = sum of the sides
𝒙 = 𝟐𝒚 𝑽𝟐
The total specific energy in the channel is 𝑬 = 𝟐𝒈 + 𝒅
𝒉
𝑹= Solving for V, 𝑽 = √𝟐𝒈(𝑬 − 𝒅)
𝟐
And the discharge is, 𝑸 = 𝑨√𝟐𝒈(𝑬 − 𝒅)
C. SEMI-CIRCLE
(Most efficient circular section) If the equation is plotted (as shown in the figure, when d=0, Q=0 and when d=E, Q=0 and by
substituting values of d in terms of E we can establish a curve.
𝒓
𝑹=
𝟐

ENGR. MELANIE ROSE P. PASCUA

 𝑸𝟐 𝑨𝟑
=
𝒈 𝑩

C. Critical Velocity for Non-Rectangular Section

𝑨
𝑽 = √𝒈
𝑩

A = cross sectional area of water

B = width of water surface at the surface at the top of channel

4.5 MINIMUM SEEPAGE IN CANALS

4.4 CRITICAL DEPTH, dc

From the figure shown, there is a certain depth 𝑑𝑐 , that for a given total specific energy E, the
discharge is maximum. This depth is called the critical depth and is defined as the depth at which for
a given total head, the discharge is maximum, or conversely, the depth at which for a given flow, the
specific energy is minimum. Its vale can be obtained by differentiating the following equation:

b = bottom width
𝑸 = 𝑨√𝟐𝒈(𝑬 − 𝒅)
d = depth
𝜃 = side slope
A. Critical Depth on Rectangular Section 𝒃
𝑲 = 𝒅 ratio between b and d
For rectangular channel, the discharge per meter width can be expressed as:
𝒒 = 𝒅√𝟐𝒈(𝑯 − 𝒅) On the sides of the canal the seepage is assumed to be parabolic and at the bottom it is
Where: rectangular. The intensity of the seepage loss at a depth “d” varies with the square root of the depth
q = unit flow in m³/s per meter width of canal = Vd multiplied by a constant C which depends on the texture of soil.
𝑸
𝒒=
𝒃
Q = total flow in m³/s
b = channel width in m
𝟐
𝒅𝒄 = 𝑬
𝟑
𝟑
𝑬= 𝒅
𝟐 𝒄
𝟑 𝒒𝟐
𝒅𝒄 = √ 𝒈 for rectangular channel ∅
𝒃 = 𝟒𝒅𝒕𝒂𝒏
𝑽 𝟐
= 𝟏 (Froude number, F)
√𝒈𝒅
This shows that the Froude number for critical depth is equal to 1. TOTAL SEEPAGE LOSS
𝟒𝑪𝒅𝟑⁄𝟐
𝑺= + 𝒃𝑪√𝒅
B. Critical Depth Equation for Non-Rectangular Section 𝟑𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽

S = area of two parabola + rectangle

C = constant which depends upon the texture of soil

ENGR. MELANIE ROSE P. PASCUA

 4.6 TRAPEZOIDAL CANAL

A. Average shearing stress or average unit tractive force at the bottom of channel

𝝉 = 𝜸𝒘 𝑹𝑺

𝝉 = average shearing stress or average unit tractive force in kPa

𝛾𝑤 = 9.81 kN/m²
R = hydraulic radius or hydraulic mean depth
𝑨 D. Hydraulic Mean Depth
𝑹= (𝐵 + 𝑏)
𝑷 𝐴= 𝑑
A = cross sectional area of water in the channel 2
P = wetted perimeter 𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦
𝑨
S = slope of channel bed 𝑹=
𝑷

B. Limiting tractive force on the sides of a trapezoidal channel. R = hydraulic mean depth or hydraulic radius

4.7 MOST EFFICIENT CROSS SECTIONS IN TERMS OF A COMMON CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA A.

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
𝝉𝒔 = 𝝉𝒄 √𝟏 −
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 ∅

𝜏𝑠 = limiting tractive force on the sides in N/m²

𝜏𝑐 = critical tractive force on the bottom bed in N/m²
∅ = angle of friction of channel bed
𝜃 = angle of side slope of channel
Cross section Wetted Perimeter
𝝉𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝜸𝒘 𝒅𝑺𝒐 1. Semi-circle 𝑃 = 2√𝐴
2. Trapezoidal 𝑃 = 2.63√𝐴
𝜏𝑠 = limiting tractive force on the sides in N/m² 3. Rectangular 𝑃 = 0.83√𝐴
𝛾𝑤 = 9.81 kN/m² 4. Triangular 𝑃 = 0.83√𝐴
d = depth of trapezoidal channel
𝑆𝑜 = slope of channel bed Note: The smallest wetted perimeter is the most efficient section.

4.8 CRITICAL STAGES OF CHANNELS

C. Average Depth of Trapezoidal Channel.
Rectangular Trapezoidal Triangular Channel Circular Channel
(𝐵+𝑏)
𝐴= 2 𝑑 Channel Channel
𝐵 = 𝑏 + 2𝑥 Critical 𝑄2 𝐴3 𝑄2 𝐴3 𝑄2 𝐴3
𝑨 3 𝑞2 = = =
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 = Depth 𝑑𝑐 = √ 𝑔 𝐵 𝑔 𝐵 𝑔 𝐵
𝑩 𝑔

ENGR. MELANIE ROSE P. PASCUA

 Critical 𝑉𝑐 = √𝑔𝑑𝑐 4.9 FLOW AROUND BENDS (CHANNEL OVER A HORIZONTAL CURVE SECTION)
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
velocity 𝑉𝑐 = √𝑔 𝑉𝑐 = √𝑔 𝑉𝑐 = √𝑔
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 A. Rectangular Section
Rectangular Trapezoidal Triangular Channel Circular Channel
𝑽𝟐 𝑩
Channel Channel 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 =
𝒈𝒓
Min.specific 3
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑑𝑐
Energy 2 𝑦1 = depth of water at the inner bank
Specific 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑦2 = depth of water at the outer bank
𝐸= +𝑑 𝐸= +𝑑 𝐸= +𝑑 𝐸= +𝑑
Energy 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 V = velocity across the section assume to be
Critical 𝑉𝑐 2 𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑐 2 𝑉𝑐 2 𝑉𝑐 2 uniform
= = 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
Kinetic 2𝑔 2 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 r = radius of curvature
Energy 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Hydraulic 𝐴 𝐴
𝐻𝑦𝑑. 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = 𝐴 𝐴 𝐻𝑦𝑑. 𝑑. =
depth 𝐵 𝐻𝑦𝑑. 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = √ 𝐻𝑦𝑑. 𝑑. = √ 𝐵
𝐵 𝐵
Section
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 B. Trapezoidal Section
factor Z 𝑍 = 𝐴√ 𝑍 = 𝐴√ 𝑍 = 𝐴√ 𝑍 = 𝐴√
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
Critical slope 𝑔𝑛2 𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑐 2𝑛2 𝑉𝑐 2 𝑛2 𝑉𝑐 2𝑛2
𝑆𝑐 = 𝑆𝑐 = 𝑆𝑐 = 𝑆𝑐 = 𝑽𝟐 𝑩
𝑅4⁄3 𝑅4⁄3 𝑅 4⁄3 𝑅4⁄3 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 =
𝑉𝑐 2 𝑛2 𝒈𝒓
𝑆𝑐 = 4⁄3
𝑅
𝑦1 = depth of water at the inner bank
𝑦2 = depth of water at the outer bank
V = velocity across the section assume to
be uniform.
r = radius of curvature

𝑄 (𝐵+𝑏)
𝑞=𝑏 𝐴 = 2 𝑑𝑐 4.10 TYPES OF FLOWS IN A RECTANGULAR CHANNEL
A = bd 𝐵 = 2𝑑𝑐 + 𝑏
𝐴
𝑑𝑐 = 𝐵 SUBCRITICAL CRITICAL SUPER CRITICAL
Depth of Flow 𝑑 > 𝑑𝑐 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑐 𝑑 < 𝑑𝑐
Velocity of Flow 𝑉 < 𝑉𝑐 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑐 𝑉 > 𝑉𝑐
Slope of Uniform 𝑆𝑜 < 𝑆𝑐 𝑆𝑜 = 𝑆𝑐 𝑆𝑜 > 𝑆𝑐
Froude No. 𝐹 < 1.0 𝐹 = 1.0 𝐹 > 1.0
Other features 𝑉2 𝑑 𝑉2 𝑑 𝑉2 𝑑
< = >
2𝑔 2 2𝑔 2 2𝑔 2

Example Problems

1. A rectangular channel has a depth of 1.5 m. and a coefficient of roughness of 0.012. The
𝐵
𝐴 = 2 𝑑𝑐
𝜋𝑟 2 𝛽
𝐴 = 360 + 2
𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝜃 channel carries a flow rate of 620 liters per sec.
a. What is the width of the channel for a most efficient section.
𝐵 = 4𝑑𝑐 𝐵 = 𝑟𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 (2)
b. What is the velocity of the water flowing in the channel.

ENGR. MELANIE ROSE P. PASCUA

 c. Compute the shear stress at the bottom of the channel.
a. Compute coefficient C using Kutter’s Formula.
2. A rectangular channel 5.5 m. wide and 1.2 m. deep has a slope of 1 in 1000and is lined with b. Compute coefficient C using Chezy’s Formula for f= 0.022.
good rubble masonry (n=0.015). It is desired to increase the channel slope with a favorable c. Compute coefficient C using Bazin’s Formula for m=0.015.
section. The dimensions of the section maybe changed but the channel must contain the
same amount of lining as the old. Using Kutter’s Formula. References:
a. Compute the value of Kutter’s Coefficient C of the old channel. 1. Besavilla, V.I. (1996) Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics, 3rd edition.,VIB Publisher
b. Compute the depth of the new section. 2. Gillesania, Diego Inocencio T.Fluid mechanics and hydraulics, c2003, Leyte
c. Compute the probable increase in discharge. 3. Evett, Jack B. & Liu, Cheng. (1989) Schaum’s 2500 Solved Problems in Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Inc.
3. A brick (n=0.015) rectangular channel with S=0.002 is designed to carry 6.52 𝑚 3 /𝑠 of water in
4. Daugherty, R.L., Franzini, J.B., Finnemore, E.J. (2002) Fluid Mechanics with Engineering
uniform flow. There is an argument over whether the channel width will be 1.22 m. or 2.44 m.
Applications,SI Metric Edition, USA
a. What is the depth of the 1.22 m. width.
b. What is the depth of the 2.44 m. width. 5. King, H. W., Wisler, C. O., and Woodburn, J. G. Hydraulics, Fifth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
c. Which width needs fewer bricks and by what percentage.

4. Water flows through an almost level channel 3 m. wide at 15 m³/s. The depth gradually
increases from 1.0m to 1.2m. for a length of flow of 5 m.
a. What is the head loss?
b. What is the slope of energy gradient?
c. Compute the value of the roughness coefficient.

5. A discharge of 1.25 m³/s flows on an open channel with a slope of 0.006. If the coefficient of
roughness is 0.012, compute the depth of the channel for an optimum discharge for:
a. Semi-circular section
b. Rectangular section
c. Triangular section

6. A rectangular channel of width 2 m. has a slope of 0.002, n=0.012 carries a discharge of 8

m³/s.
a. Find the normal depth of flow.
b. Find the velocity of flow.
c. What radius of curvature is required for a bend in this channel if the flow is at normal
depth entering the bend and the water surface at the outside wall of the bend must
not be more than 0.15 m. above the depth entering the bend.

7. Water is to flow in a rectangular flume at a rate of 1.45 m³/s at a slope of 0.0025. The width is
equal to twice the depth. Use n=0.017.
a. Compute the normal depth of flow.
b. Compute the Froude number.
c. Determine the type of flow.

8. For a water flow in a rectangular channel 10 m. wide, the critical slope is 0.0035. Use
n=0.014.
a. Compute the critical depth.
b. Compute the critical velocity.
c. Compute the critical discharge.

9. Given:
Hydraulic radius = 1.503
Coefficient of roughness = 0.015
Slope of energy gradient = 0.001

ENGR. MELANIE ROSE P. PASCUA