DIFFRACTION

Q. What do you understand by diffraction? Differentiate Fresnel’s and Fraunhoffer`s diffraction.

Ans: In general light is propagating in a rectilinear path (straight path). However, in the presence of
a narrow (width of aperture ≈ wavelength of light or its multiple) aperture/obstacle (which
may be an opaque or narrow transparent part) some bending of light at the corners/sharp
edge of aperture.

Since the wavelength of light is very small (~ 10-5 cm) unlike sound waves. Therefore practically it is
difficult to observed diffraction phenomenon.

“The phenomenon of diffraction of light is defined as the slight

bending/spreading of light at the corners or edge of an aperture from its
rectilinear path and enters in the geometrical shadow region.”
i.e. light is deviated from its straight line path when it incident on an aperture( shown in fig.). This can be
understood by Huygens’s theory of secondary wavelets which are generated at each and every point on the
aperture. Diffraction phenomenon also shows the wave nature of light.

Fresnel’s Diffraction: Fraunhoffer`s Diffraction

1. Either source or screen or both are at finite 1. Either source or screen or both are suppose to be
distance from the aperture. at infinite distance from the aperture.
2. The incident wave front may be plane/spherical 2. The incident wave front is always plane.
cylindrical.
3. No need of lenses for diverging or converging the 3. Lenses are required for diverging or converging the
rays. rays.

4. The diffraction pattern is the image of the 4. The diffraction pattern is the image of the source
aperture modified by diffracting effect. modified by diffracting element.
5. Center of the diffraction pattern may be bright or 5. Center of the diffraction pattern is always bright
dark.
. Diffraction at single slit
Q. Derive an expression for intensity of diffraction at single slit. Also show that the ratios of
diffraction intensities at secondary maximas are 1: 4/9π2: 4/25π2: 4/49π2.….. .

Consider a plane wave front (parallel rays) of light of wavelength λ is incident on a single slit AB of
width `a` (width of open or transparent portion). From figure (1) it is clear that the light waves is
incident on aperture (single slit), diffracted at the corners of the slit and focused at a point P on
screen. The waves are diffracted in the direction making a small angle `θ` with the axis.
It is observed that at point P the intensity of light is maximum (where θ is zero). Other than point P
the intensity is small and the diffraction is observed on either side. Further, the intensity at
secondary maxima is decreased with the order.
From fig.1 it is clear that the path difference AL = AB sin θ

Figure 1: Ray diagram for single slit diffraction

and phase difference between the diffraction occurs at AB, δ=

Now if it is assumed that slit AB is divided into large number (n) of small parallel sections. Then the

phase difference produced due to each smallest section of the slit is δ = …. (1)

The resultant amplitude R of superposition of n (simple harmonic oscillation) secondary wavelets can
be expressed using vector diagram of n sides (polygon) shown in fig.2.

From fig. OQ1= A/2, OQ = R/2

From ∆ OCQ1 and ∆OCQ, L OCQ1 = , L OCQ =

we get R = ….…. (2)

From (1) & (2) we get, Rθ = A { }

or Rθ = nA ( ) (where β = ) …..(3)

,If n is large enough then sin (β/n) ≈ β/n -

Since Iθ α Rθ
2
=> Iθ = k Rθ2 => Iθ = k n2 A2 ( )2 , ( if θ→0 => β→0 and Iθ →I0 )

I0 = k n2 A2 ………….(4)

Therefore the expression for the intensity of diffraction at single slit is given by Iθ = I 0 ( )2

Now we have to check whether the intensity is max. Or min. at point P on screen. Therefore dIθ /dβ = 0.

 2 Io ( ). ( )=0 (i.e. 2 Io A.B = 0) where A = & B=( )= 0

Since Io ≠ 0, then either =0 or ( )= 0

If sinβ/β = 0 => sinβ = 0 => β = ± mπ, m = 1, 2, 3 …. order of diffraction min.

Since β = π a sin θ /λ, therefore π a sin θ / λ = ±m π => a sin θ = ±m λ ……………. (5)

Equation (5) shows the expression for diff. min. at one slit.

Now, if ( )= 0 => β cos β - sin β = 0 and tan β = β ………….….. (6)

(obviously it gives the points for the max.)

Equ. (6) can be solved by taking y = β , y = tanβ,

The points of intersection of these two equations are the points at which secondary maximum are
obtained (Shown in fig.3). At β = 0 (i.e. θ = 0) we obtain principal maxima (i.e. max. intensity
where diffraction is not observed)

For β ≈ ±3π/2, ±5π/2, ±7π/2 …… ± (2n+1) π/2, we obtain secondary maxima on either side of
principal/central maxima. Figure 3: Intersection of curve and line.

The exact values of β for secondary maxims are β = ± 1.46π, ±

2.43π ….. , therefore secondary maxims appears to be shifted slightly towards principal/central
maxima.
The expression for intensity of secondary maxima is given by Iθ = I0 { }2 ………(7)

for n = 1, 2, 3…… the intensity of first ,second, third,…. secondary max. are Iθ = 4I0/9π2, 4I0/25π2, 4I0/49π2
……respectively or ratio of intensities of secondary maxima is 1: 4/9π2: 4/25π2: 4/49π2.…..
or 1 : 4.5% : 1.6% …..

Figure 4: Diffraction intensity distribution curve

Q. What do you understand by angular width of principal maxima? Derive an expression for
it.

Ans: “Angular width of principal/central maxima is defined as the angular separation / distance of two
diffraction minima on both sides of central maxima” (see fig.4)
Since the expression for single slit diff. minima is a sin θ = ±m λ, m = 1, 2, 3,
for m = ± 1 (the first order ), above equation can be written as
-1
a sin θ = ± λ => sin θ = ± => θ = sin ( ±

-1
=> θ = sin ( this is the required expression for angular half width.

For small angle θ, sin θ ≈ θ, then angular half width of principal maxima is θ = .

Therefore angular width is 2 θ = and linear width of principal maxima is given by

2 = 2 θ.f , where f is the focal length of lens or distance between lens and screen.
 Diffraction at two slits (Double slit arrangement)

Consider two slits AB and CD arranged such that each having transparent width `a` and are

separated by an opaque region `b` (opaque region `b` may be equal or some multiple of `a` ). A

plane wave front is incident on two slit arrangement where it is diffracted at each slit AB & CD

like single slit. The two diffracted waves are superimposed at a point and resultant diffraction at

two slits is obtained. Fig.1 shows the ray diagram of diffraction at two slits.

In double slit , (a+b) is the slit interval which is equal for two or more slits arrangement and becomes
effective when light is incident on it.

From single slit diffraction we have phase difference between two smallest part of the slit
δ= and the resultant amplitude Rθ = nA ( ) …….. (1)

Now the phase difference between two diffracted waves is …….. (2)

Since the two diffracted waves having same amplitude R. Therefore Resultant amplitude of these two
diffracted waves is given by R’θ 2 = (Rθ 2 + Rθ 2+ 2 Rθ Rθ cos φ) = 2 Rθ 2(1+ cos φ) = 4 Rθ 2 cos2

 Iθ = k R’θ2 = 4kn2A2( )2 cos2 = 4 I0 ( )2 cos2 …………….(3)

where I0 = kn2A2
Since from single slit we have β = ± mπ, m = 1, 2, 3 …. order of diffraction min. and at β = 0 (i.e. θ = 0)
we obtain principal maxima and for β ≈ ±3π/2, ±5π/2, ±7π/2 …… ± (2n+1) π/2, we obtain secondary
maxima. Now we have to find maxima & minima only for the term cos2 (which shows the
interference of two diffracted waves).

Since (cos2 ) max = 1 => = ± nπ , n = 0,1,2,3 ….

 Φ = ± 2 nπ => (a+b)sin θ= nλ ………(4) * from (2)+ n = 0, 1, 2, 3… order of maxima.

 Above equation is the expression for nth principal maxima corresponds to wavelength λ.

Now (cos2 ) min = 0 => = (2n+1)π/2 , n = 1,2,3….

 (a+b)sin θ= (2n+1)λ/2

Above is the expression for minimum in the interference pattern formed due to two narrow single slits.

In equ. (3) first term ( )2 is due to the diffraction at single slit and second term cos2 is the interference
of equal fringe spacing.

Thus the entire pattern due to double slit may consist of interference fringes due to light from both
slits. The intensities of these fringes being governed by diffraction occurring at individual slit. Fig
(2).

Q. Describe the feature of a double slit Fraunhoffer`s diffraction pattern. OR

What is the effect of increasing the (i) slit width `a` (ii) slit separation `b` and (iii) wavelength
on double slit diffraction pattern.
Ans: The expression for diffraction maxima for N – slits is given by (a+b) sin θ = n λ. n = 1, 2, 3 ……
(i) If the width of the slit `a` is increased and b, λ are constant. The envelop (central maxima) of the
single slit diffraction pattern changes and becomes sharper. While fringe spacing remain same
because it depend on `b`. Hence the number of interference maxima falling within the central
maxima decreases.
(ii) If the slit separation `b` is increased and a, λ are constants. The fringe spacing decreases and
becomes closer together. Hence more interference maxima fall within the same size of
diffraction envelop.
(iii) When λ is increased and a, b are constants. The diffraction envelop becomes broader and the
fringe spacing also increased in same proportion (since θ = λ/a and β = Dλ/b or d). Hence
spreading the resultant diffraction envelops. See Fig.(2)
 Q. What do you understand by missing order of interference maxima/ spectrum?
Ans: In the diffraction pattern formed due to two slits or N - parallel slits arrangement some of the
maxims coincides /overlapped / disappeared at diffraction minima.

The expression for diffraction maxima for N – slits is given by

(a+b) sin θ = n λ. n = 1, 2, 3 …… (1) where (a+b) is the grating element or slits interval.

and expression for diffraction minima is given by a sin θ = m λ …….. (2)

from (1) and (2) we get [ = ] which is an expression for missing order of spectra.

if b (width of opaque portion) = a (transparent portion) then n = 2 m for m = 1, 2, 3… => n = 2, 4, 6,

if b = 2 a then n = 3 m for m = 1, 2, 3… => n = 3, 6, 9, ….

if b = 3 a then n = 4 m for m = 1, 2, 3… => n = 4, 8, 12, …

Q. Show that only first order is possible if the width of a grating element is less than
twice the wave length of light.
Ans: The expression for diffraction maxima for N – slits is given by (a+b) sin θ = n λ. n = 1, 2, 3 ……
If parallel light rays incident on N- slits arrangement normally then in equation (1) (sin θ) max = 1

and therefore n = , given that if (a+b) < 2λ ( i.e. grating element is less than twice the
wavelength ) then n < 2 => n max = 1 , hence max. order on grating (N- slits) is one .
similarly, if (a+b) < 3λ => n < 3 and nmax = 2 .

Diffraction at N-Parallel slits (Diffraction Grating)

A diffraction grating is a arrangement of large number of narrow, parallel, straight and
equispaced slits on a glass plate, each of equal width`a` and separated by an opaque
region `b`.

The spacing (a+b) between two adjacent slits is called diffraction element or grating element.

Consider a plane transmission diffraction grating consisting of large number (N) of parallel slits
each of width `a` and separation b. These slits arrangement is illuminated by monochromatic light of
wavelength λ. The diffraction pattern is obtained on the screen with a large number of sharp
principal maxima (n=0.1.2.3…) while intensity of secondary maxima becomes negligibly small so that
these are not visible in the diffraction pattern.

According to Huygens principal, we obtained large no. of diffracted waves each of resultant
amplitude R = nA ( ), where β = π a sin θ /λ. These diffracted waves from N slits superimposed and the

resultant amplitude in the direction θ is given by R’θ = Rθ = nA ( ) …….. (1)

Therefore the intensity I α R’θ2 = I0 ( ) 2 (sin /sin ) 2 …….. (2)

As θ 0 =>β  0 and φ  0 (where φ = {2π (a+b) sinθ}/λ
Since lim β  0 ( ) =1 & lim φ  0 =N.
and I becomes I’0 = N2 I0

Thus the intensity at central maxima due to diffraction at N – parallel slits is N2 (square of the number
of slits) times the intensity at central maxima due to single slit.

For principal maxima: If sin =0 => = ± n π ….. (3) n = 0,1,2,3…

Substituting the value of φ in equ. (3) ,we get

(a + b) sin θ= n λ ……. (4) which is an expression for nth principal maxima from diffraction grating.

For minima: If sin = 0 => = ± m π and similar to above we get

N (a + b) sin θ= m λ or (a + b) sin θ= …….. (5)
where m = 1, 2, 3….. (N-1), but m ≠ 0, N, 2N, 3N… etc. because at 0, N, 2N, and 3N… we obtain 0,1, 2, 3... order
principal maxima.
Equation (5) is the expression for diffraction minima for N- slits. Hence from above it is clear that if we have N
– slits then there are (N-1) equispaced minima formed between two successive principal maxima.

It is also clear that there are (N-2) secondary maxima formed alternately with minima between
two successive principal maxima. The expression for intensity of secondary maxima is given as

I = I0 ( )2 , I.e. the intensity at secondary maxima is extremely small which can not be

observed practically.
Q. Show that the angular width of a principal maximum in a plane transmission grating does not
depend upon the number of lines per unit length, but it does depend on the total number of
lines present on the grating. OR

Derive an expression for the angular width of diffraction minima form in grating

A. `The angular separation between the first two minima on either side of the principal maxima is called the
angular width of principal maxima of any order`.

The expression for nth principal maxima in the direction θn is given by (a + b) sin θn= n λ …….. (1)

If dθn is the angle (which is small) at which diffraction minima is observed .Then the expression for diffraction
minima adjacent to the nth principal maxima in the direction (θn+dθn) is given by

(a + b) sin (θn+dθn) θ = ……. (2)

Since the adjacent manima always represented along with its maxima for which m = 1.

then equation (2) becomes (a + b) sin (θn + dθn) = ……. (3)

Equation (3) can be expressed as (a+b){sin θn . cos dθn + sin dθn .cos θn } =
…….. (4)

Since dθn is small, then cos dθn ≈ 1 and sin dθn ≈ dθn

From eqn. (1) and eqn. (4), we have (a+b)cos θn.. dθn = or dθn =
…… (5)

Where = W, is the width of the ruled portion of grating or total number of lines on
grating.

Q. Two spectral lines have wavelength λ and λ +dλ where dλ <<λ, show that their
angular separation dθ in a grating spectrum is given by dθ = dλ / [√{(a+b)/n}2 –λ2].
Where (a+b) is the grating element and n the order at which lines are observed.

OR What do you mean by dispersive power of grating? Derive an expression for it.
Ans: “The dispersive power of grating is defined as the rate of change of angle of diffraction with
wavelength”. It is denoted by ω. i.e. ω =
 Since the expression for nth principal maxima is (a + b) sin θ= n λ. ………..(1)

Differentiating above, we get (a + b) cos θ dθ = n dλ => = …….. (2) which is required

expression for dispersive power of grating.

Now cos θ = √(1- sin2 θ) and from (1) we have, sin θ =

Therefore, equation (2) becomes =

Or

Q. What do you understand by resolving power and limit of resolution of optical

instruments? Explain Rayleigh criterion for limit of resolution.
Ans: “Resolving power of optical instruments is defined as the ability or capacity of an optical instrument to
produces separate/distinct or clear images of two objects”.

Optical instruments are telescope, microscope, grating or prism and objects may be two distant
closest points or lines, two tiny object and two close wavelengths respectively.

The images of two objects can be resolved if the intensities (I1 & I2) of the objects are very nearly
same or the wave lengths (λ and λ +dλ) of two spectral lines are nearly same.

Further, geometrically, the resolving power is the reciprocal of the limit of resolution of optical
instruments. i.e. R. P. of optical instruments = .

“Limit of resolution is the measure of quality of optical instruments”

In case of telescope the limit of resolution is defined as the minimum angle subtended at the objective lens
of telescope by two distant closest objects. i.e. θmin is the limit and θmin = or R.P. of Telescope

is = where d is diameter of the objective lens.

Thus, resolving power of telescope can be increased by increasing the diameter of objective lens.

In case of microscope two tiny objects are placed very close to the objective lens, so the angle is not
significant for limit but the minimum distant between two objects represents the limit of
resolution. i.e. Limit of resolution of microscope = .

Where is known as numerical aperture of microscope. Thus R.P. of microscope can be

increased by increasing N.A.
 Similarly, for a grating the limit of resolution is the minimum difference of two close wavelengths
(dλ). i.e. Limit of resolution of grating = .

Rayleigh Criterion for limit of resolution

“According to Rayleigh two objects/spectral lines are said to be just resolved if in their
diffraction pattern the central maxima of one is coincides with the minima of other.”

“In other words two objects/spectral lines are said to be just resolved if in their diffraction pattern the the angular
separation of their central maxima is equal to the angular half width of either of them.”

Figure shows the Rayleigh criterion. Where λ and (λ+dλ) are two wavelengths which has to
resolve. Since from single slit diffraction, we have Iθ = I0 ( )2 .

Therefore, I1 = I0 ( )2 for λ and I2 = I0 ( )2

Now the resultant intensity IR = I1 + I2 = 2 I0 ( )2 = 2 I0 . = 0.81 I0 or 81% I0

Further, two spectral lines are said to be just resolved if the resultant intensity of central maxima of both
is 81%.

Q. Derive an expression for resolving power of grating.

Ans: For a grating the resolving power is defined as R.P. = λav / dλ.

Let us consider two wavelengths λ and λ +dλ and their principal maxima are formed by grating.

From figure it is clear that the expression for nth principal maxima for λ ,which is formed in the
direction θn is given as
(a + b) sin θn= n λ …….(1)

and the diffraction minima adjacent/connected to nth principal maxima of wavelength λ which is formed at
an angle (θn + dθn) is given as

(a + b) sin (θn + dθn) = (m =1 for adjacent maxima). …….(2)

Now according to Rayleigh criterion the principal maxima of (λ +dλ) coincide with the diffraction minima
of λ at the same angle (θn + dθn) is given as

(a + b) sin (θn + dθn) = n(λ +dλ) ………(3)

From equation (2) & (3), we get = n(λ +dλ) => λ / dλ = n.N

Thus R.P.of grating is = N.n = λ / dλ