Hydraulics II Module 2011

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
Course objectives: - at the end of the course students will be expected to :
o Differentiate between open channel & pipe flows
o Understand fluid phenomenon application to design various hydraulic structures
o Acquaint laminar & turbulent flows, boundary layer theory, velocity-shear stress
relationship

? WHAT IS OPEN CHANNEL

Open channel: - It may be defined as a passage in which liquid flows with its upper
surface exposed to the atmosphere. e.g.:- curvets, spillways, and similar human made
structures
Differences b/n the flow in pipes & open channel flow
Open channel flow
 Is exposed to atmospheric pressure.
 The cross-sectional area of the Pipe Flow
flow is variable. (that depends on  Is closed channel
many parameters of the flow)  The top surface is covered by solid
 The force causing motion is boundary
gravity.  It is not exposed to atmospheric
Pressure.

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EL Hf

Y1 HGL V2
EL
2g
HGL
Y1
Y2
Y2

Z2 Z1
Z2

Fig 1(a) Pipe flow

Where HGL - Hydraulic grade line (coincide with water surface)
EGL - Energy grade line
Hf - head loss due to friction
V2/2g - velocity head
Types of channels
 Natural channels: These chann els naturally exist without the influence of human
beings. E.g. Rivers, streams, tidal estuaries, aqueducts.
 Artificial channels: Such channels are formed by man’s activity for various
purposes. E.g. irrigation channel, navigation channel, sewerage channel, culverts, power
canal…… etc.
 Prismatic channel: - channels with constant shape and slope.
 Non-prismatic channels: - channels with varying shape and slope.
 Open channel: -A channel without any cover at the top.
 Closed channel: -The channel having a cover at the top.
ACTIVITY1.1
What is open channel?
What are the different types of channel? Give example in each case.

1.1 Types of flow in open channel

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The flow in a channel classified in to the following type, depending on the change in the
depth of flow with respect to space and time.
a) Steady flow & Unsteady flow
b) Uniform flow &Non uniform flow
c) Steady uniform flow &Un steady uniform flow
d) . Unsteady uniform flow
Time as criteria
Steady flow & Unsteady flow
When the flow characteristic (such as depth of flow, flow velocity and the flow rate at any cross
section) do not change with respect to time, the flow in a channel is to be steady.

V p y
Mathematically, t  0 , t  0 and t  0

The flow is said to be un steady flow when the flow parameter vary with time.

V p y
0 0 0
Mathematically, t , t and t
Space as a criterion
Uniform flow & Non uniform flow
Flow in a channel is said to be uniform if the depth, slope, cross-section and velocity remain
constant over a given length of the channel.

V y
0 0
Mathematically, s , and s
Flow in channel is said to be non-uniform(varied)when the channel depth varies continuously
from one section to another.

V y
0 0
Mathematically, s , and s
Time and space as some criteria
Steady uniform flow: - The depth of flow does not change during time interval and space under
consideration.
Unsteady uniform flow: - This is a flow in which the depth is varying time but not with space.
Unsteady non uniform flow: - Is the flow in which the depth is varying with space and time.

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ACTIVITY 1.2
Explain briefly the following:
1. Steady and Un steady flow
2. Uniform and non-uniform flow
3. State the condition under which uniform and non-uniform flows are produced.

1.2 Geometric elements of open channel section

Geometric elements are properties of a channel section that can be defined entirely by the geometry
of the section and the depth of flow. The most used geometric properties include:
1. Depth of flow(y): it the vertical distance from the lowest point of the channel to the free
surface.
2. Top width (T): it is the width of channel section at free surface.
3. Stage (h): is the elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above a datum.
4. Wetted perimeter (p): it is the length of the channel boundary which is in contact with
water.
5. Wetted area (A): is the cross-sectional area of the flow normal to the direction of flow.
6. Hydraulic radius (hydraulic mean depth)(R) : it is the ratio of wetted area to its wetted
perimeter
A
R=
P
7. Hydraulic depth(D): the ratio of wetted area to the top width,
A
D=
T
8. Section factor (Z): is the product of the wetted area and the two-third power of the
hydraulic radius
1
A A 3
2 2
Z=A D =A =  =A R 3
T  T 

9. Conveyance (K) :
2 1
1
Q=VA………………………….V= R 3 S 2
n

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2 1 21 1
1 3 2 1
Q=A R S =A R 3 S 2 =K S 2 S= bed slope
n n
2
1
K= A R 3 n= Mannings constant = CA R c= Chezy’s constant
n

X
Hf (Z)

Sw

Y0

S0 Wsinө
0
W
L

Fig. 1.2

Where S0- bed slope of channel

Sw- Water surface slope
S- Slope of EGL
W – Weight of water
0 – Shear force
L- Length of channel
Uniform flow is the result of exact balance between the gravity and friction force

Wsin =  o .P.L…………………………….(1)

A L sin =  o .P.L

But sin  = hf/L = S, solving for  o ,

A
 o = .S  R.S ………………………………… (2)
P
Where - unit weight of the water
The shear stress is assumed proportional to the square of the mean velocity,

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or o= kV2…………………………………..……..(3)
Therefore, kv2=RS

V2= RS ,
k

Let  C 2 -constant (b/c &k- are constant)
k
V  C RS. ……………………………………………….... (4)
This is the Chezy –formula
C= chezy coefficient (chezy’s resistance factor)
V= Average velocity of flow

Manning Formula
1 2 1
V= R 3 S0 2 ………………………………………………(5)
n

 The best as well as most widely used formula for uniformly for uniform flow.
n- is the roughness coefficient.

A relation between the Chezy’s C and Manning’s n may be obtained by comparing eqn (4) & (5)
1

R6
C …………………………………………..(6)
n
 The value of n ranges from 0.009 (for smooth straight surfaces) to 0.22 (for very
dense flood plain forests).
? What is hydraulic efficiency channel (most economical channel) means
 A channel section is said to be efficient (economical) if it gives the maximum discharge
for the given shape, area and roughness.

1.3 Most economical channel section

Most economical rectangular channel section
Let B and Y be the base width and depth of flow respectively
A=BY………………………….(i)
P=B=2Y……………………….(ii)

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From eqn. (i), B=A/Y

Substituting in (ii) P=A/Y+2Y………….(iii)
For maximum Q, P- is minimum.
dp d
0 ( A / Y  2Y )  0
dY dY

  AY  2  0

 A  2Y 2  B * Y
So, B=2Y (or Y=B/2)
Thus the rectangular channel is most efficient and economical when the depth of water is one
half of the width of the channel and the discharge flow will be maximum.
EXAMPLE -1
1 .A rectangular channel is to be dug in the rocky portion of a soil. Find its most economical
cross-section if its to convey 12 m3/s of water with an average velocity of 3 m/s. Take chezy
constant C=50
Given
Q=12 m3/s
V=3 m/s
C=50
Solution
The geometric relations for optimum discharge through a rectangular channel are

Then
When B,Y and R are base width, depth of flow and hydraulic radius respectively
Now
From this equation solve for depth of flow

Therefore base width of flow

Hydraulic radius,

Also chezy formula

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Hence

Most economical trapezoidal channel section

But for most economic section

EXAMPLE-2
An irrigation channel of trapezoidal section has side slope, m=2 and carries a discharge of
15m3/s on a longitudinal slope of 1 in 5000. The channel is to be lined for which the value of
friction coefficient in Manning’s formula is n=0.012. Find the dimension of the most economic
section of the channel.
GIVEN
Side slope m=2
Discharge Q=15m3/s
Longitudinal slope S=1:5000

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Manning´s coefficient n=0.012

SOLUTION

ACTIVITY1.3
What do you mean by most economical section of an open channel? How is it determined?
What are the conditions for the rectangular channel of best section?
Show that the hydraulic mean depth of a trapezoidal

1.4 Specific energy

What is specific energy?
 Specific energy is the energy per unit weight of flowing liquid above the channel bottom.
For any cross section, shape, the specific energy ( E) at a particular section is defined as the
energy head to the channel bed as datum. Thus,
V2
E  Y  ……………………………………………..(1)
2g
( - is kinetic energy correction factor 1)

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EGL

ET1

ET2
Z1
Datum
Z2

Fig 1.3 Specific Energy at a particular section

For a rectangular channel, the value of flow per unit width is Q/B=q, and average velocity
qB q
V QA 
BY Y
Therefore eqn (1) becomes:
2
 q y
 
E  y   y  q …………………………………… (2)
2

2g 2 gy 2

q2
( E  y)Y 2  (For the case of constant q)………………………… (3)
2g

A plot of E Vs Y is a hyperbola like with asymptotes (E-Y) =0 i.e. E=Y and y=0. Such a curve is
known as specific energy diagram.

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Y2

Sub critical
section

Yc
Super critical
Y1
Ec E0
E
Specific Energy diagram

For a particular q, we see there are two possible values of Y for a given value of E. These are
known as Alternative depths (for e.g. Y1 & Y2 on fig. above)
 The two alternative depths represent two totally different flow regimes slow & deep on
the upper limp of the curve (sub critical flow) & fast and shallow on the lower limb of the
curve.(super critical flow)
? What is critical depth
 Depth of flow at which specific energy is minimum is called critical depth.
The velocity of flow at critical depth is known as critical velocity.
For example, a relation for critical depth in a wide rectangular channel can be found by
differentiation E of eqn.2 with respect to Y to find the value of Y for which E is a minimum.
dE q2
 1  3 …………………………………………….. (4)
dY gy

And when E is a minimum Y=Yc and dE

dy  0 , so that
q2
0  1  q 2  gyc ………………………………. (5)
3
3
gYc
Substituting q= vy = VC*Yc, gives

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Vc 2  gyc
q
 Vc  gyc  ……………………………………….. (6)
yc
It may be expressed as:
1
Vc 2 q2  3
yc     ……………………………………….. (7)
g g

Vc 2 yc
From eqn (7)  , hence,
2g 2
2
Vc
E c  E min  y c   y c  1 2 y c  3 2 y c ……………… (8)
2g

And yc  2 Emin ……………………………………………………………..(9)

3

From eqn. (7): qmax  gyc ……………………………………….………….(10)

3

For non rectangular cross section the specific energy eqn.

Q2
E  y …………………………………………………….. (11)
2gA2
[V=Q/A]
To find the critical depth,
dE Q 2 dA
 1 3 ………………………………………………….. (12)
dy gA dy
From fig 1.3 (b) dA = dy*T (at Yc, T= Tc)
Therefore the above equation becomes:
2
Qmax Tc
3
 1 …………………………………………………………….. (13)
gAc
The critical depth must satisfy this equation
3
gA
From eqn. (13) Q  c and substitute in eqn. (11) then
2

Tc

Ac
Ec  yc  …………………………………………………………..(14)
2Tc

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Q 2T
eqn.(13) can be solved by trial & error for irregular section by plotting f ( y)  and
gA3
critical depth occurs for the value of y which makes f(y)=1
++++++++- What are sub critical, critical, and super critical flow?
 Sub critical flow:-when the depth of flow in a channel is greater than the critical
depth(Yc) in this case Fr <1
 Critical flow is one in which specific energy is minimum. A few corresponding to critical
depth also known as critical flow.
 Super critical flow:-when the depth of flow in a channel is less than critical depth (Yc) in
this case Fr>1.
If specific energy curve for Q- constant is redraw alongside a second curve of depth against
discharge for constant E, will show the variation of discharge with depth.
Y

yc

q qmax
For a given constant discharge fig
i) The specific energy curve has a minimum value Ec at point C with a corresponding
depth Yc known as critical depth.
ii) For any other value of E there are two possible depth of flow known as alternative
depth one of which is termed sub critical (y>Yc) and the other supercritical (Y<Yc).
a) For a given constant specific energy ( fig.1.5(b))
i) the depth discharge curve shows that discharge is a maximum at the critical
depth
ii) For all other discharges there are two possible depth of flow ( sub- & super
critical) for any particular value of E,
From eqn. (13) above if we substitute

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Q= AV (continuity equation), we get

Q 2T
1
gA3

A2V 2T V 2T
 1  1
gA3 gA
but A/T = D ( Hydraulic depth), then [ D=Y for rectangular section)
V2
 1  V  gy ……………………………(*)
gy
V
 1  Froude number at critical state.
gy
V
F ……………………………………….(**)
gy

Thus, i) F= 1critical flow

ii) F< 1 sub critical flowType equation here.
iii)F>1 Super critical
ACTIVITY1.4
What is specific energy and specific energy curve?
What do you understand by critical depth of an open channel when the flow in it is not uniform?

Examples
1. For constant specific energy of , calculate the maximum discharge that may occur in
a rectangular channel 5m width.
Given

Solution
For constant specific energy discharge is maximum

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2. Most efficient rectangular channel, which is laid on a bottom slope of 0.0064, is to carry
20m3/s of water. Determine the width of the channel when the flow is in critical condition. Take
n=0.015.
Given

Solution

1.5 Hydraulic jump

What is hydraulic jump?

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 A flow phenomenon which occurs when supercritical flow has its velocity reduced to sub
critical. There is sudden rise in water level at the point where hydraulic jump occurs
e.g (Rapidly varied flow).

Y2
V2
V1
Y1
Lj

Hydraulic jump on horizontal bed following over a spillway

Where V1-velocity before jump
V2 –velocity after jump
Y1 –water depth before jump
Y2 –water depth after jump
Lj –length of jump
Purposes of hydraulic jump:-
i) To increase the water level on the d/s of the hydraulic structures
ii) To reduce the net up lift force by increasing the downward force due to the increased
depth of water,
iii) To increase the discharge from a sluice gate by increasing the effective head causing
flow,
iv) For aeration of drinking water
v) For removing air pockets in a pipe line
vi) Reduce downstream erosion
vii) Very useful & effective for mixing fluids

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 Analysis of hydraulic jump

Assumptions
a. The length of the hydraulic jump is small, consequently, the loss of head due to friction is
negligible,
b. The channel is horizontal as it has a very small longitudinal slope. The weight
component in the direction of flow is negligible.
c. The portion of channel in which the hydraulic jump occurs is taken as a control volume &
it is assumed the just before & after the control volume, the flow is uniform & pressure
distribution is hydrostatic.
Let us consider a small reach of a channel in which the hydraulic jump occurs.
The momentum of water passing through section (1) per unit time is given as:
p1 rQV1
  QV1 ……………………………………….(i)
t g
Momentum at section (2) per unit time is:
p2 rQV2
  QV2 ………………………………………….(ii)
t g
Rate of change of momentum b/n section 1 & 2
P
 Q (V2  V1 ) ……………………………………….(iii)
t
The net force in the direction of flow = F1-F2 ………………..(iv)

F1  A1Y1 , F2 A2 Y2

 Y 1 &Y 2 are the center of pressure at section (1) & (2)

Therefore F1-F2 =M =Q (V2-V1)

Q
A1Y 1  A2 Y 2  (V2  V1 ) ……………………………………(v)
g
From continuity eqn. Q= A*V, V= Q/A, so
 
Q  QQ
A1Y 1  A2 Y 2    
g  A2 A1 
 
2
Q 1 
A1Y 1  A2 Y2   A  1 A .................................................(iv)
g  2 1

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Rearranging this eqn.:

 Q2   Q2 
  A1Y 1     A2 Y 2 
 gA1   gA2  = Constant. …………… (vii)
M1 M2
M1and M2 are the specific forces at section (1) & (2) indicates that these forces are equal
before & after the jump.
Y1= initial depth
Y2 = sequent depth
Hydraulic jump in a rectangular channel
A1=By1 the section has uniform width (B)
A2= By2

Y1 Y
Y 1 ,Y 2  2
2 2

Now from eqn. (Vii) above:

Q2 y 
 By2 *  y2 2 
Q
 By1 1  
gBy1  2  gBy2  
Q2 By 2 Q2 By 2
 1   2 ..............................................................(viii)
gBy1 2 Bgy2 2

Flow per unit width of q= Q/B Q=qB, then eqn. (viii) becomes

q2 B2 By12 q2 B2 By22
  
Bgy1 2 Bgy2 2

q 2  1 1  y22  y12
   ………………………………… (.ix)
g  y1 y2  2

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2q 2
 y1 y2
y2
2  y12 
g  y2  y1 
2q 2
 y1 y2 ( y1  y2 )...................................................................(x)
g
2q 2
y2 y12  y1 y22   0...........................................................(xi)
g
This is quadratic eqn. & the solution is given as

 y2
2
 y  2q
2
y1    2  ...................................................( xii)(a)
2  2  gy2
 y1 2
2q 2
y2    y1 2   ................................................(b)
2   gy2

8q 2
y1  y2 2 (1  1  3 )...................................................(c)
gy2
y 8q 2
y2  2 (1  1  3 .....................................................( xii)(d )
1
gy1
The ratio of conjugate depths;
2
y1  1 (1  1  8q ...............................................(xii)(e)
y2 2 gy23
2
y2  1 (1  1  8q ..................................................( f )
y1 2 gy13
q
V1 V2 y2 q
F1  , F2  
gy1 gy2 gy2 gy23

y1 1
Therefore  2 (1  1  8F22 )........................(g )
y2
y2 1
 2 (1  1  8F12 ..........................................(h)
y1
Energy dissipation in a Hydraulic Jump
The head loss hl.f caused by the jump is the drop in energy from section (1) to (2) or:
hlf= E = E1 - E2

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 V2   V2 
  y1  1    y2  2 .......................................(1)a
 2g   2g 

 q2   q2 
  y1     y2  ....................................(b)
 2 gy12   2 gy22 

2q 2
From eqn. (x) substituting:  y1 y2 ( y1  y2 ) in to this eqn. & by rearranging:
g

hlf  E 
 y2  y1 3
..............................................(2)
4 y1 y2
Therefore power lost =  Q hlf (kw)…………………(3)
ACTIVITY1.5
What is mean by hydraulic jump in open channel and how it occurs?
Types of Hydraulic jump
Hydraulic jumps are classified according to the upstream Froude number and depth ratio.

F1 Y2/y1 Classification
<1 1 Jump impossible
1-1.7 1-2 Undular jump (standing wave)

1.7-2.5 2-3.1 Weak jump

2.5-4.5 3.1-5.9 Oscillating jump
4.5-9.0 5.9-12 Steady jump (45-70% energy loss)
>9.0 >12 Strong or chopping jump (=85% energy loss)

Examples

A 3∙6m wide rectangular channel conveys of water with a velocity of .

a. Is there a condition for hydraulic jump occur? If so calculate the height, length and
strength of the jump.
b. What is loss of energy?
Given

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Solution

a.

b. Loss of energy for rectangular channel

Exercises

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1. A rectangular channel which is laid on a bottom slope of 0.0064 is to carry 20m3/s of water.
Determine the width of the channel when the flow is in critical condition. Take C=66
2.An irrigation canal of trapezoidal section having side slope 2 in 3 is to carry a flow of 10m 3/s
on a longitudinal slope of 1 in 5000. The canal is lined for which the value of frictional
coefficient in Manning’s formula is n=0.012. Find the dimension of the most economical section
3. Determine the side slope of the most hydraulically efficient triangular section. . Show that the
head loss in a hydraulic jump formed in a rectangular channel may be expressed as
ΔE= (V1 –V2)3/ [2g (V1 +V2)]

4. A rectangular channel there occurs a jump corresponding to Froude number (F=2.5).

Determine the critical depth and head loss in terms of the initial depth y1.
5. A trapezoidal channel having bottom width 10m and side slope 2:1(H:V) carries a discharge of
100m3/s. Find the depth conjugate to the initial depth of 1m before the jump. Also determine
the loss of energy in the jump.

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CHAPTER-2
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS, SIMILITUDE AND HYDRAULIC MODEL
Introduction
Dear students, in this unit you will learn about the basic concepts of dimensional analysis,
similitude and hydraulic models. The unit divided into two sections. In the first section you
will introduce to the principle of dimensional homogeneity and its application. In the
second section you will learn about similitude and hydraulic models.

Objectives
On completion of this unit you are expected to:
 Understand the concept and application of dimensional homogeneity of
dimensional homogeneity
 Understand dimensional analysis and know its uses.
 Be capable of solve and prove equations using the two methods of
dimensional analysis.
 Know and explain the different types of hydraulic similarities.
 Classify and explain the different types of hydraulic models.

SECTION-1: DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY

Introduction
Dear students in this section our aim is to understand dimensional analysis but first you are
expected to know the principles that dimensional analysis work. The working principle of
dimensional analysis is dimensional homogeneity. Therefore, we first define dimensional
homogeneity to reinforce your understanding. And then we see about dimensional analysis.
Definition:
What are dimensions?
Physical quantities can be
 Fundamental quantities
 Mass

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 Length
 Time
 Temperature (Only for compressible fluids)
 Derived quantities this are quantities which are expressed in terms of fundamental
quantities.

The dimension of any physical quantities can be expressed as,

 Fundamental dimension
 Mass [M]
In M-L-T system
 Length [L]
 Time [T]
 Temperature (Only for compressible fluids)
 Force [F]
In F-L-T system
 Length [L]
 Time [T]
 Temperature (Only for compressible fluids)

The two systems are related by the Newton’s Second Law of Motion:

Dimensionally,

 Derived dimensions these are dimensions which are expressed in terms of Fundamental
dimension. For example, velocity is defined as the distance moved per unit time and
therefore its dimensions can be derived as

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Likewise, the dimensions of other physical quantities may be obtained. Table 2.1 gives the
dimensions of various physical quantities used in mechanics in both systems.
Table 2.1: Dimensions of various physical quantities
S.No Quantity Symbol Dimensions
. M-L-T F-L-T
1 Length L L L
2 Time T T T
3 Mass m M M
4 Force F M L T -2 F
5 Velocity V L T -1 L T -1
6 Acceleratio a L T -2 L T -2
n
7 Area A L2 L2
8 Discharge Q L3 T -1 L3 T -1
9 Pressure P M L-1 T-2 FL-2
10 Power P ML2T-3 FLT-1
11 Density  M L-3 FT2L4
12 Unit γ ML-2 T -2 FL3
gravity
force
13 Dynamic  M L-1T-1 FTL2
viscosity
14 Kinematic  L2 T-1 L2 T-1
viscosity
15 Surface  MT-2 FL-1
Tension
16 Bulk K ML-1 T-2 FL-2
modulus of
elasticity

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Hydraulics II Module

Activity 2.1
State and define the two types of dimensions

2.1 Dimensional homogeneity

A physical equation is said to be dimensionally homogeneous if the quantities on both sides of

the equation have identical dimension.
A dimensionally homogeneous equation is applicable to all system of units. On the other hand, a
dimensionally non homogeneous equation is applicable only to the system of units for which it
had derived. Let us consider the following two equations:
A)
B)

Eq. (A) is dimensionally homogeneous. This can be proved by substituting the dimensions of
each term.

On the other hand, Eq. (B) is dimensionally non-homogeneous substitute the dimensions Left
hand side

Note. The quantities which are dimensionless are represented by [1].

As the dimensions of the two sides are not the same, the equation is non-homogeneous. Eq. (B)
is only applicable to SI-system. It cannot be used in FPS. In fact, the manning formula in FPS
system is given by

Activity 2.2
What is the criterion for a given physical equation to be dimensionally homogeneous?

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Hydraulics II Module

Application of the principle of dimensional homogeneity to determine the dimensions of a

physical quantity
(1) To determine the dimensions of a physical quantity.

The dimensions of a physical quantity can be determined using the principle of

dimensional homogeneity. Let us now determine the dimensions of the kinetic energy (E)
from the equation:

Substitute the dimension of the right-hand side,

Example 2.1 Find the dimension of the following quantities in both M-L-T and F-L-T system:
(a) Discharge
(b) Momentum
(c) Power
(d) Torque
Solution

Since forces are not involved, the discharge is a kinematic quantity. Its dimensions in
both the systems are the same.

- (M-L-T SYSTEM)

Substituting the dimensions of M in terms of F

- (F-L-T SYSTEM)

Similarly solve for (c) & (d)

(2) To convert units from one system to another system.

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Hydraulics II Module

The principle of dimensional homogeneity can be used to convert units from one system
to the other system. For example, let us convert the pressure from to
.we know

Or

And

Also

Or

Therefore, the pressure in can be converted into by multiplying it with 0.145.

In other words,

Exercise 2.1 show that

(3) To check whether a given equation is Homogeneous and convert it to the other
system if non-homogeneous

The principle of dimensional homogeneity can be used to check whether a given equation
is dimensionally homogeneous. If the equation is not dimensionally homogeneous, it can
be made applicable to the other system by first determining the dimension of the
coefficient. For example, the equation

As proved before, is dimensionally non-homogeneous.

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Hydraulics II Module

The dimension of the coefficient

Because,

Since N is pure constant depending only upon the type of surface, its value is the same in
both MKS and FPS (foot-Pound-Second) system. In order to make the above equation

applicable to FPS the numerator 1 in the coefficient will be changed. We know

Remembering that the unit of time same in both system.

Therefore, the equation in F.P.S. system is

Exercise 2.2 The following equations are applicable in SI system. Find the dimensions of the
constants and their corresponding value in FPS system.
(a)
(b)
(c)

(4) Dimensional analysis

Dimensional analysis is the method of analysis based on the mathematics of the
dimension of quantities.
In dimensional analysis, from a general understanding of fluid phenomenon, one first
predicts the physical parameters that will influence the flow, and then by grouping these
parameters in dimension combinations, a better understanding of the flow phenomena is
made possible.

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Hydraulics II Module

Uses Of dimensional analysis

 It can be used to obtain a functional relationship among the variables in terms of
non-dimensional parameters.
 Dimensional analysis reduces the number of experiments required in a particular
investigation.
 Dimensional analysis helps in obtaining a systematic form of the variables
involved in a particular fluid phenomenon.
 It gives a sound and orderly arrangement of the variables involved in the problem.
 Deriving equations expressed in terms of non- dimensional parameters to show
the significance of each parameter.
However, dimensional analysis does not give the complete relationship. It gives only a
general qualitative expression. Investigations have to be done to obtain the complete
expression. The numerical values of the coefficients are usually obtained from
experimental investigations.
The following two methods of dimensional analysis are commonly used:
(a) Rayleigh’s method
(b) Buckingham’s -theorem.
(a) Rayleigh’s method
In this method, the functional relationship is expressed in an exponential form. If is
some function of independent variables, etc.the function relationship can be
written as

Where stands for ‘a function of’, It does not imply anything about the form of the
function.
Any function can be expressed as a series of terns each being made up of the product of
variables brought to suitable powers. Thus

In which k is dimension less coefficient which can be determined either from the physical
characteristics of the problem or from experiments, The exponents a, b, c etc. are
determine from the principle of dimensional homogeneity, the exponents of the
dimensions on both sides must be same.

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Hydraulics II Module

By equating the exponents on both sides, a set of simultaneous equations is obtained. The
exponents can be determined by solving these simultaneous equations. Since there are
only three fundamental dimensions, only 3 simultaneous equations are found. If the
number of exponents involved in the relationship is more than 3, some of the exponents
can be expressed in terms of others. The non-dimensional parameters are then formed by
grouping the variables with like exponents.

Example 2.2
Obtain an expression for drag force on stationary sphere of diameter D in a fluid of density
viscosity as a function of non-dimensional group. Let the velocity of the fluid be V
Solution
Step-1
Write the functional relation as

Step-2
Then write the equation in exponential form.

Step-3
Using the M-L-T system, substitute the dimension of the various quantities in the above
equation.

For dimensional homogeneity, the exponents of each dimension must be the same on
both sides. Equating the exponents,

Note.

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Hydraulics II Module

Since there are only 3 equations with 4 unknowns, we should express any 3 unknowns in
terms of the fourth. Although any 3 unknowns can be expressed in terms of the fourth,
the aim should be to get the required form of the expression. An attempt should be made
to get the non-dimensional forms in terms of well-known parameters such as Reynolds’s
and Froude’s number.
Expressing a, b and c in terms of d,

Therefore,

It may be noted that is the Raynolds number

Thus
Or

Activity 2.3
Show each steps of solving equations using Rayleigh’s method?
Exercise 2.5
The velocity V through an orifice depends upon the diameter‘d’ of the orifice, the head H
over the crest, the acceleration due to gravity g, the density , the viscousity and the
surface tension . Show that

(b) Buckingham’s –Theorem

The Rayleigh method of dimensional analysis becomes cumbersome when a large
number of variables are involved. The Buckingham –Theorem may be used in such
problems.
The Buckingham –Theorem states that if there are variables in a dimensionally
homogenous equation and if these variables contain fundamental dimensions (such as,

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Hydraulics II Module

M, L, T), they may be grouped into non-dimensional parameters. Buckingham

called these non-dimensional parameters as –terms.

Mathematically, if a variable depends upon the variable the functional

equation may be written as

This equation may be written as

Where is a constant and represents some function. In this equation, there are
variables. If there fundamental dimensions, then according to Buckingham theorem,

Obviously, the number of –terms is n-m.

Each –term contains primary variable, which are also called the repeating variables.
The repeating variables appear in all –terms. In addition to these repeating variables,
each –terms contains one more variable of the remaining variables. Thus, if
are taken as repeating variables,

Where are constants to be determine as explained later.

While selecting repeating variables, the following points should be kept in:
(a) repeating variables must contain jointly all the fundamental dimensions
involved in the phenomenon. Usually the fundamental dimensions are M, L and
T. Therefore, 3 repeating variables must contain together M, L and T. However, if
only two dimensions are involved, there will be 2 repeating variable and they
must contain together the two dimensions involved.
(b) The repeating variables must not form the non-dimensional parameters amongst
themselves.

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Hydraulics II Module

(c) A geometrical property (such as length), a fluid property (such as mass density)
and flow characteristics (such as velocity) are generally most suitable as repeating
variables.

Example 2.3 Show that the frictional factor in an incompressible fluid flowing through pipe is
expressed as

Where
.

Solution
The functional relationship can be written as

Or

Thus,

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Hydraulics II Module

As the reciprocal of a non-dimensional parameter is also non-dimensional, the expression of

can be written as

Similarly, writing the dimensions in the expression for

Equating exponents of

Therefore,

Likewise,

Equating the exponents,

Therefore,

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Hydraulics II Module

It may be noted that the non-dimensional variable, such as itself becomes the
Thus the functional relationship becomes

Or ….Ans.

Example 2.3 Show that a discharge over a spillway can be expressed as

Where,

Solution the functional relationship can be written as

Thus

Equating the exponent of L and T,

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Hydraulics II Module

Thus,

Similarly,

Equating the exponent of L and T,

Thus,

Likewise,

Equating the exponent of L and T,

The functional relationship becomes

Or

Activity 2.4
What are the points should be considered while selecting repeating Variables?

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Hydraulics II Module

Check-list
Tick () if you are sure that you have clearly understood the following major concepts.
Otherwise mark with(X)
No Key concepts suggestion
1 Dimensions
2 Dimensional Homogeneity
3 Dimensional analysis
4 Method of solving in Rayleigh’s
method
5 Method of solving in Buckingham’s
-theorem

SELF-TEST EXERCISE
MULTIPLE CHOICES
1. Dimensional analysis is used for
(a) Determining the number of variables
(b) Determining the dimensionless groups
(c) Obtain the complete equation governing the phenomenon
2. The repeating variables should
(a) Include all the fundamental dimensions
(b) Be always 3 in number
(c) Not form dimensionless groups among themselves
(d) Have a characteristic length as a variable.
3. Rayleigh’s method
(a) Is more convenient than Buckingham’s method when the number of variables is
large
(b) Is more convenient than Buckingham’s method when the number of variables is
small
(c) Express equation in exponential form
(d) [Ans. 1. (b); 2. (a); 3. (b, c);

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GIVE SHORT ANSWER

1. State the principal application of dimensional homogeneity.
2. State Buckingham’s theorem. What is the advantage of Buckingham’s method over
Rayleigh’s method of dimensional analysis
3. State the uses of dimensional analysis
4. What are the different uses of dimensional homogeneity in fluid mechanics?
WORK OUT
1. Determine if the following equations are dimensionally homogenous
(a)
(b)
2. Show that the discharge formula for a rectangular weir can be written as

Where b is width of weir, His head causing flow, g is the acceleration due to gravity and
K is constant.
SECTION-2: SIMILITUDE AND HYDRAULIC MODELS
Introduction
It is known that even with modern computing facilities, many complex problems still challenge
complete theoretical analysis. A combination of past experience, theory and dimensional analysis
will provide partial or complete solution to a number of problems. However, there still remain
many problems, which are tractable only through experimentation. This will be done through
model studies of proposed hydraulic structures and machines. So in this section we deal with the
laws of similarity as applied to hydraulic structures.
In model analysis, investigations are made on a model which is similar to the full size structure
known as proto type. Model testing is done to obtain useful quantitative or quantitative
information that can be safely utilized in the design of the prototype.
A thorough knowledge of the principles of hydraulic similitude is essential in proper design,
construction and operation of model.

2.2 SIMILITUDE

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Hydraulics II Module

A model will yield useful quantitative information about the characteristics of the prototype if it
is similar to its prototype. Complete similarity can be obtained between the model and its
prototype if the two systems are geometrically, kinematically and dynamically similar.
Models which are completely similar with their prototype are known as TRUE MODELS. But if
it is not possible to maintain geometric similarity between the model and the prototype the model
is called DISTORTED MODEL.
TYPES OF SIMILARITY
(a) GEOMETRIC SIMILARITY
It is the similarity of the shape (scale factor). It is obtained when the solid boundaries that
control the follow of fluid are geometrically similar. The model is a geometric reduction
of the prototype and is accomplished by maintaining a fixed ratio of all homologous
lengths between the model and prototype. These physical quantities are length, area,
diameter, volume, etc.

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Hydraulics II Module

Activity 2.5
What is meant by geometric similarity?

(b) KINEMATIC SIMILARITY

It is the similarity of motion. For kinematic similarity to exist, the streamline pattern in
the model must be the same as in its prototype. The ratios of kinematic quantities
representing the flow characteristics such as, time, velocity, acceleration, and discharge
must be the same at all corresponding points.

Activity 2.6
What is meant by kinematic similarity?
(c) DYNAMIC SIMILARITY

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Hydraulics II Module

It is the Similarity of forces involved in motion. Dynamic Similarity is attained if the ratio of
homologous forces in the model and prototype are kept constant.

The conditions required for complete similarity are developed form the Newton 2nd law of
motion

The forces acting may be any one or a combination of several of the following: viscous, pressure,
gravity, elasticity, surface tension, inertia forces etc.
 Forces (viscous  pressure  gravity  elasticity  surface tension)p mp a p

 Forces (viscous  pressure gravity  elasticity  surface tension)m mmam
       
 F  Fv  Fg  Fs  Fp  Fe  RESULTANT   Fi  m. a

NOTE: Newton’s Law: Inertia force is equal and opposite of the resultant forces.
 F  m.a p Fi p
p
 
 F  m
m.a m Fi m
However, in practice, a mode is designed to study the effects of only a few dominant forces.
Dynamic similarity requires that the ratios of these forces be kept the same between the model
and prototype.
In problems of fluid flow, the inertia force will always exist and hence it is customary to find out
the force ratios with respect to the inertia forces, thus:

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Hydraulics II Module

The above six equations are dimensionless groups. The significance of the dimensionless ratios
is discussed below:
Activity 2.7
What is meant by dynamic similarity?

a) REYNOLDS NUMBER (phenomenon governed by viscous force)

A fluid in motion always involves inertia forces. If the inertial forces and viscous forces
(example pipe flow) can be considered to be the only forces that govern the motion, the ratio of
these forces acting on homologous particles in a model and its prototype is defined by the
Reynolds number.

The Reynolds number is important when the viscous force is predominant. It is generally used to
correlate meter coefficient, pipe friction coefficient and drag coefficient, etc.
For dynamically similitude model and prototype:

NOTE: D is taken as L for pipe flow.

(a) FROUDE NUMBER: (phenomenon governed by gravity force)

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Hydraulics II Module

When inertial forces and gravity forces are considered to be the only dominant forces in the fluid
motion, the ratio of inertia forces to gravity forces acting on the homologous elements of the
fluid in the model and prototype are considered as follows:

The Froude number is important in open channel flow. It is useful in study of hydraulic jump, in
design of hydraulic structures and ships, etc.
For dynamically similitude model and prototype:

N.B

(b) WEBER NUMBER (phenomenon governed by surface tension)

The surface tension is a measure of energy level on the surface of a liquid body. The force is of
primary importance in hydraulic engineering practice in the study of small surface waves or
control of evaporation from a large body of water, such as water storage tank / reservoir.
In river and harbor models reduction of scale often leads to appreciable viscous and capillary
effects in the shallow regions of flow. The depth of flow in such cases should be sufficiently
large so that capillary effects are negligible.
The ratio of Inertia to Surface tension forces in prototype and model is:
Fi V 2 L2 V2
 
Fs L 
L
The square root of this dimensionless ratio is known as WEBER NUMBE (We):
V
We=

L

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Hydraulics II Module

It is applied at the leading edge of a very thin sheet of liquid flowing over a surface. Like:
 Capillary movement of water in solids.
 Flow of liquid at a very small depth over a surface.
 Flow over weir at very small heads.
 Spray of liquid from the exit of discharging tube resulting in the formation of drops of
liquids.
(c) MACH NUMBER (phenomenon governed by elastic forces)
The Mach number can be regarded as the ratio of inertia and elastic forces. Is important in
compressible fluid flow problems at high velocities, such as high velocity flow in pipes or
motion of high speed projectiles and missiles, also important in
 Aerodynamic testing
 Flow gases exceeding the velocity of sound.
 Water hammer problems. (Design of surge tanks).

The ratio of Inertia forces & elastic forces in prototype and model is:

The square root of this dimensionless number is known as

Mach number (M). Thus:
V V
M 
E C

This is for fluid velocity (or velocity of the body through a stationary fluid) to that of a
sound wave in the same medium.
C is the sonic velocity (or celerity) in the given medium.
(d) EULER NUMBER (Phenomenon governed by pressure forces.)

The ratio of Inertia forces to pressure forces for both prototype and model is given by:

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Hydraulics II Module

Fi V 2 L2 V 2
 
Fp PL2 P

The square root of this dimensionless number is known as EULER NUMBER . Thus:
V V V
Eu   
2P
2 g  P  
P
   

The Euler number is important in the flow problems in which a pressure gradient exists.
For complete dynamic similarity to exist between the model and the prototype and its model, all
the above mentioned parameters should be satisfied. It is impossible to obtain complete dynamic
similarity because no two fluids are known to have the requisite properties to satisfy all
conditions. Fortunately, in most engineering problems, all conditions are not required to be
satisfied because some of the forces (a) may not act, (b) may be insignificant, (c) may oppose
each other and thus cancel out. Usually 2 or 3 types of forces may be predominant. A sound
knowledge of the fluid phenomenon is essential to ascertain the forces that are significant in a
particular phenomenon.
Example 2.4 The general expression for discharge of a centrifugal pump is

The performance of a new design of the pump is to be studied by testing a the pump
is to run at
Solution

Now

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Hydraulics II Module

Or

Example 2.5 The drag on a sphere is expressed as

A Sphere of diameter D when placed in water moving with a velocity of 2 m/s experiences a
drag of 6N. Determine the drag on another sphere of diameter 2D placed in a wind tunnel at the
corresponding velocity. Take
Solution
For dynamic similarity,

Or

2.3 TYPES OF MODELS

In general hydraulic models can be classified under two broad categories
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Hydraulics II Module

(a) Undistorted models

(b) Distorted models
(a) Undistorted Models: - if a model is geometrically similar to its prototype, it is known as
undistorted models. i.e., the scale ratios for the corresponding linear dimension are the
same.
(b) Distorted models: - if one or more terms of the models are not identical with the
prototype it is known as distorted models. The distortion may be geometrical, or material
or hydraulic quantities or a combination of these.
 Geometrical distortion,
The distortion can be either of dimensions or that of configuration.
 When different scale ratios are adopted for the longitudinal, transverse, & vertical
dimensions; then it is known as distortion of dimensions.

It is adopted in river models where a different slope ratio for depth is adopted.
 Distortion of configuration results when the general configuration of the model
doesn’t have resemblance with its prototype.
If a river model has different bed slope ratio, this is distortion of configuration.
 Material distortion is occurred when the physical properties of the material used in the
model and prototype are different.
 Distortion of hydraulic quantities is occurred for certain uncontrollable hydraulic
quantities such as time, discharge etc.

The following are some of the reasons for adopting distorted models:
a) To maintain accuracy in vertical measurements;
b) To maintain turbulent flow;
c) To obtain suitable bed material & its adequate movement;
d) To obtain suitable roughness condition;
e) To accommodate the available facilities such as space, money, water supply
& time.

Activity 2.8
State and explain the two types of hydraulic models

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Hydraulics II Module

Check-list
Tick () if you are sure that you have clearly understood the following major concepts.
Otherwise mark with(X).
No Key concepts suggestion
1 Similitude
2 Geometric ,Kinematic and Dynamic
Similarities
3 Prototype and Model
4 Distorted and Undistorted model

SELF-TEST EXERCISE
MULTIPLE CHOICES
1. Reynolds number may be defined as the ratio of
(a) Gravity forces and inertia forces
(b) Viscous forces and inertia forces
(c) Elastic forces and inertia forces
2. Select the phenomena which governed by Froude’s law
(a) Compressible flow in pipes
(b) Incompressible flow in pipes
(c) Flow through an orifice
(d) Flow around a submarine

3. Select the phenomenon in which inertial forces are not important

(a) Flow over a spillway
(b) Flow through an open channel
(c) Flow through pipes
(d) Flow through a long capillary tube
4. Weber’s law is not applicable in the following
(a) Small jets, droplet formation
(b) Flow of thin sheet of liquids over weirs

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Hydraulics II Module

(c) Capillary movement

(d) Laminar flow through open channels
5. If the pressure at a point in a spillway model is p, the pressure in the prototype
(Lr=1/10) will be
(a) 50p
(b) 10p
(c) 100p
(d) None of the above
[Ans. 1. (b); 2. (c); 3. (d);
4. (d); 5. (b)]
GIVE SHORT ANSWER
1. What do you understand by hydraulic similitude? State the conditions for perfect
similitude.
2. State the reasons for adopting distorted models.
3. State and explain the different types of distortion.

WORK OUT
1. A 1:10 scale model of water supply piping system is to be tested at 20 0C to determine
the total head loss in the prototype that carries water at 850C. The prototype is
designed to carry 5.0m3/s discharge with 1m diameter pipes. Determine the model
discharge and model velocity. Discuss how losses determined from the model are
converted to proto type loss.

2. An over flow spillway is designed to be 100m high and 120mlong, carrying a

discharge of 1200 m3/5 under an approaching head of 2.75m. The spillway operation
is to be analyzed by a 1:50 model in a hydraulic laboratory. Determine
a) The model discharge,
b) If the discharge coefficient at the model crests measures 2.12, what is the
prototype crest discharge coefficient?
c) If the velocity at the outlet of the model spill way measures 25m/s, what is the
prototype velocity?

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Hydraulics II Module

3. A 1:50 scale model is constructed to a study a gate prototype that is designed to drain
a reservoir. If the model reservoir is drained in 5.2 min, how long should if take to
drain the reservoir?

4. A 1 m long 1:50 model is used to study the wave force on a prototype of a sea wall
structure. If the total wave force measured on the model is 2.27 N and the velocity
scale is 1: 10, determine the force per unit length of the prototype.

CHAPTER 3
BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY James what
INTRODUCTION
When real fluid flows pass a solid boundary, a layer of fluid which comes in contact with the
boundary surface adheres to it on account of viscosity; since this layer of fluid can’t slip away
from the boundary surface it attains the same velocity as that of the boundary. In other words, at
the boundary surface there is no relative motion between the fluid and the boundary. This
condition is known as no slip condition. If the boundary is moving, the fluid adhering to it will
have the same velocity as that of the boundary. However, if the boundary is stationary, the fluid
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Hydraulics II Module

velocity at the boundary surface will be zero. Thus at the boundary surface the layer of the fluid
undergoes retardation. This retarded layer of the fluid further causes retardation for the adjacent
layers of the fluid, there by developing a small region in the immediate vicinity of the boundary
surface in which the velocity of flowing fluid increases gradually from zero at the boundary
surface to the velocity of the main stream. This region is known as boundary layer.
In the boundary region since there is larger variation of velocity in a relatively small distance
there exists a fairly large velocity gradient ) normal to the boundary surface. As such in this

region of boundary layer even if the fluid has small viscosity, the corresponding shear stress τ =
µ( ), is of appreciable magnitude. Further away from the boundary this retardation due to the

presence of viscosity is negligible and the velocity there will be equal to that of the main stream.
The flow may thus be considered to have two regions, one close to the boundary in the boundary
layer zone in which due to larger velocity gradient appreciable viscous forces are produced and
hence in this region the effect of viscosity is mostly confined, and second outside the boundary
layer zone in which the viscous forces are negligible and hence the flow may be treated as non-
viscous or in viscid.

In 1904 prendtl developed the concept of the boundary layer. He provides an important link
between ideal- fluid flow and real-fluid flow. For fluids having relatively small viscosity, the
effect of internal friction in a fluid is appreciable only in a narrow region surrounding the
fluid boundaries. From this hypothesis, the flow outside the narrow region near the solid
boundaries can be considered as ideal flow or potential flow. Relation with the boundary-
layer region can be computed from the general equations for vitreous fluids, but use of the
momentum equation permits the developing of approximate equation for boundary- layer
growth.

Activity:-3.1.1
 What is the difference between idea-fluid and real-fluid?

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Hydraulics II Module

3.1 Description of the Boundary Layer

It was assumed that the shearing action was occurring in a fluid sandwiched between a moving
belt and a stationary solid surface. The fluid was thus bounded on two sides. It may have
occurred to the reader that such a situation is not common in Hydraulic engineering. Some flow
(e.g. the flow of air around a building) are bounded on one side only, while others (e.g. the flow
through a pipe are completely surrounded by a stationary solid surface To develop the boundary
layer concept, it is helpful to begin with a flow bounded on one side only consider, therefore, a
rectilinear flow passing over a stationary flat plate which lies parallel to the flow as shown in
(Fig 3.1):

Transition

Turbulent

Fig 3- 1 Development of a boundary layer

The incident flow (i.e. the flow just upstream of the plate) has a uniform velocity U∞. As the flow
comes into contact with the plate, the layer of fluid immediately adjacent to the plate decelerates
(due to viscous friction) and comes to rest. This follows from the postulate that in viscous fluids
a thin layer of fluid actually ‘adheres’ to a solid surface. There is then a considerable shearing
action between the layer of fluid on the plate surface and the second layer of fluid. The second
layer is therefore forced to decelerate (though it is not quite brought to rest) creating a shearing
action with the third layer of fluid, and so on. As the fluid passes further along the plate, the zone
in which shearing action occurs tends to spread further out words. This zone is known as a
‘boundary layer’ outside the boundary layer the flow remains effectively free of shear, so the
fluid here is not subjected to viscosity- related forces. The fluid flow outside a boundary layer
may therefore be assumed to act like an ideal fluid.

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Hydraulics II Module

3.2 Boundary layer equations

Activity: -3.1.2
 Why it is needed to quantify the boundary layer phenomena?
The boundary layer thickness, δ, is the distance in the y-direction from the solid surface
to the outer edge of the boundary layer. The usual convention is to assume that the edge
of the boundary layer occurs where:

The displacement thickness, δ*, is the distance by which a streamline is displaced due to
the boundary layer. Consider the velocity distribution at a section in the boundary layer
(Fig 3.2). In side boundary layer, the velocity is everywhere less than in the free stream.
The discharge through this cross section is correspondingly less than the discharge
through the same cross-sectional area in the free stream. This deficit in discharge can be
quantified for unit width and an equation may then be developed for δ*.
Deficit of discharge through an element

Defect through whole boundary layer section

Fig 3-2 Velocity distribution in a boundary layer

In the free stream an equivalent discharge would pass through a layer of depth δ*, so

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Hydraulics II Module

The momentum thickness, θ, is analogous to the displacement thickness. It may be

defined as the depth of a layer in the free stream, which would pass a momentum flux
equivalent to the deficit due to the boundary layer.
Mass flow through element
Deficit of momentum flux

Deficit through whole boundary layer section

In the free stream, an equivalent momentum flux would pass through a layer of depth, θ, and unit
width, so that

The definition of kinetic energy thickness follows the same pattern, leading to the
equation:

The momentum integral equation is used to relate certain boundary layer parameters so
that numerical estimates may be made. Consider the longitudinal section through a
boundary layer (Fig 3.3), the section is bounded on it outer side by a streamline, BC, and
is l m wide. The discharge across CD is

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Hydraulics II Module

U B C

o
A D

Fig 3-3 Longitudinal Section through a boundary layer.

The momentum flux (= density x discharge x velocity):

As BC is a streamline, the discharge across AB must be the same are that across CD:

The incident velocity at AB is , so the momentum flux is:

Boundary layers are actually very thin, so it is reasonable to assume the velocities are in the X –
direction. The loss of momentum flux is due to the frictional shear force ( ) at the solid
surface. Therefore:

The negative sign follows from the fact that the frictional resistance acts in the opposite sense to
the velocity. The equation may be rearranged to give:

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 Hydraulics II Module

The frictional shear at the solid surface is not a constant, but varies with X, due to the growth of
the boundary layer. The shear force may therefore be expressed as:

Where: - is the shear stress between the fluid and the solid surface. The momentum integral
equation is therefore:

Example 3.1.01:- The velocity distribution in the boundary layer is given as:
= , in which = ( )
Compute the ratio of displacement thickness to boundary layer thickness ( ) and the momentum thickness to
boundary layer ( ).

Solution:-
 = = =
Therefore: - =
 θ= = =
Therefore:-

3.3 Boundary layer along a long thin plate and its characteristics

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 Hydraulics II Module

Consider a long thin plate held stationary in the direction parallel to the flow in a stream of
velocity are shown in Fig 3.4. The plate is said to be held at zero incidence to the velocity of
flow and the velocity of flow is known as ‘free stream velocity’ or ‘ambient velocity’ or
‘potential velocity’ .At the leading edge of the plate the thickness of the boundary layer is zero,
but on downstream, for the fluid in contact with the boundary the velocity of flow is reduced to
zero and at some distance δ from the boundary the velocity is nearly . Hence a velocity
gradient is set up which develops shear resistance to the flow and retards the motion of the fluid.
Near the leading edge of the plate the fluid is retarded in thin layer. In other words, the boundary
layer near the leading edge is relatively thin. As this retarded layer of fluid moves downstream,
due to continued action of shear resistance more and more fluid is retarded. Thus the thickness of
the boundary layer δ goes on increasing in the downstream direction as shown in Fig 3.4

Activity:-3.1.3
 What are the factors which influence the thickness of the boundary layer formation along a flat
smooth plate?

Fig 3.4 Boundary layer and velocity distribution at Successive points along a flat plate.

As the boundary layer develops up to a certain portion of the plate from the leading edge the
flow in the boundary layer exhibits all the characteristics of laminar flow. This is so irrespective
of whether the flow of the incoming stream is laminar or turbulent. This is known as laminar

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Hydraulics II Module

boundary layer. If the plate is sufficiently long, then beyond some distance from the leading edge
the laminar boundary layer becomes unstable and the flow in the boundary layer exhibits the
characteristics between theses of laminar and turbulent flow. This region of the boundary layer is
usually small and is known are transition region.

After the transition region the flow in the boundary layer becomes turbulent. In this portion of
the boundary layer there is a rapid increase in its thickness and it is known as turbulent boundary
layer. If the plate is very smooth, even in the region of turbulent boundary layer, there is a very
thin layer just adjacent to the boundary in which the flow is laminar. This thin layer is commonly
known as laminar sub layer, and its thickness in represented by .
The velocity distribution in a laminar boundary layer is parabolic ; and for
turbulent boundary layer the velocity distribution has been found to follow approximately either

the one-seventh power law or it is logarithmic .For laminar sub layer the
velocity distribution is parabolic, but since its thickness is usually very small, a linear
distribution can be assumed.

The change of boundary layer from laminar to turbulent mainly depend on the velocity of flow
U∞ of the approaching stream of fluid, the length X measured along the plate from the lending
edge, the mass density ρ of fluid and its dynamic viscosity μ. As such the Reynolds number R ex
(the suffix X indicating that it is calculated with the distance x are the characteristic
length) becomes a significant parameter in indicating the change of boundary layer from laminar
to turbulent. The value of Rex at which the boundary layer may change from laminar to turbulent
varies from 3 x 105 to 6 x105.

Activity:-3.1.4
 Change of boundary layer from laminar to turbulent is also affected by several other factors
rather than state in the above, state some of them?

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3.4 Laminar boundary layer

For the laminar boundary layer prandtl assumed that (trinomial velocity distribution)

For an assumed distribution which satisfiers the boundary conditions u = 0, y =0 and u = U∞, Y
=  , the boundary – layer thickness as well as the shear at the boundary can be determined. The
velocity distribution is assumed to have the same for at each value of X,
,

When δ is unknown
The prandtl assumption satisfy the boundary condition shear stress equation can be written

At the boundary

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Hydraulics II Module

Then equate the two expressions for  0 yield

And rearranging gives

Since  is a function of X only in this equation integrating gives:

If  =0 for x = 0, the constant of integration is zero Solving for leads to

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Hydraulics II Module

In which, is a Reynolds number based on the distance x from the leading edge of

the plate.

Activity:-3.1.5
What do you understand from the above equation?

Substituting the value  in to:-

The shear stress varies inversely as the square root of x and directly as the three halves power of
the velocity. The drag on one side of the plate of unit width is

→Laminar boundary layer occur

(NR)L < 5 x 105

And drag coefficient

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Hydraulics II Module

The drag can be expressed in terms of a drag coefficient CD Times the stagnation pressure

and the area of plate l (per unit breath)

3.5 Turbulent Boundary Layer

The momentum equation can be used to determine turbulent boundary- layer growth and shear
stress along a smooth plate in a manner analogous to the treatment of the laminar boundary layer.
The universal velocity- distribution law for smooth pipes provides the best basis, but the
calculations are involved. A simpler approach is used prandtl one- seventh- power law .it is

, in which y is measured from the wall of the pipe and is the pipe radius. Applying it

to flat plates produces

And

The method used to calculate the laminar boundary layer gives

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Hydraulics II Module

By equating the expressions for shear stress, the differential equation for boundary layer
thickness  is obtained as

After integrating and then assuming that the boundary layer is turbulent over the whole length of
the plate so that the initial conditions x = 0,  = 0 can be used.

Solving for δ gives

The thickness increases more rapidly in the turbulent boundary layer, in it the thickness increases

as, , but in the laminar boundary layer  varies as x1/2.

To determine the drag on a smooth flat plate  is eliminated in shear stress equation

And

Then

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Hydraulics II Module

The drag per unit width on one side of the plate is

In terms of the drag coefficient:

Assumed a logarithmic velocity distribution for the flow in the boundary layer and obtained the
semi- empirical relation as noted below

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Example 3.1.02
A fluid of density 1000 and kinematic viscosity (v) 1* flow over a flat plate at a free stream velocity
of 10
Calculate the boundary layer thickness and shear stress at:-
a) 35mm from the leading edge.
b) 1500mm from the leading edge.

Solution:-
a) Re=
Note that Re is low enough to allow the laminar boundary layer, so:

, where

b)
Note that Re is high enough to allow the turbulent boundary layer, so:-

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Hydraulics II Module

3.6 Separation of boundary layer

On a long flat plate the boundary layer continues to grow in the downstream direction, regardless
of the length of the plate, when the pressure gradient remains zero, with the pressure decreasing
in the downstream direction, as in the conical reducing section the boundary layer tends to be
reducing in thickness.
For adverse pressure gradients, for that pressure increasing in the downstream direction, the
boundary layer thickness rapidly increases. The adverse gradient and the boundary shear
decrease the momentum in the boundary layer, and if both act over a sufficient distance, they
cause the boundary layer to come to rest. This phenomenon is called separation of the boundary
layer.

Fig3.5: - Boundary layer separation along a flat plate

Activity:-3.1.6
At least write three methods of controlling flow separation?

3.7 Drag and lift on a sphere and cylinder

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Hydraulics II Module

Take an airfoil immersed in a fluid moving with velocity V

Fig3.6: - Lift and drag in airfoil immersed in water

F = f (A, μ, V, ρ, K)
K = Bulls modules of elasticity of the fluid

Analyzing the above equation then dimensional analyses established the following relation ship

Then, Drag force:-

Lift force

Where: - CD =Drag coefficient

CL =Lift coefficient
F is the resultant force

Where:-

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Example 3.1.03
Experiments have been conducted in a wind tunnel with a wind speed of on a flat plate of size 2m long
and 1m wide. The specific weight of air is the plate is kept at such an angle that the coefficient of lift
and drag are 0.75 and 0.15 respectively. Determine:-
a. Lift force
b. Drag force
c. Resultant force, and
d. Power exerted by the air stream on the plate
Solution:-

a. Lift:

b. Drag:

c. Resultant force:

Inclined at an angle of θ with the velocity of air such that:

d. Power exerted by the air stream is:

On a sphere
At very low Reynolds number, there is no flow separation from a sphere, the wave is laminar and
the drag is predominantly friction drag. Stokes has shown analytically, for very low Reynolds

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number flows where inertia forces may be neglected, that drag force on a sphere of
dynamometer, D, moving at speed, V, through a fluid of Viscosity,  is given by

And

Therefore,

On Cylinder
Two type of flow condition prevail when the fluid move around on stationary cylindrical
members
Irotating uniform flow around a cylinder
Irotating flow of constant Circulation around a cylinder.

(a)

(b)
Fig.3.7:- circulation and lift in flow about a cylinder
Where:-
R= Raider of cylinder

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Hydraulics II Module

V = Uniform flow of fluid

V1 =Velocity at angle 
V2 = velocity when the circulation  is there around cylinder
Then:-

For stagnation points

The magnitude of the lift exerted on the cylinder due to the composite flow pattern may
be determined by integrating over the entire surface of the cylinder, the components of
the pressure forces on elementary surface areas normal to the direction of uniform flow.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between any point in the unaffected flow and any point on
the surface of the cylinder, the pressure at any point on the cylinder is obtained as

In which P0 is the pressure in the uniform flow at some distance a head of the cylinder by
substituting the value U from the above expediting

The lift acting on an elementary surface area of the cylinder is given by:

In which L is the length of the cylinder. The negative sign has been introduced because
the pressure force is always directed towards the surface, and hence for being
positive its component is negative being in the vertical down ward direction the total FL
exerted on the cylinder is obtained by integration

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Which is reduces to a simple relationship: -

Example 3.1.04:- A cylinder 1.2m in diameter is rotated about its axis in air having a velocity of 128km per hour.
A lift of 5886N per meter length of the cylinder is developed on the body. Assuming ideal fluid theory, find the
rotational speed and the location of the stagnation points. Given
Solution: -
The lift on the cylinder is given as:

And
Thus by substitution, we have:
Problems
Assuming that the velocity distribution in the boundary layer is given by:-

=
But:
Calculate:-
Where: - angular velocity and N is the rotational speed of the cylinder in r.p.m (revolution per minute). Thus
Displacement thickness ( )
we have
Momentum thickness (θ)
Kinetic
For the stagnation energy
point, thickness (
we have )
If at a certain section, free stream velocity was observed to be 10 and the
Or thickness of the boundary layer as 25mm then calculate the energy loss per unit length

due to the formation of the boundary layer. Take

A plate 25mm long and 1.25m wide is moving under water in the direction of its
length. The drag force on the two sides of the plate is estimated to be 8500N.
calculate:
The velocity of the plate
The boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the plate, and

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Hydraulics II Module

The distance at which the laminar boundary layer existing at the leading edge
transforms into turbulent boundary layer. Take for water: ρ= 1000 ,
v=1*
A smooth flat plate 3m wide and 30m long is towed through still water at 20oC at
a speed of 6 . Determine the total drag on the plate and the drag on the first
3m of the plate. ( .
A submarine can be assumed to have cylindrical shape with round nose. Assume
its length to be 50m and diameter 5.0m, determine the total power required to
overcome boundary friction if it cruises at 8 velocity in sea water
at , .
The vertical component of the landing speed of the parachute is 6 . Treat the
parachute as an open hemisphere (figure below) and determine its diameter if the
total weight to be carried is 1200N. take and

Fig. 3.8: assumed shaped of the parachute

Answer key
Activities:
3.1.1:-
For purposes of analysis, the assumption is frequently made that a fluid is non -viscous
(frictionless) and incompressible (inelastic). Such an imaginary fluid is called ideal or

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perfect fluid. No real fluids fully comply with this concept, but some liquids, including
water, are near to an ideal fluid and the assumption is useful and justified.
3.1.2:-
Although the basic structure of a boundary layer is clear, the engineer usually needs a
precise numerical description for each particular problem. The basic parameters and
equations required will now be developed. In the interests of simplicity, this treatment
will be restricted to a two- dimensional incompressible flow with constant pressure.
3.1.3:-
Some of the factors are stated below:
The boundary layer thickness increases are the distance from the leading edge
increases
The boundary layer thickness decreases with the increase in the velocity of flow of the
approaching stream of fluid
Greater is the kinematics viscosity of the fluid greater is the boundary layer
thickness
The boundary layer thickness is considerably affected by the pressure gradient (∂p/∂x)
in the direction of flow. In the case of a flat plate placed in a stream of uniform Velocity
the pressure may also be assumed to be uniform i.e. (∂p/∂x) = 0 However, if the
pressure gradient is negative as in the case of a converging flow and it accelerates the
retarded fluid in the boundary layer. As Such the boundary layer growth is retarded in the
presence of negative pressure gradient. On the other hand if the pressure gradient is
positive as in the case of divergent flow the fluid in the boundary layer is further
decelerated and hence assists in thickening of the boundary layer.

3.1.4:-
Change of boundary layer from laminar to turbulent is also affected by:
Roughness of the plate curvature
Pressure gradient
Intensity and scale of turbulence

3.1.5:-

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The above equation is boundary – layer thickness equation of laminar flow it shows that
 increases as the squire root of the distance from the leading edge, and it is mainly
affected by the Reynolds number and the distance from the leading edge.
3.1.6:-
The flow separation is undesirable, so it should be controlled, in order to control there
are different methods, some of these are stated below:
Suction: In this method, the slow moving fluid, which had been retarded by the
adverse gradient, is removed from the boundary layer by suction.
Acceleration: In this method, acceleration is imparted to the slow moving fluid.
This introduces a force to counter-act the effect of the adverse gradient.
Motion: In this method, the body is given a movement in the direction of motion
of the fluid. This helps in the prevention of the formation of the boundary layer.
Streamlining: In this method, the body is streamlined in shape. This shifts the
point of separation and reduces the wake to a minimum.
Conversion to turbulent layer: as the turbulent boundary layer is stronger than the
laminar boundary layer, attempts are made so that only turbulent boundary layer
is formed. The laminar boundary layer can be converted to turbulent boundary
layer by artificially roughening the surface of the body.

Problem solution:

3.1.1:-
Solution:-

The displacement thickness is given by:-

= = =

The momentum thickness is given by:-

θ=

The energy thickness is given by:-

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Hydraulics II Module

And the loss of energy per unit length due to the formation of the boundary layer is
given by:-
= *25* = 2.682N

3.1.2:-
Solution:-
Velocity of the plate, U
Since U is not known, can’t be computed. Hence assume any reasonable
value of CD between 0.005 and 0.001. Let us assume CD= 0.002
Drag force (both sides), = ρ

8500=

Reynolds number, (turbulent boundary layer)

Thus recalculation gives:

By another trail, we get

Thus recalculation gives:

And U=12.19 which is within reasonable accuracy.

The boundary layer thickness, δ:
The thickness of the boundary layer is given by:

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Hydraulics II Module

The distance, :
Transition from laminar to turbulent boundary may be assumed to occur at

3.1.3:-
Solution:-

Drag on both sides of the plate:

Considering the point at which the boundary layer becomes turbulent, assume transition
at
, where is the transition length

Thus, it is reasonable to ignore the laminar layer compared with the 30m plate length.
Drag on the first 3m is then calculated in the same way as shown above for the full plate
length.

3.1.4:
Solution:-
Total power required to overcome boundary friction, P:
Reynolds number,

The length over which boundary layer will be laminar is given by,

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Hydraulics II Module

This being very small, contribution to total drag from laminar boundary layer is
negligible; hence is given by,

Area,
Therefore drag force,

Hence total power required to overcome boundary friction,

3.1.5:
Solution: -
Diameter of parachute, D;

Drag force,
Using the equation:

Or

Or

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CHAPTER 4
LAMINAR & TURBULENT FLOW
Fluid flow may be either viscous (laminar or streamline) or turbulent, the type of flow
VL
depending on the value of Reynolds number (Re= )

? What is laminar flow
Laminar flow: - is defined as flow in which the fluid moves in layers, or laminas.
 Instability & disturbances of flow is controlled by viscous shear forces that resist
relative motion of adjacent fluid layers.
 Re less than 2000.
 It occurs at Low velocity.
 The viscous forces predominate over the inertial forces.
 Rare in practice in water system.
 Simple mathematical analysis possible.

Turbulent flow: - has very erratic motion of fluid particles, with a violent transverse
interchange of momentum.
 It had completely disrupted the orderly movement of laminar flow.
 Re greater than 4000.
 The losses are directly proportional to the average velocity.

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Hydraulics II Module

 Average motion is in the direction of the flow.

 Losses are proportional to the velocity to a power varying from 1.7 to 2.0.
 Mathematical analysis very difficult.

ACTIVITY 1.1
1. What is the characteristic of laminar flow?
2. Enumerate example of laminar floe.
3. What is the difference between laminar and turbulent flow?

4.1 LAMINAR FLOW BETWEEN PARALELLE PLATES

For steady flow b/n parallel inclined plates; the bottom plate fixed, the upper plate has a
constant velocity.
h
a u

Fig.1
Analyzing the flow by taking a thin lamina of unit width as a free body, the equation of
motion yields:

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Hydraulics II Module

 P    
PY   PY  . .Y     . Y .      .  y. sin  0
    y 
h
uisng sin   and dividing the eqn by the volume of element  . y .1 :

 
 P  h..........................................................................................(1)
y 
 d
  because V is only a fun of y 
y dy

 p  h  d P  h  (b / c  p  h is a fun of  only)
 d
d d  du  d 2u d
      . 2  ( p  h )                              (2)
dy dy  dy  dy d
Integrating w.r.t Y :
du
..  y .
d
 p  h  C 1 and int egrating again
dy d
y2 d
v  p  h C 1 Y  C 2
2 d
y2 d
V  p  h  C 1 Y  C 2                                  (3)
2 dl 
To eualuate C 1 & C 2 take at y  O, v  0 at bottom plate&
at y  a ,V  U at upper plate, then
U 1 d
C 2  0 & C1    p  ha
a 2 dl
V 
UY
a

1 d
2 d
 
 p  h ay  Y 2                                (4)

For both plates fixed U=0 and the velocity distribution is parabolic with maximum
velocity at the mid plane.
 a2 d
Vmax = U = ( p  h) - ---------------------------------------------------4 (a)
8 dl
The discharge of the laminar flow per unit width of the plate can be obtained by
integrating eqn. (4) w. r. t. y, Yielding:
a
ua 1 d
q   vdy   ( p  h)a3                          (5)
o 2 12 dl

Averagy velocity , v 
q u
 
d d
 p  ha2                  (6)
a 2 12  dl
For the both plate stationary, U= 0, then

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1 d
v
2 dl
 
 p  h aY  Y 2                                4 (b)
1 d
q  p  ha3                                 (6a)
12 dl

The mean velocity of flow:

1 d
V 
q
 p  ha 2                                    4(c)
a 12 dl
( for both plates stationary)

From eqn. 4 (a)& (4 c),

V = 2/3 Vmax ---------------- ------------------------------------------------------------ 4 (d)
Shear stress Distribution
It is given by:
d  UY
 
du
  
1 d
 p  h  ay  y 2 
 
dy dy  a 2 d 

U 1 d
  p  h a  2 y                                 (7)
a 2 d

Point of Maximum velocity

Derive V in terms of
y
dv U 1 d
   p  h a  2Y  0
dy a 2 d
U
a a
Y                                      (8)
2  1  d  p  h
   d

Head loss (Energy losses):

From the equation (6)
d
 p  h  12 UV2 6U
d a

2
12 V  6U x2

 d  p  h 
1 a2  dl x1

 p2  p1    h2 h1  62

a

L 2V  U 
hlf 
p


6 L
a 2
2V  U  ( for upper plate moving)                     (9)

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Hydraulics II Module

p 12 V L
h1 f                                  (9a)
 a 2
(For both plate stationary)
EXAMPLE
1. One plate moves relative to the other as shown where and

Determine
a. Velocity,
b. Discharge and
c. shear stress at the upper plate.

Given
Dynamic viscosity
Density (
Solution
a. At upper point

At the lower point

From the figure a=6mm=0.006m & u=-1m/s

Maximum velocity occur where

To get substitute the value of y

Note the absolute maximum velocity occur at the moving plate (i.e y=0.006m) where
u=-1m/s.
b.

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Hydraulics II Module

(Upper flow)
c.

4.2 Laminar Flow in circular PIPE (Hagen – poiseuile law)

H
R

For steady, fully developed laminar flow there are normal forces (pressure forces) acting
on the left & right ends of the control volume, and that there are tangential forces (shear
forces) on the inner & outer cylindrical surfaces.
It the pressure at the Centre of the annular control volume is p, then the force on the left
end is:

 p dx 
p  2r dr                   (i)
 x 2 
The forceon the ritht end is
 p dx   ii 
p  2 rdr                  
 x 2   
If the shear stress at the center of the annular control volume is  then the shear force
on the inner cylindrical surfaces is:
 d dr   dr 
  .  2   r   dx                (iii) The
 dr 2   2
shear
force on the outer cylindrical surface is:
d dr  dr 
(  )2 r  dx                          iv
dr 2  2

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Hydraulics II Module

The summation of the x- components of forces acting on the control volume must be
zero. Thus:

 p dx   p dx   d dr   dr 
 p  .  2 rdr   p   2 rdr     2  r   dx
 x 2   x 2   dr 2   2
 d dr   dr 
    r   2 dx  0
 dr 2   2
 p d
 2 rdr dx  dr .2 dx  r . dr 2dx  0                      (v)
x dr
Dividing this eqn. by 2  rdr dx gives
p  d 
   
1 d
r                      (vi)
x r dr  r dr


d
r   r .  p Integrating this eqn
dr x
r 2  p 
r .     C1            via 
2  x 
dv
Substituting   
dr
dv r  p  C
.     1            vi(b)
dr 2  x  r
r 2  p  C1
V   ln r C 2
4  x  

At the centre for r = o, V= Vmax is finite, hence C1 =0 other wise

V (r=o) will be infinite.
The boundary condition, at the pipe wall r = R ,v =0 therefore:

 R 2  p 
C2   
4  x 
r 2  p  R 2  p 
and hence, V     
4  x  4  x 
1  p  2
V   
  r  R                              (vii)
4  x 
2

The velocity distribution has parabolic pattern, & the max. velocity occurs at the centre of
the pipe & (i.e. r = 0)
 1  p  2
Thus: Vmax =   R                          (viii)
4  x 
From eqn. (Viii) & (vii) , we have
 
V = Vmax . 1  r / R  2            (ix)
Volume flow Rate

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Hydraulics II Module

dQ  V .dA  V .2r dr

1  p  2 2   p  2 2
dQ    r R
4  x 
  2r dr 

  r  R rdr 
= 2  x 

By integrating both sides

  p  R 2
Q    r  R r dr
2  x  0
2
 
 4  P 
Q  R                                  ( x)
8  x 
The mean velocity of flow ( V )
 Q 
V ,  Q / A   is given by :
2
  R 
 1  P  2
V  R
8  x 
1  P  2
   D                 ( xi)
32  x 
1
V  V max
2
From eqn. (x) & (xii (a), mean Velocity occurs at:
R
r  0.707R
2
The Shear stress Distribution
dv r  p 
      From eqn via above C1  0
dr 2  x 
Head loss:
  p  32 V
  ( from eg ( xii)
 x  D2
p1 p 2 32V
or 
L D2
32V L  QL 
P1  P2   128   ( Hagen  poiseuilleeqn.)
D4 
2
D 
p1  p 2 32 VL
hlf              ( xiiii)
 D2
64  LV 2  128QL
                   ( xiii(a)
Re  2 gD  D4
 

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Hydraulics II Module

From Darcy- weisbach eqn. the head loss due to frictional resistance in a long straight
pipe of length L diameter, D & mean velocity V is given as:
2
L V
hf  f           
D 2g
From these two head losses eqn.
L V 2 32VL
f 
D 2g D2
64 64
f              ( xiiii(b))
Re V D
Where f is the friction factor of a pipe.

ACTIVITY 1.2
1. For steady laminar flow through a circular pipe prove that the velocity
distribution across the section is parabolic and the average velocity is half of
the maximum local velocity.
2. Show that the value of co-efficient of friction for viscous flow through a
circular pipe given by .

Note: - The above equations are derived for horizontal pipes, but for inclined pipe it is
given as:
V
1 d
 p  h ( r 2  R2 )
4 dl

4.3 Fully Developed Turbulent flow in pipe

Shearing in turbulent flows is both difficult to Visualize & less amenable to mathematical
treatment. As consequence, the solutions of problems involving turbulent flows tend to
invoke experimental data.
In turbulent flow, a streamline broken into an eddy formation, that its success passage
leads to a measurable fluctuation in the velocity at a given point.The eddies are generally
irregular in size & shape, so the fluctuation of velocity with time is correspondingly
irregular. For convenience, this fluctuating velocity is broken down into two components:

average velocity at a point u and fluctuating components U’ (in the x-direction),v’ ( in
y-direction) & w’ ( in z-direction).

Fig.3 Turbulent fluctuations in direction of flow

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Hydraulics II Module

U  U U' (in the x  direction)

1 t To
U  udt.
To t
1 t To 1 t To 1 t To
U'   (U  U )dt   Udt   U dt
To t To t To t
 U U  0
(The mean value of fluctuation)
In turbulent flow, no simple relation exists between the shear stress field & the
momentum velocity field. Velocity fluctuations in turbulent flow exchange momentum
between adjacent layers of fluid, thereby causing apparent shear stress that must be added
to the stress caused by the mean velocity gradients. For fully developed turbulent channel
flow, the total shear stress given by:
du
   U 'V ' ………………………………………………….(A)
dy
y-is the distance from the pipe;
U -is the mean velocity;
U’,V’- fluctuating components of velocity in the x & y directions;
 U 'V ' - is referred as the Reynolds stress
The apparent shear stress in turbulent flow is expressed in a form similar to Newton’s
viscosity law, that is,
U
 U 'V '   t  
y ………………………………………(B)
Where, - is an empirical coefficient called the eddy viscosity.
ACTIVITY 1.3
1. What is turbulence?
2. What are characteristics of turbulent flow?
Prandtl’s Mixing Length
In Prandtl’s theory, expressions for U’ & V’ are obtained in terms of a mixing-length
distance ‘l’ & the velocity gradient du/dy.
Prandtl assumed that a particle of fluid is displaced a distance ‘l’ before its momentum is
changed by the new Environment. The fluctuation U’&V’ is then related to ‘l’ by
du
U '  V '   ……………………………………………(C)
dy
By substituting for U’ &V’
2
 du 
 xyt   t   U 'V '    
2

 dy  ………………………………………(D)

Comparing eqn. (B) & eqn. (D), the eddy viscosity is:
du
  2 ………………………………………………….(E)
dy

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Hydraulics II Module

In turbulent flow there is a violent change of parcels of fluid except at a boundary, or

very near to it, where this inter change is reduced to zero; hence l must approach zero at a
fluid boundary.
The particular relationship of  to wall distance y is suggested by Von Karman as:
du / dy
k 2 …………………………………(F)
d u / dy2
Where,
k = is universal constant in turbulent flow, known as Von Karman is coefficient (= 0.4)
Velocity Distribution in Turbulent shear flows
In turbulent flow there is no universal relationship b/n the stress field & the mean
velocity field. It is convenient to visualize the turbulent-shear layer near a smooth wall to
be divided in to three layers:
In the region very close to the wall, where viscous shear is dominant, the mean velocity
profile follows the linear viscous (laminar) relation, within region y   ' , Thus:
 o   u  . u , y  '
 y y
 ' = is laminar height &
o
 = has dimension of velocity & is called the shear stress or friction
velocity u*. Hence
u u . y
 , y   '                (G)
U* 
y- is the distance measured from the wall (Y=R -r, pipe radius)
u - is the mean velocity.
ν –is kinematics viscosity
u Y
Equation (G) is valid for 0  *  5, that is,
v
v
 '  5 ------------------------------------------------- (H)
u*
(Viscous sub layer)

In the overlap layer it is assumed that the shear stress is approximately equal to the shear
stress at the wall, but turbulent dominates:
2
 o  2  du dy  ( from eqn. ( D)
Hence,  

  o    du dy 
 
From dimensional consideration  is proportional to y, therefore, take  =ky Hence,
du dy 1 dy
  ……………………………..…..(I)
u* ky k y
and Integrating:

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Hydraulics II Module

u 1
 ln y  cons tan t ( k  0.4) …………………(J)
u* k
u= umax=U, at y =R,
u max
 2.5 nR  c
u*
 c  u max  2.5 u n( R),
Therefore, u  umax  2.5 u*n  y R  ………………………………… (K)
 
The velocity profile for turbulent flow through a smooth pipe can be represented by the
empirical “Power-law” eqn,
1 1
u u  y n  r  n
     1  
umax um  R  R
Where n- varies with the Reynolds number
The power-low profile is not applicable close to the wall  y  0.04  ; the variation of
 R 
the exponent, n, in the power law profile with Reynolds number (based on pipe diameter,
D, & centerline velocity, umax)
A value of n=7 often used for the exponent; this gives rise to the term “a one-seventh
power profile” for fully developed turbulent flow.
EXAMPLE
1. In a pipe of diameter 0.6m length of 4500m water is flow at the rate of 0.6m3/s. if
the average height of roughness is 0.48mm find the power required to maintain
the flow. take co-efficient of friction f=0.00465
Given
Diameter of the pipe (D) =0.6m, radius (R)=0.6/2=0.3m
Length of the pipe (L) =4500m
Discharge (Q) = 0.6m3/s
Co-efficient of friction f=0.00465
Solution
Power required maintaining the flow,
Where

Problem
1. Water having kinematic viscosity =10-6 m2/s is flowing in pipe of Diameter =20cm
has V=1.5m/s and has slope of 1m per 100m. Determine a.
b.

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Hydraulics II Module

c. f(friction factor)
2. A small horizontal tube of D=3.0mm L=40m is connected to the reservoir to discharge
for 10 sec. Calculate maximum velocity.

CHAPTER 5
FLOW THROUGH PIPES
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Hydraulics II Module

Introduction
Pipes were introduced in the earliest days of the practice of hydraulics. Their common
place use today makes it of great importance that the laws governing the flow in them
should be fully understood.

Water is conveyed from its source, normally in pressure pipelines, to water treatment
plants where it enters the distribution system & finally arrives at the consumer. In
addition, oil, gas, irrigation water, sewerage can be conveyed by pipeline system.

Some loss of energy is inevitable in the flow of any real fluid. In the case of flow in a
horizontal uniform pipeline, this is evidenced by the fall of pressure in the direction of
flow. Predicting the energy loss per unit length is essential to efficient pipeline design.

The prime concern in the analysis of real flows is to account for the effect of friction. The
effect of friction is to decrease the pressure, causing a pressure ‘loss’ compared to the
ideal, frictionless flow case. The loss will be divided into major losses (due to friction in
fully developed flow in constant area portions of the system) & minor losses (due to flow
through valves, elbow fittings & frictional effects in other non-constant –area portions of
the system).

Figure 5.1 Flow in the pipes (circular pipe)

P1 V12 P V2
z1    z2  2  2  hL ……………………………………….5.1
 2g  2g
hL = Head loss (major + minor)

Activity 5.1: Define the term pipe flow?

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Hydraulics II Module

5.1 Major Losses (Head loss in conduits of constant cross-section)

Referring to Figure 5.1 and for equilibrium in steady flow, the summation of forces
acting on any fluid element must be equal to zero, i.e.  F  0,
p1 A  p2 A  W sin   o ( pL)  0
(z  z )
sin  1 2
L
 o - average shear stress (average shear force per unit area) at the conduit wall, is
defined by:
P
1
P 0
o   o dP ……………..………………………… (5.2)

 o - is the local shear stress1 acting over a small incremental portion dP of the
wetted perimeter.

p1 A  p2 A  AL
z2  z1   PL  0
o
L
p1 p2 PL
  ( z2  z1 )   o 0
  A
p1 p2 PL
 z1   z2   o …………………………………… (5.3)
  A
Form the above equations (5.1) and (5.3)

PL  p1  p 
hL   o    z1    2  z2 
A     
L
hL   o ………………………………………… (5.4)
Rh
This equation is applicable to any shape of uniform cross-sections, regardless of
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. For smooth-walled conduits, where wall
roughness may be neglected, it may be assumed that the average shear stress  o is a
function of , , & some characteristic linear dimension, which will here be taken as
hydraulic radius R. Thus:

 o = (, , , R)

1 The local shear stress varies from point to point around the perimeter of all conduits (irrespective of whether the
wall is smooth or rough), except for the case of a circular pipe flowing full where the shear stress at the wall is the
same at all points of the perimeter.

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Hydraulics II Module

By dimensional analysis:

 RhV 
 o   V 2     V 2 (Re) and let  (Re) = ½ Cf (dimensionless term)
  
V2
 o  C f  ………………………………………………. (5.5)
2
L V2
From equation (4.4): hL  C f ..…………………………….. (5.6)
Rh 2 g
(Applied for any shape of smooth walled conduits).

For circular conduits (pipe) flowing full, R= ¼ D, Therefore,

L V2 L V2
hL  C f 4  f ………………………………… (5.7)
D 2g D 2g
Where, f  4C f  8 Re …………………………..…………… (5.8)

Equation (5.7) is applicable for both smooth-walled and rough walled conduits. It is
known as pipe –friction equation, and commonly referred to as the Darcy-Weisbach
equation. Friction factor, f, is dimensionless and is also some function of Reynolds
number. The exact form of  Re and numerical values for Cf and f must be determined
by experiments or other means.

For laminar flow (Recall chapter three)

v 64
f  64  ( for la min ar flow) ………………….. (5.9))
DV Re

 64  L V 2
Head loss: hf    …………………………………… (5.10)
 Re  D 2 g

Experimental Investigation on friction losses in Turbulent flow

In fully developed turbulent flow, the pressure drop, p, due to friction in a horizontal
constant area pipe depends upon the diameter, D, the pipe length, L, the pipe
roughness,, the average velocity, V , the fluid density, ρ, and the fluid viscosity, .

By dimensional analysis p   (V , D,  , ,  )

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P   L 
   , , 
V 2
 vD D D 
hL L  
   Re, 
2
V g D  D

hL L  
 1  Re, 
V 2g D 
2
D

 
 f  1 Re,  ……………………………………… (5.11)
 D

 Blasius had concluded that there were two types of pipe friction in turbulent flow.
The first is the smooth pipes where the viscosity effects predominate so that the
friction factor is dependent solely on the Reynolds number (f= (Re). He deduced
the following expression for the friction in smooth pipes:

0.316
f  4
………………………………………… (5.12)
Re
The second type was relevant to rough pipes where the viscosity & roughness effects
influence the flow & the friction factor (f) is dependent both on the Reynolds number & a
parameter of relative roughness (/D).L.F Moody prepared a chart for determining
friction factor for rough pipes experimentally by plotting f versus Re curve for each value

of . (See Moody Chart)
D
The moody chart, the various flows it represents, may be divided into four zones: the
laminar flow zone; a critical zone where values are uncertain because the flow might be
either laminar or turbulent; a transition zone. Where f is a function of both Reynolds
number and relative pipe roughness; and a zone of complete turbulence (fully rough pipe
flow), where the value of f is independent of Reynolds number and depends solely upon
the relative roughness.

There is no sharp line of demarcation between the transition zone and the zone of
complete turbulence. The dashed line that separates the two zone was suggested by R. J.
S. Pigott; the equation of this line is Re= 3500
( D) . On the other hand side of the
equation of this line is corresponding to the curve and not the grid.

The Colebrook has developed the formula:

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Hydraulics II Module

 
 0.809 ln  D   …………………………………… (5.13)
1 2.523
f 3.7 Re f 
 

A simplified form of this equation is provided with restriction placed on it:

 6  12 
1.325 10   10 
f    D  …………………………… (5.14)

2
 5.74  5000  Re  10 
n( 3.7 D  R0.9 
8

(For Rough pipes)

 Head loss in pipes is given by:

L V2
hL  f (For all pipes rough, smooth, laminar, & turbulent)
D 2g

Activity 5.2: Define the term: Major energy losses in a pipe.

Example 5.1 ; in a pipe of diameter 350 mm and length 75 m water is flowing at a

velocity of 2.8 m/s. find the head loss due to friction using :

i. Darcy weisbach formulae

ii. Chezy`s formula for when C=55.

Assume kinematic viscosity of the water as 0.012 stokes.

Solution: D= 350 mm=0.35 m , L= 75 m , V=2.8 m/s , C=55
V= 0.012 stokes= 0.012*10-4 m2/s
Head loss due to friction, hf:
i. Darcy weisbach formulae;

where f=coefficient of friction ( a function of Reynolds number)

=8.167* 105

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Hydraulics II Module

=
f= =0.00263
Therefore,

= 0.9 m (Ans)
ii. Chezy’s formulae:

V= C

Where C= 55, m= = = = =0.0875 m

Therefore 2.8=55*

i=0.0296
but , i= =0.0296
hf =i*L= 0.0296*75=2.22m
hf= 2.22m
Example 5.2 : a water flow through a pipe of diameter 300 mm with a volume of 5 m/s.if
the coefficient of fraction given by f=0.015+ , where Re is the Reynolds number ,
find the head loss due to friction for length of 10 m, take kinematic viscosity of water as
0.01 stokes.
Solution: Diameter of the pipe, D=300mm=0.3, V=5 m/s , l=10 m, viscosity of water ,v=
0.01 stokes=0.01*10-4 m2/s, (take , 1 stoke=1 cm2/s=10-4m2/s)
Head loss due to friction hf;
Coefficient of friction, f=0.015+ ,

But the Reynolds number , Re = = =1.58*106

Therefore, f=0.015+ =0.0161,

Therefore head loss due to friction, =

, hf= 2.735 m (Ans)

5.2 Minor losses in the pipes

Loss due to the local disturbances of the flow conduits such as changes in cross-section;
bend, elbows, valves, joints, etc are called minor losses. In case of a very long pipe, these
losses may be insignificant in comparison with the fluid friction in the length considered.

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Hydraulics II Module

Whenever, the velocity of a flowing stream is altered either in direction or in magnitude

in turbulent flow, eddy currents are set up and a loss of energy in excess of the pipe
friction in that same length is created2. Head losses in decelerating (i.e., diverging) flow
is much larger than that in accelerating (i.e., converging) flow.
The most common minor losses can be represented in one of two ways. It may be
expressed as kv2/2g, where the loss coefficient k must be determined for each case. Or it
may be expressed as an equivalent length of a straight pipe, usually in terms of the
number of pipe diameters, N. Since,
V 2 f ND  V 2
k  , it follows that k  Nf .
2g D 2g

i. Loss of head at entrance

A poorly designed inlet to a pipe can cause an appreciable head loss. Referring to Figure
5.2 it may be seen that, a cross section with maximum velocity and minimum pressure at
B. This minimum flow area is known as the vena contracta.

Figure 5.2 Condition at

entrance

It is seen that the loss of energy at entrance is distributed along the length AC, a distance
of several diameters. The increased turbulence and vortex motion in this portion of the
pipe cause the friction loss to be much greater than in a corresponding length where the
flow is normal, as it is shown by the drop of the total-energy line. Of this total loss, a
small portion hf would be due to the normal pipe friction (See Figure 5.2). Hence, the
difference between this and that total, or he' is the true value of the extra loss caused at
entrance.

2
In laminar flow these losses are insignificant, because irregularities in the flow boundary create a minimal
disturbance to the flow and separation is essentially nonexistent.

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Hydraulics II Module

The loss of head at entrance may be expressed as

2

h '
e k V
e …………………………………….. (5.15)
2g
Where V is the mean velocity in the pipe, and ke is the loss coefficient

Figure
Figure 5.4 Entrance Loss
5.3 Entrance Loss Coefficients
Coefficients

ii. Loss of head at submerged discharges: (leave of pipe), (hd’)

When the fluid with a velocity V is discharged from the end of a pipe in to a large
reservoir, (v = 0), the entire kinetic energy of the coming flow is dissipated.

This may be shown by writing an energy equation between (a) and (b) in Figure 5.4
Taking the datum plane through (a) and recognizing that the pressure head of the fluid at
(a) is y, its depth below the surface, H a  y  0  V 2 2 g and H c  0  y  0 . Therefore,

V2
hd'  H a  H c  ……………………………….. (5.16)
2g

Figure 5.4 Submerged

Discharge Loss

iii. Loss due to contraction (hc)

a) Sudden contraction

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Hydraulics II Module

There is a marked drop in pressure due to increase in velocity and to the loss of energy in
turbulence. The loss of head for sudden contraction may be represented by

V22
h  kC
'
c …………………………………. (5.17)
2g

Figure 5.5 Loss due to

sudden contraction

Table 5.1 Loss coefficients for sudden contraction

D2 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
D1
KC 0.50 0.45 0.42 0.39 0.36 0.33 0.28 0.22 0.15 0.06 0.00

b) Gradual contraction

In order to reduces high losses, abrupt changes of cross section should be avoided. This is
accomplished by changing from one diameter to the other by means of a smoothly curved
transition or by employing the frustum of a cone. With a smoothly curved transition a
loss coefficient kc as small as 0.05 is possible. For conical reducers, a minimum kc of
about 0.10 is obtained, with a total cone angle of 20-400. Smaller or larger total cone
angle results in higher values of kc.

A nozzle at the end of a pipe line is a special case of gradual contraction. The head loss
through a nozzle at the end of a pipeline is given by equation (5.17), where kc is the
nozzle loss coefficient whose value commonly ranges from 0.04 to 0.20 and vj is the jet

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velocity. The head loss through a nozzle cannot be regarded as a minor loss because the
jet velocity head is usually quite large.

iv. Loss due to Expansion (he)

a) Sudden Expansion

Both the figures in Figure 5.6, drawn to scale from test measurements for the same
diameter ratios and the same velocities, and show that the loss due to sudden expansion is
greater than the loss due to a corresponding contraction. This is so because of the inherent
instability of flow in an expansion where the diverging paths of the flow tend to
encourage the formation of eddies within the flow. Moreover, separation of the flow from
the wall of the conduit induces pockets of eddying turbulence outside the flow region. In
converging flow, there is a dampening effect on eddy formation, and the conversion from
pressure energy to kinetic energy is quite efficient.
After the flow enters expanded pipe, there is excessive turbulence and formation of
eddies which causes loss of energy. The loss due to sudden enlargement in a pipe line
system can be calculated with the application of energy and momentum equations by
neglecting the small shear force exerted on the walls of between sections 1 and 2
(figure5.6) for steady incompressible turbulent flow.

Figure 5.6 Loss due to sudden enlargement

Rate of momentum between section (1) & (2)


p1 A2  p2 A2  ( A2V22  A1V12 )
g
Energy relation between section (1) & (2)

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p1 v12 p v2
  2  2  he
 2g  2g

p1  p2
Solving for in each equation and equating the results

v22  v2v1 v22  v12
  he
g 2g
And noting that from continuity equation A1V1 = A2V2 and that
A1V21 = (A1V1) V1 = (A2V2)V1

Substituting in the above equation

2 2
(V  V )2  D2  V 2  D2  V 2
 h  1 2  1  12  1   22 1 2 …………………………….. (5.18)
'
x
2g  D2  2g  D1  2g
Example 5.3: At a sudden enlargement of water main from 240 mm to 480mm diameter,
the hydraulic gradient rises 10mm. determine the rate of flow.

Solution: D1= 240 mm=0.24, D2=480 mm=0.48m

-rise of hydraulic gradient, i.e.

+ )-( + ) =10mm=0.01

[The term +Z) prescribes hydraulic gradient rate of flow, Q

Applying Bernoulli’s equation to small and large pipe section (1-1) and (2-2)
+ + = + + +

But =
From continuity equations, we have
=

Therefore, = = * = *

Or = * =

= =

Now substituting the value of and in equation (1), we have

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+ + = + + +

- - = + )-( + ) or

=0.01 or

=0.181m/s

b) Gradual Expansion

To minimize the loss accompanying a reduction in velocity a diffuser may be used.

Diffuser is a curved outline, or it may be a frustum of cone. In figure (5.8) the head loss
will be some function of the angle of divergence and also of the ratio of two areas, the
length of the diffuser being determined by these two variables.

Figure 5.7 Loss due to gradual enlargement

In flow through a diffuser, the total loss may be considered as made up of two
components. One is the ordinary pipe-friction loss, which may be represented by
f V2
he   . dL .
D 2g
In order to integrate, it is necessary to express the variables f, D, and V as functions of L.
For our present purpose, it is sufficient, however, merely to note that the friction loss

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increases with the length of the cone. Hence, for given values of D1 and D2, the larger the
angle of the cone, the less its length and the less the pipe friction.
The other is turbulence loss due to divergence. Turbulence loss increase with the degree
of divergence, if the rate of divergence is great enough then there may be a separation at
the wall and eddies flowing backward along the walls.
The total loss for gradual expansion pipe is the sum of these two losses, marked k ' . It has
been seen that the loss due to a sudden enlargement is very nearly represented
by V1  V2  2 g . The loss due to a gradual enlargement is expressed as
2

h'  k '
V1  V2 2 ……………………………………..(5.19)
2g
.
Where K’ loss coefficient which is a function of cone angle

Table 5.2 Loss coefficients for gradual expansion

K’ 0.4 0.6 0.95 1.1 1.18 1.09 1.0 1.0
 20 0
30 0
40 0
50 0
600 900 1200 180

v. Loss in pipe fittings

V2
The loss of head in pipefittings is expressed as hf  k f where v is the velocity
2g
in a pipe of the nominal size of the fitting. Typical values are given below.
Table 5.3 Values of “Kf” based on the type of fittings.

Table 5.3 values of k f loss for pipe fittings

Fitting K
Globe valve, wide open 10
Angle valve, wide open 5
Close –return bend 2.2
T-through side outlet 1.8
Short-radius elbow 0.9
Medium radius elbow 0.75
Long radius elbow 0.60
Gate valve, wide open 0.19
Half open 2.06
Pump foot value 5.60

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Standard branch flow 1.80

vi. Losses in bend & Elbow

In flow around a bend or elbow, because of centrifugal effects, there is an increase in

pressure along the outer wall and a decrease in pressure along the inner wall. Most of the
loss of head in a sharp bend may be eliminated by the use of a vaned elbow. The vane
tends to impede the formation of the secondary flow that would otherwise occur.

The head loss produced by a bend or elbow is:

V2
hb  kb . ………………………….(5.19i)
2g

kb - depends on the ratio of curvature r to pipe diameter D.

Figure 5.8 secondary flows in bend

Figure 5.9 Vaned elbow

Activity 5.3: a) Define the term: Minor losses in a pipe.

b) Discuss on all types of losses that can be considered as minor losses.
c) Derive the formula for calculating loss of head due to :
(I) Sudden enlargement , and
(II) Sudden contraction.

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Solution of single-pipe flow problems

The fundamental fluid mechanics associated with frictional loss of energy in single pipe
flow, caused by both the wall roughness of the pipes and by pipe fittings that disturb the
flow (minor losses).
It is generally conceded that for pipes of length greater than 1000 diameters, the error
incurred by neglecting minor losses is less than that inherent in selecting a value for the
friction factor  f , n, or CHW  .

When minor losses are negligible, as they often are, pipe flow problems may be solved
by the methods, which are available are Hazen-Williams equation, the Manning equation
or the Darcy-Weisbach equation. The Darcy-Weisbach equation is to be preferred, since
it will provide greater accuracy because its application utilizes the basic parameters that
influence pipe friction, namely, Reynolds Number Re and the relative roughness  D .
To get good results with the Hazen-Williams and Manning’s equations, the user must
selected proper values for CHW and n, respectively.
The total head losses between two points is the sum of the pipe friction loss plus the
minor losses, or
hL h Lf  h' ………………………………… (5.20)

Where hL = total head loss h Lf = major head loss  h = total minor losses
'

In problem where f is given, equation (5.18) still has only one unknown, namely, hL or V
or Q or D. In most cases, this equation is explicit in the unknown, and so it is easy to
solve. However, for sizing problems, the resulting equation in D is of the fifth degree,
requiring trial and error or an equation solver.
The universal turbulent flow equation for use in an equation solver, including minor
losses, eliminating h Lf and equation (5.19) with the help of equation (5.7) and (5.11), and
 
by replacing V by 4Q D 2 . Expressing minor losses  h in terms of kV
' 2
2g ,

 
 
 D 2.51
 2 log  …………………. (5.21)
LD LD
 
 gD hL
2 4
 gD hL
2 4
 k 
3.7 4Q
2   k 
8Q  8Q2 

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An important reminder when using these equations is to use Reynolds equation to check
the Reynolds number and confirm that the flow is turbulent. If Re < 2000 the flow is
laminar and the problem must instead be solved with equation (5.16).

Activity 5.4: Why the Darcy-Weisbach equation is preferable than the other
equations which are used to solve pipe flow problems?

5.3 Pipeline system

5.3.1 Pipes in Series

When two pipes of different sizes or roughness are so connected that the fluid flows
through one pipe& then through the other, they are said to be connected in series. A
typical series pipe problem, in which head H may be wanted for a given discharge or the
discharge wanted for a given H, is illustrated in figure 5.12 and the continuity equations
establish the following two simple relations that must be satisfied.

Q  Q1  Q2  Q3  ...  Qn .
hL  hL1  hL 2  hL3  ...

Figure 5.12 Pipes Connected in Series

Applying the energy equation from A to B, including all losses, gives:
2
PA VA p V2
 ZA   B  B  Z B  hi  h f 1  he'h f 2  hd '
 2g  2g
V2 L V V  V2
H  0  0  0  0  0  ki 1  f1 1 1  1
2
  2
L V V
 f2 2 2  2
2 2

2g D1 2 g 2g D2 2 g 2 g
V1 D1  V2 D2
2 2
From continutyequation. :
2 4 4
V2  2
  D1  D  
H  1 ki  f1 1  1   D1 D    f 2 2
L L
    1  
2g D1   2  D2  D2   D2  

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Example 5.4: three pipes of diameters 300, 200 and 400 mms and length of 450m,
255mm, and 315 m respectively are connected in series. and the difference in water
surface levels in two tanks is 18m. Determine the rate of flow of water if coefficients of
friction are 0.0075, 0.0078 and 0.0072 respectively considering:
i. Minor losses also and
ii. Neglecting Minor losses

Solution: pipe 1: =450 m =300mm=0.3 m =0.0075

=255m =200mm=0.2 m =0.0078

=315 mm =400 mm=0.4 =0.0072

i. Considering Minor losses: let V1, V2 and V3 be the velocity 1st,
2nd and 3rd pipes respectively. From continuity consideration, we have

= =

= = * = * = *

and = = * = * = *

=0.5625
We know that hf

= + + + + + +

18= + + + +

+ +

18= +(0.5+45+2.53+201.4+2.847+7.176+0.316)

= 259.77 or

V1= =1.116 m/s

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5.3.2 Equivalent pipes

Series pipes can be solved by the method of equivalent lengths. Two pipe systems are
said to be equivalent when the same head loss produces the same discharge in both
systems. From Equation (5.7)

2
L 8Q1 f 2 L 2 8Q 2 2
hf 1  f 1 51 for a second pipe hf2 =
D1  2 g 5
D2  2 g

For two pipes to be equivalent,

hf1 = hf2, Q1 = Q2
f L f L
 1 5 1  2 52
D1 D2

5 ……………………………..(5.24)
f1  D2 
L 2  L1 
D  
f2  1

Activity 5.5.1: What is an equivalent pipe?

5.3.4 Pipes in Parallel

A combination of two or more pipes connected as in figure 5.13 so that the flow is
divided among the pipes and then is joined again, is a parallel – pipe system. In series
pipe system the same fluid flows through all the pipes and the head losses are cumulative,
but in parallel pipe – system the head losses are the same in each of the lines the
discharge are cumulative.

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Fig 5.13 Parallel Pipes system

PA P 
hf1 = hf2 = hf3 =  Z A   B  Z B 
  
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3

Two types of problems occur:

1) If the head loss b/n A & B is given, Q is determined.
2) If the total flow Q is given, then the head loss & distribution of flow are
determined.

Size of pipes, properties, and roughness are assumed to be known. Since this type of problem
is more complex, as neither the head loss nor the discharge for any one pipe is known.
The procedure is:
1) Assume discharge Q’1 through pipe 1,
2) Solve for h’f1, using assumed discharge,
3) Using h’f1, find Q’2 & Q’3
4) With the three discharges for a common head loss, now assume that the given Q
is split up among the pipes in the same proportion as Q’1, Q’2 & Q’3, Thus,

Q1 ' Q2 ' Q3 '

Q1 = Q, Q2  Q, Q3  Q
Q' Q' Q'
5) Check the correctness of these discharges by computing hf1, hf2, & hf3 for the
computed Q1 , Q2 & Q3

→ Q –Q1 – Q2 – Q3 = 0

Activity 5.5.2: what are the differences between pipes in series and pipes in parallel?

5.4 Branching pipes

Let us consider three pipes connected to three reservoirs as in fig. below & connected
together or branching at the common junction point J. We shall assume that all the pipes
are sufficiently long that minor losses & velocity heads may be neglected. The continuity
& energy eqn. require that the flow entering the junction equal the flow leaving it& that
the pressure head at J (with open piezometer tube water at elevation P) be common to all
pipes.

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There being no pumps, the elevation of p must lay b/n the surfaces of reservoirs A& C. If
p is level with the surface of reservoir B then water must flow in to B & Q1 = Q2 + Q3
If P is below the surface of reservoir B then the flow must be out of B & Q1 +Q2 = Q3

Fig 5.14 Three interconnected reservoirs

Therefore, for the situation of the above figure, we have the following governing
conditions:
1) Q1 = Q2 + Q3 or Q1 + Q2 = Q3
2) Elevation of p is common to all.
a. Length, diameter, & friction factors are required.
b. The flow is steady & minor losses neglected
c. Three basic equations to solve these problems are:-
i. Continuity equations
ii. Bernoulli’s equation
iii. Darcy- Weisbech equation

 Total rate of in flow at junction = total rate of out flow (continuity equation)

 Pipe 1 Pipe 2 Pipe 3

D1, L1, V1, Q1 hf1 D2, L2, V2, Q2, hf2 D3, L3, V3, Q3, hf3
Elevation, Z1, Reserv, A Z2, Reserv, B Z3, Reserv. C
Junction of elevation

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Hydraulics II Module

pj pj
Zj, pressure head = total head at junction = + Zj
 
 Applying Bernoulli’s eqn b/n the junction point & each of reservoirs,
pj
if + Zj > Z2 & Z3


pj
Z1 = ( + Zj) + hf1 - - - - - - - - -- -- ----------------- (*) (1)

=>
pj
Z2 + hf2 = ( + Zj ) -------------------------- (**) (2)


pj
Z3 + hf3 = ( + Zj) --------------------------- (***) (3)


=> If the head of reservoir A is greater than head at junction, the flow is in to the
junction from A & out of the junction to B&C

=> Q1 = Q2 + Q3 -------------------------- * (4)

   2
D12 V1 = D22 V2 + D3 V3 ------------- (5)
4 4 4
2 2
=> D1 V1 = D2 V2 + D32 V3 ---------------------- (6)

 There are three types of problem fouling of branching pipes :-

Case 1: Given all pipes data (L, D, f, Z1, Z2 & Q1), find Z3, Q2 & Q3?

2
L v
=> Solution: first hf1 can be calculated directly (hf1 = f1 1 1 )
D1 2 g
pj
Then ( + Zj ) piezometric head at junction can be determine

 From eqn ( 2 ) hf2 & Q2 can be determined
 Q3 can be detrained from eqn (4) continuity eqn
 Then from eqn (3) hf3 and finally Z3 can be determined

Case 2: Given a pipe data, the surface elevation of two reservoirs (A& C) and the flow
the second pipe, Q2, find Z2 and Q1, Q3?

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 Hydraulics II Module

 From eqn (1) & iii) (hf1 + hf3) = (Z1 - Z3) (hf1 + hf3) is known & (Q1 - Q3) or (Q3 –
Q1) is known.
 Assume trail values of hf1 & hf3 & from these compute the discharge Q1 + Q3 &
compare with (Q1 - Q3)
 Repeat the procedure until the two values are equal.
 From then, piezometric head at junction can be determined
pj
 From hf2 & ( + Zj)  Z2 can be determined.


Case:3 Given a pipe lengths , diameters, and the elevation of all the three reservoirs , find
Q1 Q2, Q3,

 In this case, the direction of the flow is not known clearly.

 Assume the elevation of B (Z2) is equal to the piezometric head (Zp) & (i.e. no flow into
and out of pipe 2)
 From Zp the head losses hf1 & hf3 determined, and then Q1 & Q3 can be obtained
 If Q1 > Q3, then Zp must be increased to satisfy continuity eqn at J, causing water to
flow into reservoir B, and we will have Q1= Q2 + Q3
 If Q1<Q3, then Zp must be lowered, causing water to flow out of reservoir B, & we
will have Q1 + Q2 = Q3
Activity 5.6: Discuss on the three types (cases) of problem falling of branching pipes.

Example 5.5: (flow through the branched pipes):the water level in the two reservoir
A and B are 104.5m and 100m respectively above the datum. A pipe joints each to a
common points D, where a pressure is 98.1KN/m2 gauge and height is 83.5 m above
the datum. Another pipe connects D to another tank C. what will be the height of
water level in C assuming the same value diameters of the pipes AD, BD and CD are
300 mm, 450 mm 600 mm respectively and their length are 240m, 270m, 300m
respectively
Solution: for pipe AD: =300mm=0.3m, =240m
For pipe BD: =450 mm=0.45m = 270
For pipe CD : =600mm= 0.6 m = 300m
Friction coefficient for each pipe, f=0.0075
Pressure at D, = 93.1 KN/m2 height of water level in tank C: the
Pressure head at D= = =10 mm of water
Therefore, the piezomertic head at D=83.5+10=93.5m
Figure hear-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Head loss between A and D =104.5-93.5=11 m

Head loss between B and D = 100-93.5=6.5 m
Using Darcy weisbach formulae equation we get

For pipe AD: 11= =

Or =
=3m/s

For pipe:BD: 6.5= =

= or
= 2.66m/s
From continuity terms, we get
+ =

Or = * * + * *
= * *3+ * *2.66=0.635m3/s

Therefore velocity of pipe CD, = = =2.24 m/s

Head loss in pipe CD= = =3.84 m

Therefore water level in tank C= 93.5-3.84=89.66 m ( Ans)

5.7 Pipe Networks

A group of interconnected pipes forming several loops or circuits as shown in fig 5.15 is
called a network of pipes. Such network of pipes is commonly used for municipal water
distribution systems in cities. The main problem in pipe network is to determine the
distribution of flow through the various pipes of the network such that all the conditions
of flow are satisfied and all the circuits are then balanced.

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Fig 5.15 Pipe Network

The following conditions of basic relation of continuity and energy should be satisfied in
network of pipes:

1) The flow in to any junction must equal the flow out of it (continuity principle).
2) In any loop, the loss of head due to flow in clockwise direction must be equal to
the loss of head due to flow in anticlockwise direction. (∑hf = 0)
3) The Darcy-Weisbach eqn of pipe-friction laws must be satisfied, (i.e. proper
relation b/n the head loss and discharge must be maintained for each pipe). Minor
losses may be neglected if the pipe lengths are large. However, if the minor losses
are large, they may be taken into account by considering them in terms of the
head loss due to friction in equivalent pipe lengths. According to Darcy-Weisbach
eqn the loss of head hf through any pipe discharging at the rate Q can be
expressed as:

h f  rQn
Where r is proportionality factor, which can be determined for each pipe knowing the
friction factors f, the length L and the diameter D of the pipe.
fL fL
r  , and n is an exponent having a
2g ( / 4) D
2 5
12.1D5
numerical value ranging from 1.72 to 2.
The pipe network problems are in general complicated and can’t be solved analytically.
As such, methods of successive approximations are used.
The Hardy-Cross Method is one of the commonly used methods that is used for solving
flows in a pipe network.

Steps:
1. Assume a most suitable distribution of flow that satisfies continuity equation at
each junction.

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2. With the assumed values of Q, compute the head losses for each pipe using
h f  rQn equation.
3. Consider different loops and compute the net head loss around each circuit
considering the head loss in clockwise flows as positive and in anti-clockwise
flows as negative. For a correct distribution of flow, the net head loss around each
loop should be equal to zero, so that the circuit will be balanced. However, in
most of the cases, for the assumed distribution of flow the head loss around the
circuit will not be equal to zero. The assumed flows are then corrected by
introducing a correction Q for the flows, until the circuit is balanced. The value
of the correction Q to be applied to the assumed flows of the circuit may be
obtained as follows:
For any pipe if Q0 is the assumed discharge and Q is the correct discharge, then,
Q = Q0 + Q
and the head loss for the pipe is
h f  rQn  r (Qo  Q) n
Thus, for a complete circuit,
 h f   rQn   r(Qo  Q) n  0
By expanding the terms in the brackets by binomial theorem
rQ  r[(Q
n
o
n n1
 nQo Q  .....]  0
For small Q compared with Q0, all the series after the second can be dropped.
Therefore,
rQ  rQ
n
o
n
  rnQo Q  0
n1

 rQ  Q rn Q
n 1 n 1
0 Q 0
For each loop, solve for Q in the networks as:
  rQ0 Q0   rQ0n   hf
n 1

Q   
 rn Q0
n 1
 rn Q 0
n 1
 nhf
Q0
This is the correction to the assumed discharge (Q0).

4. Corrections are now applied to each pipe & to all loopy. For pipes common to
two loops or circuits, a correction from both the loops will be required to be
applied. Clockwise direction is considered as positive & anticlockwise as
negative direction.
5. With the corrected flows in all the pipes, a second trial calculation is made for all
the loops and process is repeated until the corrections Q become negligible.

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Activity 5.7: what are the conditions that must be satisfied in pipe net work?

Exercises

1) The following figure shows three reservoirs connected by pipes. Each pipe is 300 mm
in diameter and 1500 m long. Assuming coefficient of friction for f=0.01. Find the
discharge in each pipe,

Solution: Diameter in each pipe, = = = 300 mm=0.3 m length of each pipe,

= = = 1500 m coefficient of friction for each pipe, f=0.01
Discharge in each pipe:
To find over the direction of flow in pipe 2, let us assume that no flow occurs in pipe
2.that is, the piezometric level is 30m.
Therefore, head loss in pipe 1, hf=70m- 30m= 40m

Figure : Branching Pipes

Also hf=

40=

= = 3.924
= 1.921 m/s
Or Discharge through the pipe 1,
= П/4* * 1.981= =П/4* * 1.981= 0.14 m3/s
Again, head loss in pipe 3, =30-15=15m

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But =

15=

= = 1.471
Or =1.213 m/s
Therefore the Discharge through the pipe 3,
= = П/4* * 1.213=0.0857 m3/s
Since > the direction of flow is from J to B.
Considering the flow from reservoir A and to B, we have ( 70-30) =head loss in pipe 1+
head loss in pipe 2

Or + = +

40= +
40=10.2 ( + )
+ = =3.92

=
Similarly considering the flow from reservoir A to C, w have
70-15= +
55=10.2 ( + )
( + )= =5.39

Or =
From continuity consideration, we have
= +
=
But = = (because = = )
= +
From equation (1), (2) and (3), we have
= +
By trial and error we get , =1.9 m/s
From equation (1) : =0.56 m/s
From (2) : = =1.54 m/s
Thus, = П/4* * 1.9=0.134 m3/s (Ans)
= П/4* * 0.56= 0.0396 m3/s (Ans)

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= П/4* * 1.34 =0.0947 m3/s (Ans)

2) The following figure shows a network in which Q and hf refers to discharges and
pressure drops respectively .subscripts 1,2,3,4 and 5 designate respectively values in a
pipe length AC,BC, CD, DA and AC. Subscripts A, B, C and D designate discharge
entering or leaving the junction points A, B, c and D respectively.
By sticking to the valves given in the figure find the following discharges , , ,
and and pressure drops , and give this computed value at their respective
places on a net sketch of the net work along with flow directions.
Solution: At junction, ∑Q=0
That is Discharge entering the junction =discharge leaving the junction
At junction D: = +
100= 40+
=100-40=60
At junction A: = + +
60=20+30+
=60-20-30=10
At junction C: + + =
40+10+ = 30
=30-40-10=-20
At junction B: + =
30+20=
=50m3/s
For each elementary circuit, ∑ =0
Circuit A= B
+ - - =0
60-40- =0
=20
Circuit A=B
- +
+20-120=
Therefore =100 m
3) Find the discharge in each pipe of the net work shown in the figure (a) the value of the
value of the constant K corresponding to heading to the head loss equation =K are
also shown in the figure.

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Solution: for the first trial, the discharge as shown in figure (b) is assumed. The
calculation for the correction ∆Q and the correction discharge are given in the table
below.
It may be noted that if the ∆Q is positive, it is to be added to the assumed flows. Thus a
clock wise flow will increase and a
counter clock wise flow decrease in
magnitude.

1. Trial for the first trial the values given in figure

Pip K Assume Hf=K ∑Hf ∑K ∑ ∆Q0= Correc

Circuit e d 2K (6)/(8 ted Q
Q0-1 )
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
AB 5 +6.0 5* =+180.0 2*5*6.0=60.0 +4.77
(1) BC 3 +2.0 3* = 12.0 +128 2*3*2.0=12.0 104 -1.23 -0.34
CA 4 -4.0 -4* =-64.0 2*4*4=32 _5.23

BD 1 +1.0 1* =1.0 2*1.0*1.0=2.0 +2.11

(2) DC 2 -3.0 -2* =-18.0 -29.0 2*2*3.0=12.0 26.0 +1.11 -1.89
CB 3 -2.0 -3* =-12.0 2*3*2.0=26.0 +0.34

Corrected Discharge for AB=6.0-1.23=+4.77

Corrected Discharge for BC=2.0-1.23- (+1.11)=-0.34
Corrected Discharge for CA= -4.00-1.23=5.23

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(b)
(a)

Figure 2 (C)

2nd Trial for the second trial the values given in fig 2 © are assumed and the
process is repeated.
Pip K Assume Hf=K ∑Hf ∑ K ∑ ∆Q0= Correc
Circuit e d 2K (6)/(8 ted Q
Q0-1 )
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
AB 5 +4.77 5* =+113.76 2*5*4.77=47.7 +4.73
(1) BC 3 -0.34 3* = -12.0 +4 2*3*0.34=2.04 91.58 -0.04 -0.55
CA 4 -5.23 -4* =- 2*4*5.23=41.84 -5.27
109.41
BD 1 +2.11 1* =4.45 2*1.0*2.11=4.22 +2.28
(2) DC 2 -1.89 -2* =-7.14 -2.34 2*2*1.89=7.56 1.82 +0.17 -1.72
CB 3 =0.34 -3* =-+0.34 2*3*0.34=2.04 +0.55

3rdTrial the values given in figure 2 (D)

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Pip K Assume Hf=K ∑Hf ∑K ∑ ∆Q0= Corre

Circuit e d 2K (6)/(8 cted
Q0-1 ) Q
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
AB 5 +4.73 5* =+111.86 2*5*4.73=47.30 +4.71
(1) BC 3 -0.55 3* = -0.91 -0.14 2*3*0.55=3.30 91.76 -0.02 -0.56
CA 4 -5.27 -4* =- 2*4*5.27=42.16 -5.29
111.09
BD 1 +2.28 1* =+5.20 2*1.0*2.11=4.56 +2.27
(2) DC 2 -1.72 -2* =-5.92 +0.1 2*2*1.89=6.88 14.74 +0.01 -1.73
CB 3 +0.55 -3* =-+0.91 9 2*3*0.34=3.30 +0.56

CHAPTER 6
HYDRAULIC MACHINES
Introduction
The function of a hydraulic machine is to effect an exchange of energy between a
mechanical and a fluid system. In civil engineering the only classes of hydraulic machine
with which we are directly concerned are pumps & turbines.
Pumps are a means of adding energy to water. They convert mechanical energy (imparted by
rotation) in to water (hydraulic) energy used in lifting water to higher elevations. The
mechanical energy is provided by an electric motor.
Turbines are a means of taking energy out of water. They convert water (hydraulic) energy
in to mechanical energy (shaft power). The shaft power developed is used in running an
electric generator directly coupled to the shaft of the turbine, thus producing electrical
power.

6.1 Pump Types

There are two main categories of pumps:
i. Positive displacement pumps
ii. Rota-dynamic pumps

6.1.1 Positive displacement pumps

Positive displacement pumps usually deliver only small discharges irrespective of the
head pumped against. Typical examples of this type of pumps include:
a) Reciprocating pump
b) Rotary pump

6.1.1.1 Reciprocating pump

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Hydraulics II Module

This type of pump is often used for domestic water supplies in developing countries for
lifting ground water. In its usual form it consists of a ram, piston, and valve arrangement.
The piston moves up & down in a cylinder (see figure 5.1). When the lever is pushed
downwards the piston rises, lifting water above it through the outlet. At the same time it
sucks water up the well through the non-return valve & fills the cylinder. When the lever
is raised the non-return valve close & the piston descends allowing water to flow through
another valve in to the upper part of the cylinder. The process is then repeated.

Fig. 5.1 Reciprocating pump

6.1.1.2 Rotary Pump

Rotary pump contains two gears or rotors, which mesh together as they rotate in
opposite directions (see fig. 5.2). Pressure is generated by the intermeshing gears,
which operate with minimum clearance. Water becomes trapped between the gears
and forced in to the delivery pipe.
This form of pump is eminently suited to handling small discharges (<30 l/s) and viscous
liquids.

Fig. 5.2 Rotary Pump

Activity 1:- Differentiate between reciprocating pumps and rotary pumps and
Classify further?

6.1.2 Rota-dynamic Pumps

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Hydraulics II Module

Rota-dynamic pumps rely on rotational movement for their pumping action. A rotating
element, known as impeller, imparts velocity to a liquid and generates pressure. An outer
fixed casing, shaft, & diving motor complete the pump unit.
Rota-dynamic pumps are the most widely used types of pumps in civil Engineering. Its
field of employment ranges from public water supply, drainage, & irrigation to the very
special requirements of suction dredging & the transport of concrete or sludge.
There are three main categories of Rota-dynamic pumps based on the way water flows
through them:
a) Centrifugal (radial flow) pumps
b) Axial flow pumps
c) Mixed them pumps

6.1.2.1 Centrifugal pumps

Centrifugal pumps are the most widely used of all the Rota-dynamic pumps. They are
named because of the fact that the pressure head created is largely attributable to
centrifugal action. They may be designed to handle up to a head of 120m.
Water is drawn in to the pump from a source of supply through a short length of pipe
called the suction (see fig. 5.3). Water enters at the center or eye of the impeller, is picked
up by the vanes, and forced outwards in a radial direction. The water is collected by the
pump casing & guided towards the outlet called the delivery.

Fig. 5.3 Centrifugal pump

In order that energy shall, not be wasted and efficiency there by lowered, it is essential to
convert as much as possible of the considerable velocity head at exit from the impeller in

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to useful pressure head. Normally, this is achieved by shaping the outer casing in spiral
form so that the sectional area of flow around the periphery of the impeller is gradually
expanded.

Activity 2:- What are the purposes of casing in centrifugal pumps?

How can increase its efficiency?

6.1.2.2 Axial flow pumps

This type of pump is well suited to situations where a large discharge is required to be
delivered against a low head. The maximum operating head is between 9 and 12m.
Axial flow pumps consist of a propeller housed inside a tube that acts as a discharge pipe
(see fig 6.4). The power unit turns the propeller by means of a long shaft running down
the middle of the pipe & this lifts the water up the pipe.

Fig. 5.4 Axial flow pump

Water enters axially and the impeller imparts a rotational component, the actual path
followed by a particle being that of a helix on a cylinder. Head is developed by the
propelling action of the vanes, centrifugal effects playing no part.

Activity 3: - Explain the effect of number of impeller-vanes on head developed by a

Centrifugal pump and define the vane effectiveness factor.

6.1.2.3 Mixed flow pumps

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Hydraulics II Module

Mixed flow pumps occupy an intermediate position between the centrifugal & axial flow
types and so combine the best features of both pump types. Flow is part radial & part
axial, the impeller being shaped accordingly. The path traced by a fluid particle is that of
a helix on a cone. The head range is up to about 25m.
Mixed flow pumps are efficient at pumping larger quantities of water than centrifugal
pumps and are more efficient at pumping to higher pressures than axial flow pumps.

6.2 Turbine types

The possible combination of head and discharge at hydroelectric sites is extremely varied
and is reflected in a corresponding diversity of turbine design. There are two main
categories of turbine:
 Impulse turbines
 Reaction turbines

6.2.1 Impulse turbines

An impulse turbine is one in which the pressure energy of the water is converted to
velocity energy before it impinges on a rotational element over a limited portion only of
the periphery, there being no subsequent change in pressure. Impulse machines today are
of the Pelton wheel turbines, also called tangential flow turbines, and are suitable for high
heads in excess of 300m.
A typical Pelton turbine arrangement is shown in fig 5.5. The nozzle discharges in to the
atmosphere a high velocity jet which impinges on a series of buckets mounted on the
periphery of a wheel, also called runner. The torque exerted by the impact and deviation
of the jet causes the wheel to rotate. Its energy usefully expended, water leaves the
buckets at a relatively low velocity and is directed towards the discharge channel.

Fig5.5 Pelton turbine

The turbine must be set a sufficient height above the maximum tail water level if free
discharge is to be ensured.

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Hydraulics II Module

6.2.2 Reaction turbines

In a reaction turbine, the initial pressure-velocity conversion is only partial, so that

water enters the rotating element throughout the entire periphery and all the flow
passages run full. Modern reaction turbines are of two types: Francis & Propeller
(Kaplan), catering for medium and low heads respectively.

6.2.2.1 Francis turbines

Francis turbines are like a centrifugal pump in reverse (see fig 5.6). The runners were
shaped like a centrifugal impeller, flow being predominantly radial with the radii at entry
and exit the same for all flow paths.
Water is directed in to the runner by means of a spiral casing and a number of aerofoil-
shaped blades, called guide blades, spaced evenly around the periphery. These guide
blades are adjustable, the amount of opening being controlled by the turbine governor.
The role of the guide blades is to guide the flow in to the runner with the minimum
amount of turbulence, as well as to regulate the discharge and hence power output.

Fig. 5.6 Francis turbine

The head range for Francis turbine is from 30 m to about 450 m. As this is the most
common head available, this type of turbine enjoys a great numerical superiority over
other types.
The velocity head at discharge from the runner may amount to 20 %, or more, of the
available head and as with centrifugal pumps it is clearly important to convert as much as
possible of this otherwise wasted energy to useful pressure head. This can be
accomplished by means of an expanding passage, called a draft tube, which finally
discharges the water at a relatively low velocity to the tail water.

6.2.2.2 Kaplan turbines

Kaplan turbines are like axial flow pumps in reverse (see fig 5.7). They operate at low
heads, usually less than 60 m, and high discharges.

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Hydraulics II Module

They have blades on their runners that can be twisted to different angles in order to work
at high efficiency over a wide range of operating conditions.

Fig. 5.7 Kaplan turbine

Activity 4:- Distigush between impulse and reaction turbines and give examples for each
type and describe thier functions.

6.3 Head on pumps and turbines

6.3.1 Head on pumps

The total head on a pump is the excess of the outlet head over the inlet head. Each of these
heads may be regarded as being composed of elevation head, pressure head, and velocity
head.
Referring to fig 5.8, the total head on a pump may be expressed by:
H  H s  H d  H Ls  H Ld  1
Where, Hs & Hd are the static suction and delivery lifts respectively, and HLs & HLd are
the energy head losses (friction + minor) in suction and delivery branches, respectively. If
the pump is situated below the level of the water surface in the suction well, Hs is
negative.

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Hydraulics II Module

Fig. 5.8 Head on

a pump

6.3.2 Head on turbines

The net head on a turbine is the head available for doing work, that is to say, the difference
between the total head (elevation + pressure + velocity head) at inlet and outlet.
Referring to fig 5.9, the net head on a reaction turbine situated at some distance from the
intake is given by:
H  HG  H L  .2
Where, HG is the gross head (intake surface level to tail water level) and HL is the energy
head loss in the supply pipeline.

Fig. 5.9 Head on a reaction turbine

The same expression is applicable to impulse turbines. However, as these machines
operate under atmospheric pressure, HG is measured to an appropriate jet level.

6.4 Specific Speed

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Hydraulics II Module

It is useful to have a common basis on which different types of pump or turbine design
can be compared in respective of size. The parameter known as specific speed has been
introduced for this purpose, and the respective definitions could be as follows:
 The specific speed of a pump is the speed in rev/min of a geometrically similar pump of
such a size that it delivers 1 m3/s against 1 m head. It is expressed by:

nQ1/ 2
ns   3
H 3/ 4

Where, ns is specific speed (rev/min), n is speed of rotation (rev/min), and Q & H are
discharge (m3/s) and head (m) respectively.
 The specific speed of a turbine is the speed in rev/min of a geometrically similar turbine
of such a size that it produces 1 kW under 1 m head. It is expressed by:

nP1 / 2
ns   4
H 5/ 4
Where, P is the power output in kw.
The above definitions of the specific speed have recognized the significant performance
parameters. In the case of pumps it is the discharge that is important, while for turbines it
is the power output.
The values of n, Q, H, & P in the expressions for the specific speed are those for normal
operating condition (the design point), which would generally coincide with the optimum
efficiency.

It can be noted that the specific speed is independent of the dimensions and therefore
relates to shape rather than size. Thus, all pumps or turbines of the same shape have the
same specific speed.
The valve of specific speed is mainly used for selection of a suitable type of pump or
turbine for a particular site. The following table gives guidelines on this purpose.
Table: Specific speeds for different types of pumps and turbines.

Machine type ns (rpm) Comments

Centrifugal High head – small discharge

10 – 80
Pumps

Mixed flow Medium head - medium

70 – 180
discharge
Axial flow 150 – 320
Low head – large discharge

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Hydraulics II Module

High head – small discharge

Pelton 10 – 40

Turbines
Medium head - medium
Francis 35 – 400
discharge
Kaplan 300 – 1000
Low head – large discharge

Activity 5:- Explain the term “specific speed” and its uses as applied to both the pump and
the turbine?

6.5 Performance
6.5.1 Losses & efficiencies

The overall efficiency η of a pump or turbine is the ratio of the useful power output to the
power input or available. Thus,
 For pumps;
QH
   (6.5)
Pi
 For turbines;
P
   (6.6)
QH
Where, Pi is the power input to a pump and P the corresponding output from a
turbine.
Pump efficiencies are usually of the order of 80 %, whereas turbine efficiencies are rarely
less than 90 %, the difference being largely accounted for by the generally greater size of
turbines and the more efficient flow passages.
The energy losses that occur within a pump or turbine are attributable to volumetric,
mechanical, and hydraulic losses.
 The volumetric loss arises from the slight leakage (from the high pressure side to
the low pressure side) in the small clearances that must be provided between the
rotating element and the casing. Thus, the impeller passages of a pump are handling
more water than is actually delivered, while the runner passages of a turbine are
handling less than is available.
 The mechanical loss is a result of power loss due to mechanical friction at bearings
and fluid shear in the clearances.
 The hydraulic loss arises from head loss in the flow passages due to friction and
eddies.

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Hydraulics II Module

Activity 6:- Explain the energy losses that occur within pump and turbine.

6.5.2 Characteristics

6.5.2.1 Pump characteristics

As the discharge is nearly the primary factor, it is customary for the performance curves to
consist of the three curves of head, power input, and efficiency, drawn to common
baseline of discharge.
Each design of pump has its own characteristic behavior. Figure5.10 shows the performance
curves for the centrifugal and axial flow pumps. The curves are drawn for a particular
operating speed.

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Fig. 5.10 Pump characteristics

6.5.2.2 Turbine characteristics

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As turbine output must be varied to suit the electrical demand it is customary to design the
machine so that optimum efficiency occurs at about three-quarters of full load. Efficiency
and power output are usually plotted against speed for a constant head.
Figure 5.11 shows typical performance curves for a Pelton turbine, while figure 5.12 shows
the corresponding curves for Francis turbine.

Fig 5.11 Performance curves for a Pelton turbine

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Fig. 5.12 Performance curves for a Francis turbine

activity 7: - Show the main performance characteristics of pump and turbine with a sketch?
Describe efficiency characteristics curves are obtained.

6.6 Cavitations

Cavitation occurs in both pumps and turbines. The primary cause of cavitations’ is a low
pressure and this usually be brought about by a high local velocity. Cavitation is a
harmful phenomenon and influences the design of the machines. It also imposes severe
limitations on the machine setting, that is to say the permissible suction lift in the case of
pumps and the height above the tail water in the case of turbines.
With pumps, the most vulnerable points for attack are the impeller vane tips at discharge. It
is a result of high water velocities (low pressure) created near entry.
Here, vapor bubbles or cavities tend to form (see figure 5.13) which are then carried forward
by the flow to a region of higher pressure near the exit where they collapse violently,
causing pitting and severe damage to the impeller blades.
If Ps represents the pressure at inlet then ( ) is the absolute head at the pump inlet above
the vapour pressure Pv and is known as the net positive suction head, NPSH.

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Thu NPSH = ( )= - Hs -
Where Pa = atmospheric pressure
Hs = manometric suction head = hs + hls +
Where hs = suction lift; hls = total head loss in suction pipe
Vs = velocity head in suction pipe
𝛒 = density of liquid/water

Fig. 5.13 Head conditions in suction pipe

Tahoma introduced a cavitation number (σ = ) and from physical tests found this to be
strongly related to specific speed.

Fig. 5.14 Cavitation in a pump impeller

Cavitation also occurs in turbine runners in a similar manner. High velocities at the
turbineinlet produce cavities which then collapse close to the runner blades near the exit.
Apart from the physical damage caused by cavitation, the reduction of the effective volume
of the flow passages due to the presence of water vapor results in a smaller discharge and
a sharp drop in efficiency. Additional evidence is the noise and vibration produced by the
collapse of the vapor bubbles.

Activity 8: -
mention some of the recommendations to follow for preventing cavitation in both pump and turbine.
Solved problems
Example 1
A centrifugal pump has a 100 mm diameter suction pipe and a 75 mm diameter delivery pipe.
When discharging 15 l/s of water, the inlet water mercury manometer with one limb

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exposed to the atmosphere recorded a vacuum deflection of 198mm; the mercury level on
the suction side was 100 mm below the pipe centerline. The delivery pressure gauge, 200
mm above the pump inlet, recorded a pressure of 0.95 bars. The measured input power
was 3.2 kW. Calculate the pump efficiency.
Solution
Manometric head = rise in total head
Hm = + +z–( + )
1 bar = 10.198 m of water
= 0.5 x 10.198 m = 9.69 m of water
= - 0.1- 0.198 x 13.6 = -2.793 m water
V2 = 3.39 m/s
= 0.588 m
V1 = 1.91 m/s
= 0.186 m
Then Hm = 9.69 m + 0.588 m +0.2 m – (-2.793 m + 0.186 m)
Hm = 13.09 m
Efficiency (ŋ) = =
ŋ= = 60.2 %

Example 2
Tests on a physical model pump indicated a cavitation number of 0.12. A homologous
(geometrical and dynamically similar) unit is to be installed where the atmospheric
pressure is 950 mb, and the vapour pressure head 0.2 m. The pump will be situated above
the suction well, the suction pipe being 200 mm in diameter, of uPVC, 10 m long; it is
vertical with a 90° elbow leading into the pump inlet and is fitted with a foot-valve. The
foot valve head loss hv = 4.5 ; bend loss hb = 1.0 . The total head at the operating

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discharge of 35 l/s is 25 m. calculate the maximum permissible suction head and suction
lift.
Solution
Pa = 950 mb = 0.95 x 10.198 = 9.688 m of water
=9.688 – 0.2 = 9.488 m of water

= σHm = 0.12 x 25 = 3.0 m

Hs = (9.488 – 3.0) = 6.488 m →Max. Permissible suction head
Vs = 1.11 m/s

= 0.063 m →loss in suction pipe

But Re = 1.96 x 105

k = 0.03 mm (uPVC)
= 0.001 when λ = 0.0167

hfs = 0.0530 m
hv = 4.5 x 0.063 m =0.283 m
hb = 0.063 m
hls = 0.4 m

 hs = Hs - hls -

hs = 6.488 – 0.4 – 0.063

hs = 6.025 m

Example 3

A laboratory test on a pump revealed that the onset of cavitation occurred, at a discharge of
35 l/s, when the total head at inlet was reduced to 2.5 m and the total across the pump
was 32 m. Barometric pressure was 760 mm Hg and the vapour pressure 17 mm Hg.
Calculate the Tahoma cavitation number. The pump is to be installed in a situation where
the atmospheric pressure is 650 mm Hg and water temperature 10°C (vapour pressure
9.22 mmHg) to give the same total head and discharge. The losses and velocity head in
the suction pipe are estimated to be 0.55 m of water. What is the maximum height of the
suction lift?
Solution

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NPSH = ( – Hs) - ; where Hs = manometric suction head.

= 10.3 m of water

= 0.23 m of water

– Hs = 2.5 m

NPSH = 2.5 m - 0.23 m = 2.27 m

Cavitation number, σ =

σ= = 0.071 m
Installed condition;
= 8.84 m; = 0.1254 m (at 10° C)

Then, NPSH = – Hs –

2.27 = 10.3 – Hs – 0.23

Hence, Hs = 6.44 m
But, Hs = hs + hls +

Where, hls + = 0.55 m

hs = 6.44 – 0.55
hs = 5.89 m suction lift

EXERCISES/PROBLEMS
1. Differentiate b/n positive displacement and Rota-dynamic pumps and classify further the
first group on the basis of types of motion and shapes of the moving part of the pump, the
latter group on the basis of flow direction in the moving part of the pump.
2. Sketch a centrifugal pump installation; explain the function the accessaries provided and
define various heads.
3. Explain the reason for fitting large air vessels on the suction and delivery pipes of a
reciprocating pump close to the cylinder.
4. Not all energy of water given to a turbine is transferred to its shaft. Of the total energy a
certain portion is in the processes. Explain the different losses.
5. List the various factors to be considered in selection of appropriate type of turbines for
hydropower station.

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6. A Rota-dynamic pump having the characteristics tabulated below delivers water from a
river at elevation 52 m o.d, to a reservoir with a water level of 85 m o,d., through a 350
mm diameter coated cast iron pipeline, 200 m long (k = 0.15 mm). Allowing 10 for
losses in valves, etc. Calculate the discharge in pipeline and the power consumption.

Q (l/s) 0 50 100 150 200

Hm (m) 60 58 52 41 25
Ŋ (%) --- 44 65 64 48

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