Biology

Tissues

Tissues - groups of specialised cells, that are similar in structure, carrying out a specific function

Are plants and animals made of the same types of tissues?

Plants Animals

stationary / fixed move around in search of food, mates & shelter

○ have to be upright ○ consume more energy than plants
○ have a large quantity of supportive tissue ○ have living tissues
(which generally has dead cells)

growth is limited to certain regions growth isn’t limited to certain regions

○ some tissues divide throughout their life & are ○ cell growth is more uniform
localised in certain regions ○ no demarcation of dividing & non-dividing
○ classified based on dividing capacity regions in animals
✽ growing / meristematic tissue
✽ permanent tissue

relatively simpler structural organisation than structural organisation of organs & organ systems is
complex animals far more specialised & localised
○ adapted for a sedentary existence ○ adapted for active locomotion

Plant tissues

✽ Meristematic tissue
Meristematic tissues / dividing tissues

○ located in certain specific regions of the plant

○ classified as (based on location)
✽ apical meristem
✩ present at the growing tips of stems & roots
✩ increases the length of the stem & root
✽ lateral meristem (cambium)
✩ increases the girth of the stem / root
✽ intercalary meristem
✩ seen in some plants
✩ located near the node
✩ increases the growth of branches
✩ cells are filled with cytoplasm
○ new cells produced are initially like those of the meristem itself, but
after maturity, their characteristics are changed & they’re
differentiated as components of other tissues
○ cells in meristematic tissues
✽ active
✽ have dense cytoplasm (since the cell is small)
✽ thin cellulose walls (there’s no time for cellulose to deposit & form thick walls since
these cells are always dividing)
 ✽ prominent nuclei (since the key role of a nucleus is cell division)
✽ lack vacuoles (since vacuoles store substances & these cells don’t have anything to
store)

✽ Permanent tissue
Meristematic tissues take up a specific role, lose the ability to divide & form a permanent tissue.

Differentiation - the process of taking up a permanent shape, size & a function. It leads to the
development of various types of permanent tissues

Simple permanent tissue

○ a few layers beneath the epidermis

○ Parenchyma
✽ most common simple permanent tissue
✽ consists of unspecialised cells with thin cell walls
✽ cells in parenchyma
✩ living
✩ spherical in shape when first made
✩ later get packed tightly & flattened due to their thin walls
✩ have large vacuoles & can contain secretions (starch, oils,
crystals)
✽ loosely arranged & have large intercellular spaces
✽ generally stores food (found in edible portions of fruits)
✽ Hybrid - Chlorenchyma
✩ contains chlorophyll
✩ performs photosynthesis
✽ Hybrid - Aerenchyma
✩ present in aquatic plants
✩ have large air cavities to help them float

○ Collenchyma
✽ provides flexibility & mechanical support
✽ allows bending of parts like the tendrils & stems of
climbers
✽ found in leaf stalks below the epidermis
✽ cells in collenchyma
✩ living
✩ elongated
✩ irregularly thickened at the corners
✽ little intercellular space
 ○ Sclerenchyma
✽ makes the plant hard & stiff
✽ ex. husk of a coconut
✽ present in stems, around vascular bundles, in the
veins of leaves, in the hard covering of seeds &
nuts
✽ provides strength to the plant parts
✽ cells in sclerenchyma
✩ dead at maturity
✩ long & narrow (as the walls are
thickened due to lignin)
✩ no internal space (walls are thick)

Cork

○ formed as plants grow older & the outer protective tissue

undergoes changes
○ constituted of a layer of cells made of a strip of secondary
meristem located in the cortex
○ cork cells -
✽ dead
✽ compactly arranged
✽ no intercellular spaces
✽ have substance called suberin in their walls which makes
them impervious to gases / water

Complex permanent tissue

○ made of more than one type of cells which coordinate to perform a common function

Xylem Phloem

Both are conducting tissues & constitute a vascular bundle (distinctive feature of complex plants which
makes their survival in a terrestrial environment possible)

○ consists of ○ consists of
✽ tracheids & vessels ✽ sieve cells
✩ have thick walls ✽ sieve tubes
✩ dead cells when mature ✩ tubular cells with
✩ tubular structures (allows perforated walls
them to transport water & ✩ transport mainly happens
minerals vertically) here
✽ xylem parenchyma ✩ perforations make
✩ stores food transport easier
✽ xylem fibres ✽ companion cells
✩ help in support ✩ take care of all the sieve
elements’ metabolic needs
○ dead cells (except parenchyma) (since sieve elements lack
○ can transport water only upwards & a nucleus & many
occasionally sideways organelles at maturity)
✽ phloem fibres
✩ help in support
✽ phloem parenchyma
✩ stores food

○ transports food from leaves to other parts

of the plant
○ can transport food up & down
 ○ living cells (except phloem fibres)

Tracheids Vessels

○ smaller diameter ○ broader diameter

○ no perforations ○ perforations all over
○ shorter in length ○ longer in length
○ found in all vascular plants ○ found in angiosperms

Epidermis

○ outermost layer of cells

○ usually made of a single layer of cells
○ in plants living in dry habitats - epidermis is thicker & has a thick waxy coating of cutin to
prevent water loss
○ present over the entire plant
○ protects all parts of the plant
○ on the aerial parts of the plant - epidermis secretes a waxy, water resistant layer on the outer
surface, which aids in protection against water loss, mechanical injury & invasion by parasitic
fungi
○ on the roots - epidermis bears long hair like parts that increase the total absorptive surface
area since their main function is water absorption
○ stomata -
✽ small pores in the epidermis of the leaf
✽ enclosed by 2 guard cells (kidney-shaped cells)
✽ necessary for exchanging gases with the atmosphere
✽ allows transpiration (loss of water in the form of water vapour) to take place
○ cells in the epidermis-
✽ form a continuous layer (as it plays a protective role)
✽ no intercellular spaces
✽ relatively flat
✽ outer & side walls are thicker than the inner wall
 Animal tissues

✽ Epithelial tissue
○ covering / protective tissues in the animal body
○ covers most organs & cavities within the body
○ forms a barrier to keep different body systems separate
○ ex. skin, lining of the mouth, lining of blood vessels, lung alveoli, kidney tubules
○ tightly packed
○ form a continuous sheet
○ small amount of cementing material between them
○ almost no intercellular spaces
○ permeability of certain types of epithelia play important roles in regulating the exchange of
materials between the body & the external environment and between different parts of the
body
○ all epithelium is separated from the underlying tissue by an extracellular fibrous basement
membrane

○ simple squamous epithelium

✽ a simple, flat kind of epithelium
✽ squama - scale of skin
✽ ex. cells lining blood vessels, lung alveoli (where
transportation of substances occurs through a selectively
permeable surface), oesophagus, lining of the mouth
✽ extremely thin & flat
✽ form a delicate lining

✽ stratified squamous epithelium

✩ arranged in a pattern of layers
✩ ex. skin (arranged in many layers to prevent wear & tear)

○ columnar (pillar like) epithelium

✽ tall epithelial cells
✽ present where absorption & secretion occur
✽ facilitates movement across the epithelial barrier
✽ ex. inner lining of the intestine

✽ ciliated columnar epithelium

✩ columnar epithelium which also has cilia (hair-like
projections on the outer surface which move)
✩ ex. respiratory tract (cilia push the mucus forward to
clear it)

○ cuboidal epithelium
✽ provides mechanical support
✽ ex. lining of kidney tubules, lining of ducts of salivary glands
 ○ glandular epithelium
✽ when a portion of the epithelial tissue folds inward, and a multicellular gland is formed
✽ epithelial cells often acquire additional specialisation as gland cells, which secrete
substances at the epithelial surface

✽ Connective tissue
○ loosely spaced
○ embedded in an intercellular matrix (which may be jelly-like, fluid, dense, or rigid. It’s nature
differs with respect to the function of the particular connective tissue)

○ blood
✽ flows & transports gases, digested food, hormones & waste materials to different parts
of the body
✽ has plasma (fluid / liquid matrix)
✩ contains RBCs (red blood corpuscles), WBCs (white blood corpuscles) &
platelets
✩ contains proteins, salts &
✩ hormones

types of blood cells

○ bone
✽ forms a framework that supports the body
✽ anchors the muscles
✽ supports the main organs of the body
✽ strong & non-flexible tissue
✽ cells are embedded in a hard matrix composed of calcium & phosphorus compounds

compact bone

○ ligament
✽ connects 2 bones to each other
✽ very elastic
✽ has considerable strength
✽ contain very little matrix
○ tendons
✽ connect muscles to bones
✽ fibrous tissue
✽ has great strength
✽ has limited flexibility

○ cartilage
✽ has widely spaced cells
✽ solid matrix
✽ composed of proteins & sugars
✽ smoothens bone surfaces at joints
✽ present in the nose, ear, trachea, larynx

hyaline cartilage

○ areolar connective tissue

✽ found between skin & muscles, around blood vessels & nerves, in bone marrow
✽ fills the space inside organs
✽ supports internal organs
✽ helps in repair of tissues

○ fat storing adipose tissue

✽ found below the skin & between internal organs
✽ cells are filled with fat globules
✽ storage of fat allow it to act as an insulator
✽ Muscular tissue
○ consists of muscle fibres (elongated cells)
○ responsible for movement
○ contain contractile proteins (special proteins which contract & relax to cause movement)

○ skeletal muscles
✽ also called voluntary muscles (muscles that move due to conscious will)
✽ attached to bones
✽ help in body movement
✽ also called striated muscles since they show striations (light & dark bands visible under a
microscope when stained appropriately)
✽ cells are long, cylindrical, unbranched & multinucleate

striated muscle

○ smooth muscles
✽ also called involuntary muscles (muscles that move without conscious control)
✽ ex. alimentary canal, contraction & relaxation of blood vessels, iris of the eye, in the uterus, in the
bronchi of lungs
✽ cells are spindle-shaped (long with pointed ends) & uninucleate
✽ called unstriated muscles

smooth muscle

○ cardiac muscles
✽ cells are cylindrical, branched & uninucleate
✽ show rhythmic contraction & relaxation throughout life
✽ are involuntary muscles

cardiac muscle
✽ Nervous tissue
○ nerve cells / neurons
✽ consists of a cell body with a nucleus & cytoplasm from which long, thin hair-like parts arise
✽ each neuron has a single axon (long part / process) & many dendrites (short, branched parts /
processes)
✽ might be up to a metre long
✽ are highly specialised for being stimulated & then transmitting the stimulus very rapidly from one
place to another within the body
○ ex. in the brain, spinal cord & nerves
○ nerve - many nerve fibres bound together by connective tissue
○ nerve impulse
✽ signal that passes along the nerve fibre
✽ allow us to move our muscles when we want to
○ the functional combination of nerve & muscle tissue is fundamental as it enables animals to move rapidly in
response to stimuli