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UPH004: Applied Physics

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Disclaimer:
The materials used in this presentation have
purely teaching purposes only.
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Unit-5: Syllabus

Diffraction: Single and Double slit diffraction,

and Diffraction grating, Applications -
Dispersive and Resolving Powers.
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What is diffraction?
 Diffraction phenomenon is a common characteristics of all kinds of
waves.

 Diffraction is phenomenon which is defined as the bending of waves

around corner by an obstacle or through an aperture into the region of
geometrical shadow of the obstacle/aperture.

Bending of
wave around
the corner
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What is diffraction?

When light passing through a tiny opening such as slit or aperture

produces alternate regions of darkness and brightness beyond the region
of geometric shadow. Such alternate bright and dark bands are known as
the diffraction pattern.
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How does it occur?
The obstacle, aperture, slit or object become a secondary source of the
propagating wave.

Then the wave emanating from secondary source interfere to give rise to
diffraction.
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Condition for diffraction
Diffraction of light is noticeable only when the size of the obstacle is
comparable to wavelength of light.

No Diffraction Diffraction
No spreading after Spreading after passing
passing through the slits through the slits

Condition for diffraction aperture size or slit width a ≈ λ

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Our experience with diffraction in daily life
Diffraction by sound waves

Q1: Can we observe

diffraction due to door
or window for Ultrasonic
wave?
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Our experience with diffraction in daily life
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Distinction between interference and diffraction

Interference Diffraction
Interference is the result of Diffraction is the result of interaction
interaction of light coming from of light coming from different parts of
different wave fronts originating from the same wave front.
the source.
Interference fringes may or may not Diffraction fringe are not of the same
be of the same width. width.

Regions of minimum intensity are Points of minimum intensity are not

perfectly dark. perfectly dark.

All bright bands are of same All bright bands are not of same
intensity intensity
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Wavefront
The wavefront is the set or collection of all points on a wave which are in
phase with each other (phase difference is strictly zero).

Direction of movement for traveling wave

Wave

Wavefronts
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Type of wavefronts
1. Planar
2. Circular
3. Cylindrical
4. Spherical
Huygens’s principle 13/15

Each and every point of a wavefront of light may be regarded as new

sources of wavelets that expand in every direction at a rate equal to the
velocity propagation.

Straight wavefront Circular wavefront

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Diffraction is a special case of Interference

Diffraction is simply the N →∞ limit of interference, where N is

the number of secondary source defined on a single wavefront.
It may seem thus that there is no need to introduce a new term
for it. But on the other hand, a specific type of patterns occur for
specific reason. That is why a separate term “diffraction” is often
used.
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Classification of diffraction
Fresnel Diffraction
 The source of light and the screen
are effectively at finite distances from
the obstacle.

 Lenses are not used to make the

rays parallel or convergent.

 The incident wavefront is not planar.

As a result secondary wavelets is not
the same at all points in the plane of
the obstacle.

 The resultant amplitude at any point

of the screen is obtained by the
mutual interference of secondary
wavelets from different elements of
unblocked portions of wavefront.
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Classification of diffraction
Fraunhofer Diffraction
 The source of light and the screen
are effectively at infinite distances
from the obstacle.

 Conditions for diffraction are

achieved using two convex lenses,
one to make the light from the
source parallel and the other to
focus the light after diffraction on the
screen.

 The incident wave front as such is

plane and the secondary wavelets,
which originate from the unblocked
portions of the wave front are in the
same phase at every point in the
plane of the obstacle.
The diffraction is produced by the interference between parallel rays,
which are brought into focus with the help of a convex lens.
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Classification of diffraction
Diffraction at single slit (Fraunhofer Diffraction) 18/15

The pattern consists of a central bright fringe flanked by much weaker

maxima alternating with dark fringes.
Diffraction due to slits 19/15

Assumptions:
i. The source of light is a coherent source of light

ii. Single slit is a one dimensional object (like a line segment without any
width) . Each point of line segment is acting as a source of light.

Our aim: to calculate intensity due to single slit and multiple slits placed at
equal distance.

Strategy: consider equally spaced points along the slits. Let these points to
be acting as secondary source of light. Light emanating from these point
sources interfere. We want to obtain the resultant electric field due to all
the points and hence the Intensity.

Light emanating from these points turn out to have these form
Diffraction due to slits 20/15

Light emanating from these points turn out to have these form

a cos (ωt)
a cos (ωt – φ)
a cos (ωt – 2φ)
............................
.............................
a cos (ωt – (n-1)φ)

where a is the amplitude of electric field, ω is the frequency, φ is the

phase difference due to path difference from two neighboring points.
Diffraction at single slit 21/15

A qualitative way to understand the condition for diffraction minima

Divide the slit in two parts.
Suppose we are interested in
minima. Then, for each point A in
one part, there exists a point A’ in
other part so that path difference
at angle θ is λ/2

𝐴𝐴ʹ = 𝑏 2sin𝜃 = λ 2

Thus 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = λ

Which is the condition for first

minima.
Diffraction at single slit 22/15

Calculation of resultant intensity in diffraction (single slit)

 Consider n equidistant points (A1, A2, A3 ….. ) along the slit.

 According to Huygens principle, secondary wavelets emerge from these
n points.
 These wavelets interfere, which results into diffraction.
 Let the distance between two consecutive points be
A1A2 = A2A3 = A3A4 =............= Δ.
 Then, slit width b = (n – 1)Δ.
Diffraction at single slit 23/15

Phase difference ϕ between two consecutive points

Consider rays A1B1, A2B2,

A3B3, etc. making an angle
θ with the line
perpendicular to the
screen.
A1A’2 is perpendicular to
A2B2.

 Additional path traversed by the ray from point A2B2 in comparison to

A1B1 will be A2A’2, where A2A’2 = Δsin(θ).

 Phase difference between rays A1B1 and A2B2 is φ = (2π/λ)Δsin(θ)

 If the field at point P due to point source A1 is “acos(ωt)”, then the field
due to the A2 will be “acos(ωt – φ)”.
Diffraction at single slit 24/15

Calculation of resultant intensity in diffraction (single slit) ?

 Similarly, field due to the disturbance emanating from A3 is “acos(ωt -

2φ)” and so on. For An it will be “acos(ωt – (n-1)φ)”.

 Resultant field at point P will be,

E= a cos (ωt)+a cos (ωt – φ)+a cos (ωt – 2φ)+…… +a cos (ωt– (n-1)φ) where
φ = (2π/λ).Δ.sin(θ)

 But mathematically,
a cos (ωt)+a cos (ωt – φ)+a cos (ωt – 2φ)+…….…..+a cos (ωt –(n-1)φ)
𝑛𝜑
sin( 2 ) 1
= 𝑎 𝜑 cos(𝜔𝑡 − (𝑛 − 1)𝜑
sin( ) 2
2

Note: the whole exercise is to obtain the amplitude of resultant electric

field.
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Calculation of resultant intensity in diffraction (single slit)?

where the amplitude Eθ of the resultant field is given by

When number of points n very large

In the limit of n→∞ and Δ→0, we can see that nΔ→b,

Therefore

Also, if n→∞ then φ→0; sin(φ/2)=φ/2

Recall

Note: the whole exercise is to obtain the amplitude of resultant electric

field.
Diffraction at single slit 26/15

Calculation of resultant intensity in diffraction (single slit)?

Therefore,

Thus,

and nϕ/2 ≈ (n-1)ϕ/2

Intensity distribution for this will be given by :

where Io ( Io = A2) gives intensity at θ=0.

Diffraction at single slit 27/15

Minima
For minima, intensity should be zero, which is possible when
sinβ= 0 or β = mπ, m≠0

Thus, because,

which implies b sin θ=mλ, with m=±1,±2,±3,......(for minima)

 First minimum occurs for θ = ± sin-1(λ/b),

Second minimum occurs for θ = ± sin-1(2λ/b) and so on.

 Maximum possible value of sin(θ) is 1, therefore

maximum possible value of m is integer close to b/λ.
Diffraction at single slit 28/15

Central maxima
 If m = 0, sinβ/ β will have an indeterminate form.

 In the limit β → 0 or θ = 0, (sinβ)/β = 1 and I = Io, which corresponds

to the maximum of value of intensity. This point corresponds to center
of central maxima.
Maxima
Differentiate intensity in order to find maximum or minimum.
Intensity due to single slit

Differentiating with respect to β

Condition tan(β) = β gives maxima. β=0 gives central maxima. Rest of

roots are found by intersection of curves y = β and y = tan(β). (Note
sin(β) = 0 gives minima condition)
Diffraction at single slit 29/15

Intensity pattern on the

screen will look like this

Roots of equation tan(β) = β.

Few roots are: β=1.43π, 2.86π
and so on.
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Diffraction at double slits
Calculation of intensity patterns due to double slits

Two slits each of width b and

separated by distance d.

Consider n equidistant points

(A1, A2, A3 ….. ) along the slit
1 and (B1, B2, B3 ….. ) along
slit 2.

Distance between A1 and B1

or between A2 and B2 and so
on is d.

Resultant intensity distribution will be a combination of the single slit

diffraction pattern and the interference pattern produced by two point
sources separated by distance “d”.
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Diffraction at double slits
Calculation of intensity patterns due to double slits
 A1P is perpendicular to ray
emanating from B1.

 Path difference between rays

emanating from A1 and B1 is
B1P.

 Phase difference between rays

from A1 and B1 , ϕ1 = (2π
xB1P)/λ

The field produced by first slit at point P,

The field produced by second slit at point P,

Φ1 gives phase difference between disturbances reaching point P from

pair of points such as ( A1, B1 ), ( A2, B2 )… separated by distance d.
 32/15
Diffraction at double slits
Calculation of intensity patterns due to double slits
The resultant field will be given by:

The intensity distribution will be given by (squaring the amplitude of electric

field)

In this expression, (sin2β)/β2 represents diffraction pattern produced by

single slit of width b. Second term cos2(Φ1/2) represents interference
produced by two point sources separated by distance d.
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Diffraction at double slits
Intensity patterns due to double slits
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Diffraction at double slits
Positions of minima
Intensity in double slit

Intensity is zero wherever β = π, 2π, 3π …..

which means bsin(θ) = mλ, m = 1,2,3…….

Or

When Φ1 = π, 3π, 5π ….., it means dsin(θ)

= (n-1/2)λ, with n = 1,2,3…….
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Diffraction at double slits
Positions of maxima

Interference maxima:
When Φ1/2 = 0, π, 2π ….. or (π/λ)dsin(θ) = 0,π,2π……
which means dsin(θ) = 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ…….

This can be used to calculate fringe width for double slit interference
maxima.

This will be approximate positions of maxima provided variation of

diffraction pattern is not too rapid.

A maximum may not occur at all if θ corresponds to diffraction minimum

(b sin(θ) = λ, 2λ, 3λ…..). These are called missing orders. Missing
order will occur when d is integral multiple of b so that the diffraction
minimum coincides with interference\ maximum.
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Diffraction at double slits
Missing order of interference maxima

Slit width b = 2λ, slit separation d = 6λ, Since d = 3b, the third order
interference maxima will be missing as it coincides with the first order
minima, similarly 6th order maxima, 9th order maxima….. so on will be
missing.
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Diffraction at multiple slits
Calculation of intensity patterns due to N slits

b is the slit size

d is the slit separation
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Diffraction at multiple slits
Calculation of intensity patterns due to N slits
The resultant field at any arbitrary point P will be :

Using same trigonometric relation as used in single slit

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Diffraction at multiple slits
Intensity distribution due N slits

 In this expression, sin2β/β2 represents diffraction pattern produced by

single slit of width b.

 Second term sin2(NΦ1/2)/ sin2(Φ1/2)) represents interference produced

by N equally spaced point sources separated by distance d.
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Special cases
Intensity distribution due to N slits:

Single slit result

Double slit result

Substituting N = 2:
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Diffraction at multiple slits
Position of principal maxima due to N slits
From intensity distribution due to N slits:

The condition for principal maxima (maximum possible intensity) is :

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Diffraction at multiple slits
Intensity at Maxima
Resultant electric field due to N slits

But

where we used L' Hospital's rule.

Thus, the net electric field at Maxima

Physically, at these maxima fields produced by each of the slits are in

phase and hence resultant field (E) is N times of field produced by
single slit.
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Diffraction at multiple slits
Intensity at Maxima
Intensity at maximum positions

where

Intensity has large value unless sin2β/β2 itself is small.

 Since sin(θ)≤1, m can not be greater than d/λ.

 It means more is the number of slit (N), intensity of maxima will be more.

 This concept is used in diffraction grating where you have

10000 or so many slits per inch!
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Diffraction at multiple slits
Minima
Recalling the intensity due to N slits

Or
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Diffraction at multiple slits

Notice the missing terms! They correspond to principal maxima. There

are (N-1) minima between 2 principal maxima.

Between two consecutive minima, intensity has to have a maximum.

These maxima are called secondary maxima. There will be (N-2)
secondary maxima between two principal maxima.
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Diffraction at multiple slits
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Diffraction at multiple slits
Missing order

What if angle of principal maxima is same as diffraction minima?

In that situation, following conditions are satisfied simultaneously,

d sin(θ) = mλ, m=0,1,2,…….. (Principal maxima)

bsin(θ) = λ, 2λ, 3λ….. (Diffraction minima)

Thus, certain principal maxima cannot be observed when distance or

separation between the slits is integral multiple of slit width. These
maxima coincide with diffraction minimum and thus cannot be observed
and therefore are referred as missing order.
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Diffraction grating
A system of very large number of equidistant slits is called diffraction
grating. The diffraction pattern formed due to diffraction grating is defined
as the grating spectrum.

 Principal maxima can be obtained using dsin(θ) = mλ, where

m=0,1,2,……… (This is the same expression for N slits).

 Principal maxima (m≠0) for different λ are observed at different angles.

 The order of principle maxima and the angle at which it is observed can
be used to measure the wavelength.

 More is number of slits, narrower will be principal maxima. (Usually

15,000 per inch slits are there. Lines should be as equally spaced as
much as possible.)
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Diffraction grating
Dispersive power of grating
Dispersive power of a grating is defined as the diffraction or spread in
angle for a unit spread in the wavelength.
This is an important quantity when light consists of a spectrum.
We know that the principal maxima is given by

d sin(θ) = mλ, m=0,1,2,……..

Differentiating with respect to λ on both side of this equation

Dispersive power is defined as

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Diffraction grating
Points to note:
Dispersive power is proportional to “m” (order of principal maximum).
Higher is m, well separated will be maxima corresponding to 2 close
wavelengths like sodium doublet. Zeroth order principal maxima will
overlap.

Dispersive power is inversely proportional to “d” (the grating element).

Smaller is “d”, larger will be angular dispersion.

Dispersive power is inversely proportional to cos(θ). if θ is very small

then cos(θ)≃1,
Such spectrum is known as normal spectrum. For this dθ is directly
proportional to dλ.

Becomes

Sodium doublet consists of wavelengths 589.0 nm and 589.6 nm

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Grating Spectrum
 Principal maxima: dsin(θ) = mλ m=0,1,2,……..This equation is also
called the grating equation.

 The zeroth order principal maxima occurs at θ = 0 irrespective of

wavelength.

 Thus for white light, central maximum will be white. For m ≠ 0, θ are
different for different λ, various spectral components appear at different
locations.
 52/15
Resolving power of grating

The capacity of an instrument to resolve two closely spaced

objects or spectrum is called it’s resolving power.

Minimum separation at which two objects look separate is

called “limit of resolution”.

Smaller is separation between 2 objects an instrument can

resolve, higher is its resolving power and better is the
Instrument.

In case of diffraction grating, resolving power is power of

distinguishing two nearby spectral lines.
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Resolving power of grating
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Rayleigh's Criterion
According to Rayleigh's Criterion, if the principal maximum
corresponding to wavelength λ + Δλ falls on first minimum (on either side)
of the wavelength λ, then the two wavelengths λ and λ + Δλ are said to be
just resolved.
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Rayleigh's Criterion
θ = Angular separation between the principal maxima of 2 patterns
Δθ = half angular width of principal maxima of each pattern
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Resolving power of grating
If angle θ is the angle corresponding to mth order spectrum then these
conditions are satisfied simultaneously :

 Principal maximum for wavelength λ+Δλ : d sin(θ) = m(λ+Δλ)

 Minimum for wavelength λ: d sin(θ) = mλ+λ/N

 Equating both sides: m(λ+Δλ) = mλ+λ/N

or m Δλ = λ/N
or λ/Δλ = mN,
λ/Δλ is called the resolving power of a grating.

Resolving power λ/Δλ = mN

 Resolving power depends on total number of lines in grating exposed to

incident light (N).

 Resolving power is proportional to “order of spectrum”.