978 LUSAS

lb crude oil, 1583.3 lb soybean meal, 1300.0 lb soybean flour, 666.7 lb soybean pro-
tein concentrate; 393.3 lb soybean protein isolate).

20–3.4 Soybean Preparation

Soybean entering a modern extraction plant no longer receives the same

process regardless of condition. Modern processing recognizes that differences occur
in soybean, which require segregated storage, handling, and processing to maxi-
mize yields of saleable products. Sensing instruments, data acquisition systems, and
computers help keep track of changing conditions of the various lots that might be
stored at the extraction plant or other company sites at one time. A typical flow sheet
of soybean solvent extraction operations is shown in Fig. 20–1.

Fig. 20–1. Flow sheet of major soybean oil solvent extraction processes.
SOYBEAN PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION 979

20–3.4.1 Seed Precleaning, Drying, and Storage

Soybean is cleaned several times, including on the farm, prestorage, and be-
fore preparation for extraction. Magnets are located throughout processing lines to
remove ferrous metal pieces from foreign sources, or shed by machinery, and re-
duce damage to processing equipment. Seed typically is passed through scalping
equipment (rotating drums covered with screens of increasing sizes to remove
mud, dirt, sticks, plastic, and dust before drying or storing). Destoners may be re-
quired for soybean grown in some areas. Removal of stems and leaves is especially
important because they can cause fires in dryers and are the first to absorb mois-
ture from the atmosphere and transmit it to soybean during storage (Barger, 1981;
Carr, 1993).
The objective in storage is to bring the seed to low physiological activity and
keep it in that state as long as possible. Moisture and heat accelerate presprouting
changes, including increases in FFA content. Of the two factors, moisture is more
important, since physiological activity itself also increases temperature. For minor
reductions in moisture content, air drying can be used, provided relative humidity
of inlet air is lower than that of air exiting the seed. Fuel drying is expensive, and
reasonably efficient commercial dryers require 645 316 to 688 337 J kg −1
(1500–1600 btu lb−1) moisture removed (Woerfel, 1995). Seed temperature should
not be allowed to exceed 76°C (170°F) during drying.
Silos containing soybean often are equipped with thermocouples to contin-
uously monitor stability of seed during storage by watching for temperature rise.
Aeration of stored soybean is necessary, the amount required is positively related
to moisture content and temperature of the seed (Barger, 1981).
A headspace relative humidity not exceeding 65 to 70% (~12.5% seed mois-
ture content) is recommended for long-term storage of soybean, although the in-
dustry trades at 13.0% moisture content (Gustafson, 1976; Spencer, 1976; Sauer et
al., 1992). In humid tropical countries, imported soybean typically is sent directly
to extraction as received because of high humidity at seaports. Soybean may be
grown during the rainy season at higher elevations, and harvested at as low as 8.5%
moisture content when maturing in the early dry season. Typically, care is taken to
rush the crop through extraction before soybean has absorbed excessive moisture
in the succeeding rainy season.
Soybean damage during handling and shipping is mainly the result of freefall,
with ~2 to 3% increase in splits estimated for each transfer (USDA, 1973, 1978).
Splits are more susceptible to moisture absorption, mold growth, and enzymatic
damage including FFA rise, than whole seed (Hesseltine et al., 1978). Various de-
vices for gently lowering whole soybean into ship holds are ignored currently, but
may be brought into use as buyers demand higher grade soybean. Angles of repose
and bulk densities are approximately: 27°, 720 to 800 kg m−3 (45–60 lb ft−3 ) for
whole soybean; 45°, 93 to 112 kg m−3 (6 to 7 lb ft−3) for unground hulls; 35°, 560
to 610 kg/m3 (35 to 38 lb/ft3) for solvent-extracted 44% (protein) meal; 32 to 37°,
657 to 673 kg m−3 (41–42 lb ft−3) for solvent-extracted 50% meal; and 35°, 575 to
640 kg m−3 (36–40 lb ft−3) for screw pressed oil meal (Gustafson, 1976; Barger,
1981; Appel, 1994). Soybean meals are traded at 12% moisture maximum. They
980 LUSAS

Table 20–1. Chemical compositions of traditional soybean and their components, shown on a dry
weight basis (Perkins, 1995; with permission).
Components Yield Protein Fat Ash Carbohydrates
%
Whole soybean 100.0 40.3 21.0 4.9 33.9
Cotyledon 90.3 42.8 22.8 5.0 29.4
Hull 7.3 8.8 1.0 4.3 85.9
Hypocotyl 2.4 40.8 11.4 4.4 43.4

will bridge in tanks at more than 13% moisture or if filled too hot. When piled, they
can form steep walls which become cave-in hazards to front-end loader operators.

20–3.4.2 Post-storage Cleaning, Tempering, Dehulling,

Cracking, and Flaking
Damage to oil quality before receipt of soybean cannot be reversed. The oil
must be extracted as best as possible, but can be additionally damaged while
preparing soybean for extraction. The general industry practice is to accept process-
able crops as they come, and minimize rejections to avoid alienation of local pro-
ducers and elevator operators who will be needed in future years. The additional
processing costs of converting lower quality soybean seed into saleable ingredients
are reflected in prices paid for different grades. If soybean has been cleaned by the
processor before drying and storage, it typically is screened again to remove clumps
that may have developed in the interim. Newly purchased soybean usually is
cleaned using at least a two-deck screener to size trash, with a multi-aspirator to
remove light materials and dust (Moore, 1983). A typical composition of traditional
soybean and its components at this point is shown in Table 20–1 (Perkins, 1995).
Cracking, flaking, and extraction of whole soybean, produces a meal con-
taining ~44% protein (on an as is basis). The digestion systems of nonruminants,
like pigs and especially poultry, have limited volumes and ability to handle fiber.
“High protein” content meals (47.5–49.0% minimum), with fiber contents of 3.3
to 3.5% maximum instead of the traditional 7.0% maximum, have been developed
to provide increased nutrient density for these species. Processors have the choice
of “front-end dehulling” before extraction, or “tail-end dehulling” after extraction
(Moore, 1983; Woerfel, 1995). Typically, front-end dehulling is used because re-
moval of hulls enables sending more soybean “meats” through the extractor. The
removed hulls are partially returned after extraction to standardize meals to protein
guarantees.
Conventional front-end dehulling consists of drying 13% moisture soybean
from storage to 10% and holding (“tempering”) for 2 to 3 d to equilibrate the mois-
ture and enhance cracking and dehulling. Cracking is conducted by non-inter-
meshing horizontally corrugated rolls, whose ribs have saw-tooth designs cut along
the length of their leading edges. Both rolls turn inward, “sharp to sharp,” with the
roll with the larger teeth turning slower and partially holding back the soybean as
the faster, smaller-tooth, roll sweeps by and cuts off part of the seed. Two sets of
cracking rolls, the coarser roll set mounted above the finer set, are used in modern
cracking installations to produce four to eight pieces from each soybean (Moore,
1983; Woerfel, 1995).
SOYBEAN PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION 981

The hulls (~8% of the soybean) then are removed by gyratory or aspiration
separators. Next, cracked soybean (with or without hulls) is conditioned by steam
in vertical stack cookers, or in rotary horizontal cookers equipped with steam pipes
and water sprays, to 11% moisture content and ~71°C (161°F), and is flaked by
smooth rolls to 0.02 to 0.5 mm (0.008–0.020 in) thickness. Approximately 1.5%
moisture is lost during flaking, returning the cotyledons to ~10.0% moisture con-
tent (Woerfel, 1995).

20–3.4.3 Hot dehulling

In the last two decades, at least three suppliers have introduced hot dehulling
systems for soybean (Fig. 20–2). Cleaned whole soybean seed, at normal storage
moisture content, is slowly heated to ~60°C (140°F), over 20 to 30 min in the con-
ditioner to allow moisture to migrate to the surface and make it sweaty. Then, the
seed is subjected to hot blasts of 150°C (300°F) dry air in the fluid bed dryer over
a short period of time (1–6 min), which causes the hulls to loosen and “pop” away
from the meats before leaving the fluid bed at 75 to 85°C (170–190°F). Soybean
then passes through a coarse cracking mill, a hulls separator, a finer cracking mill
and a flaking mill to produce flakes approximately 0.30-mm (0.012 in) thick. The
system also includes a sifter and separator to recover pieces of meats that may ad-
here to the hulls. Less than 0.9% hulls remain on the meats. Nitrogen Solubility Index
(NSI) of soybean is reduced by 5 to 8% (U.V. Keller, Buhler, Inc., Minneapolis, MN,
personal communication, 2002).
Systems are available for various-size plants, and use multiples of cracking
rolls available in the 900 to 1000 t d−1 range and flaking rolls in the 500 t d−1 range.
Advantages include single-pass conversion of seed into flakes ready for solvent ex-
traction and overall reductions in steam and electricity use (U. Keller, Buhler, Inc.,
Minneapolis, MN, personal communciation, 2002). Another advantage, claimed sig-
nificant by some, is the close-coupled design of the system. This reduces the time
that seed is subject to enzymatic activity, and accessible by air (including oxygen).

20–3.4.4 Expanders
Expanders are single-screw extruders with a characteristic interrupted-flight
crew that conveys the product past homogenizing shearbolts fixed through the bar-
rel wall (Fig. 20–3). The machine initially was developed in 1955 by the Anderson
International Company, Cleveland, OH, as a grain cooker (Williams and Baer, 1965).
The design was applied to preparing soybean for solvent extraction in Brazil in the
late 1960s and early 1970s, and gained worldwide interest in the latter 1980s and
early 1990s (Williams, 1995a, 1995b; private correspondence with M.A. Williams,
Anderson International Co., Cleveland, OH, 2001). The expander basically ho-
mogenizes soybean flakes, and reforms them into collets. In the process, oil-con-
taining spherosomes in seed cells are ruptured, enabling the freed oil to coalesce,
foam to the surface of exiting hot collets, and be reabsorbed on cooling. Homoge-
nization changes oilseeds extraction from a diffusion process, where solvent must
permeate into individual spherosomes in seed cells, solubilize the oil, and exit, to
a leaching process where a solvent wash solubilizes and carries away freed oil. Ben-
efits include:
982 LUSAS

Fig. 20–2. Hot Soybean Dehulling System “Popping.” (Courtesy of Buhler, Incorp., Minneapolis, MN.)

1. Reduction of miscella (oil and solvent mixture) holdup in extracted col-

lets, resulting in sufficient savings in desolventizing steam to recover
costs of installing the expander in less than a year,
2. Opportunity to increase the extractor throughput by 50 to 75% if the ac-
companying seed preparation and solvent recovery systems also are en-
larged.
3. Gross reduction of nonhydratable phosphatides in the oil, provided phos-
pholipase D has not been triggered by earlier seed rupture. Enzymes are
SOYBEAN PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION 983

Fig. 20–3. Cut-away drawing of Anderson International Solvex Series Expander (registered trademark,
Anderson International Corp., Cleveland, OH); interrupted flight extruder for preparing low-oil-con-
tent oilseeds for solvent extraction and for making full-fat soybean meal. (Courtesy of Anderson In-
ternational Corp., Cleveland, OH).

destroyed almost instantly at ~110°C (230°F) in the expander by heat from

injected steam and mechanical shearing of the seed. This has resulted in
increased recoveries of saleable oil and improved stability after refining
(Watkins et al., 1989).
Installation of expanders proceeded rapidly during the late 1980s and the
1990s, resulting in their broad use throughout the world on a variety of crops. The
far majority of expanders, with capacities of up to 1500 t (1700 short ton) d−1, are
produced by screw press or extruder manufacturers. Unless specifically requested
by the buyer, major oilseeds equipment manufacturers advise larger extractors in
new installations, arguing that savings from using expanders are not as significant
in well-run plants. However, expanders typically are added in later projects to in-
crease capacities of existing extractors. Plants vary in passing some or all soybean
flakes through expanders. Field observations have shown that, although the con-
cept of using expanders is simple, many of the machines are not properly operated
for maximum benefits.
Expanders work best with flakes, which can be thicker than sent directly to
the solvent extractor. Steam is injected into the expander to raise the temperature,
and increases moisture content of the flakes by 2 to 3%; but, much is flashed-off
as collets puff when exiting the expander. The collets then are allowed to dry and
cool on a conveyor belt under a hood, and must be at least 5°C (9°F) below the boil-
ing point of the solvent before entering the extractor. Many improvements have been
made in expander design. Hydraulically-operated cone choke heads (Fig. 20–4) have
been developed to replace face-plates and dies, and enable easy adjustment for seeds
which vary in extrusion properties (Watkins et al., 1989).
984 LUSAS

Fig. 20–4. Left: soybean collets exiting die plate head, Solvex Series Expander; strands break into ran-
dom lengths. Right: puff sheets made by hydraulically positioned cone choke head on expander. (Cour-
tesy of Anderson International Corp., Cleveland, OH.)

20–3.5 Solvent Extraction of Soybean Oil

20–3.5.1 Solvents
Currently, the major solvent used for oilseeds extraction throughout the
world is “commercial hexane,” with use of “commercial isohexane” slowly being
implemented. Both are flammable solvents, and require “explosion-proof” facili-
ties operated to meet NPFA 36 Standard for Solvent Extraction Plants (NFPA, 2001).
“Commercial” solvents are not pure compounds, but rather mixtures of compounds
distilled between two preset boiling temperatures at the oil refinery. Maximum per-
missible levels of recognized toxic compounds, for example benzene, have been set
in the solvents.
Johnson and Lusas (1983), Lusas et al. (1990), and Johnson (1997) have re-
viewed the history of extraction solvents. Many of the early extraction solvents
would not pass current FDA requirements for food additives. Research on
dichloromethane (methylene chloride), the last of the permitted nonflammable
halogenated hydrocarbons, showed it to be an effective solvent (Johnson et al., 1986),
but it also became a suspected carcinogen. Supercritical extraction, using (non-
flammable) liquefied carbon dioxide (CO2) at 15 bar (5145 psig) or higher, has been
proven technically effective for extracting various oils on pilot plant scale and have
produced improved oils (Friedrich et al., 1982). However, techniques for continu-
ous loading and unloading of flakes/collets in quantities required in modern oilseed
extraction operations, have not been developed. Small bench-top critical CO2 in-
struments are sold for analyzing oilseeds and their products for oil content. In 2002,
China had eighteen 300 t d−1 propane extraction plants in operation.
Ethanol extraction has been reviewed by Hron (1997). In the 1990s, new in-
formation was reported for isopropanol (isopropyl alcohol, IPA) by Lusas et al.
(1997), Lusas and Hernandez (1997), and Lusas and Gregory (1998). At a con-
centration of 92% or higher, hot IPA and soybean oil are completely miscible at all
ratios and essentially act like hexane-oil mixtures. But, to obtain >92% IPA, distil-
SOYBEAN PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION 985

lation-recovered 87.7% IPA was rectified using pervaporation membranes. The tech-
nical feasibility of replacing petroleum-based extraction solvents with IPA is prom-
ising, but doing so would require extensive retrofitting in existing solvent extrac-
tion plants—a change industry is likely to resist while other options remain available.
The focus on extraction solvents in the early 1990s resulted when n-hexane
was implicated by EPA as a neurotoxin based on trials in which peripheral nerve
damage occurred in rats exposed to high inhalation exposure for several months.
The industry responded with rat data showing the problem does not occur with com-
mercial hexane, containing only a portion of n-hexane (Wakelyn, 1997). At the same
time, concerns ran high about effects of photochemically active volatile organic com-
pounds (VOCs) and ozone production. The concerns have abated somewhat as the
solvent extraction industry reduced hexane losses to <1 L t−1 (0.25 gallon short ton−1)
of seed processed.

20–3.5.2 Extractors and Extraction

The three major types of extractors currently sold for extracting soybean flakes
and collets are shown in Fig. 20–6 to 20–8. Similarities include (i) percolation-type
design, in which the solvent is sprayed on top and drains through the bed, (ii)
counter-current extraction, in which the oil-ladened flakes or collets are first washed
with the miscella richest in oil, and then with progressively more dilute miscellas
and fresh solvent, (iii) the flakes/collets are dragged across nonclogging, parallel,
wedge-shaped bar, support screens for extraction and drainage, (iv) extractor inte-
riors of all-stainless steel construction, and (v) extractors are operated under slight
vacuum to prevent escape of solvent vapors into the atmosphere.
The extractor shown in Fig. 20–5 also is known as “rectangular loop type.”
Flakes/collets are loaded at the left of the top level and are dragged by paddles sus-
pended from chains in clockwise fashion along a linear drainage screen, while
sprayed by increasingly dilute miscellas. The bed turns over as it passes to the lower
level, and extraction ends with a final rinse of fresh solvent. After draining, the marc
(solvent ladened, extracted flakes/collets) is sent to the desolventizer. Solvent travel
is in the counter-current direction. This type of extractor is available in capacities
of up to 8000 t d−1. It is considered a “shallow bed” extractor, with product layers
up to 1.5 m high on the large machines. It sometimes is used for reextracting
“white flakes” with aqueous ethanol in producing soybean protein concentrates.
The machine in Fig. 20–6 is known as a “perforated-belt or a diffusion-type”
extractor. The bed is moved as one mass on a belt, consisting of folding sections of
linear drainage screens. It is considered to be an intermediate-bed extractor.
The machine in Fig. 20–7 is known as a “basket or circular-type” extractor.
The product is held in orange segment-type cells (“baskets”), which are rotated
across a supported extraction and drainage screen, and pass under a flake/collet load-
ing device and a series of counter-current miscella sprays, before draining and drop-
ping into a receiving hopper. The rotating basket is the only moving part. Extrac-
tors of this type are operating in the 10 000 t d−1 range. With product layers up to
3.7 m (12 ft) high, they are known as “deep-bed” extractors.
When flakes are extracted directly, their thickness varies with the type of ex-
tractor used; 0.30 to 0.38 mm (0.012–0.015 in) thickness, weighing ~460 kg m,–3
986 LUSAS

Fig. 20–5. Rectangular loop-type continuous counter-current solvent extractor. (Courtesy of Crown Iron
Works Co., Minneapolis, MN.)

(29 lb ft –3) is recommended for shallow-bed extractors (under 1.2 m, 48 in) and
0.33 to 0.43 mm (0.013–0.017 in) for deep-bed extractors (G.E. Anderson, Crown
Iron Works, Minneapolis, MN, personal communication, 2001). Residence of
flakes or collets in continuous extractors typically is 20 to 40 min.

Fig. 20–6. Drawing of DeSmet LM (registered trademark, Extraction De Smet N.V./S.A., Brussels, Bel-
gium) perforated belt diffusion-type extractor. (Courtesy of Extraction De Smet N.V./S.A., Brussels,
Belgium.)
SOYBEAN PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION 987

Fig. 20–7. Reflex (registered trademark, Extraction De Smet N.V./S.A., Brussels, Belgium) “basket”
or “circular-type” extractor; basket revolves in shell. (Courtesy of Extraction De Smet N.V./S.A.,
Edegem, Belgium.)

20–3.5.3 Meal Desolventizing, Toasting, and Cooling

After leaving the extractor, soybean marc is desolventized under vacuum with
supplemental heat provided by steam injection. In doing so, steam condenses and
also provides moisture for “toasting” (cooking) the meal to reduce activities of
trypsin inhibitors and other anti-growth factors. Units which desolventize and toast
are referred to as “DTs.” The moisture content of the meal must be reduced to <12%
to prevent spoilage. This typically is done by hot-air drying, followed by cooling
the meal in dryer-coolers, known as “DCs.” Equipment suppliers provide single units
(DTDCs) as one installation, or can separate them into separate DTs and DCs.
A modern DTDC, developed in the last two decades, is shown in Fig. 20–8.
The marc is heated in ring cooker-like pans, equipped with sweep arms that mix
and move it down through the stacked trays. Steam is sparged into the meal at the
bottom of the DT section and raises through hollow bolts into the higher trays, car-
988 LUSAS

Fig. 20–8. Schumacher-type desolventizer-toaster-dryer-cooler (DTDC). (Courtesy of Crown Iron

Works Company, Minneapolis, MN.)

rying the hexane vapors with it. The moist, cooked, meal then passes into a sepa-
rated DC section for drying and cooling.
In a typical commercial process, described by Witte (1995), soybean marc
leaves the extractor at about 57°C (135°F), and for feed uses is “toasted” by steam
at 16 to 24% moisture and 100 to 105°C (212–220°F) for 15 to 30 min. In the DC
operation, the meal is dried to <12% and is cooled to <32°C (90°F) or within 6°C
(10°F) of ambient temperature, whichever is higher. Additional details of desol-
ventizing flakes for food use, or toasting for specific animal species, are described
later.

20–3.5.4 Miscella Desolventizing and Solvent Recovery

Much effort has gone into development of heat recapture systems to conserve
energy in oils extraction and processing in the last two decades. The major com-
ponents of the miscella desolventizing-hexane recovery system consist of:
1. First-stage evaporator. In this unit, sometimes called an “economizer,” the
miscella (~30% oil content, at slightly less than the operating temperature
of the extractor) is pumped upward in a vertical tube-in-shell heat ex-
changer equipped with a dome. As the oil miscella rises in the tubes, its
solvent is vaporized by heat from descending DT vapors in the shell. En-
ergy for evaporation by this recaptured heat is free. The miscella is con-
centrated to ~65 to 85% oil, settles to the bottom of the evaporator and is
sent to the next evaporator. The solvent-water vapors are pulled from the
dome to a condenser by vacuum.
SOYBEAN PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION 989

2. Second-stage evaporator. The partially desolventized miscella again is

pumped upward in a second tube in-shell heat exchanger, but this time the
shell is heated by steam. Solvent-water vapors again are flashed off and
collected from the dome, with oil content in the miscella raised to ~90 to
95%.
3. Oil stripper. Miscella from the second stage evaporator enters the top of
a column that is sparged with steam from the bottom, and removes the rest
of the solvent as the oil settles to the bottom. After exiting, the desolven-
tized soybean oil is sent to short-term storage or to degumming.
4. Solvent vapors collection system. Solvent vapors from the first and sec-
ond stage evaporators and the oil stripper, the extractor, and lines that scav-
enge vents on storage tanks and other sites where they might escape into
the atmosphere, are collected and brought to cooling heat exchangers,
where they, and the accompanying water, are condensed.
5. Solvent work tank. The condensed solvent-water mixtures from the econ-
omizer and vapor condensers are brought to a tank which allows them to
separate by gravity, with hexane rising to the top. Before discarding, the
water is sent to a reboiler to reclaim solvent that may have dissolved in it.
6. Mineral oil scrubbers. Some noncondensable gases (mainly air) are pro-
duced at each vapor condenser. They are sparged through mineral oil
scrubbers to salvage solvent that may have dissolved in them. Periodically,
the scrubber oils are heated to distill hexane vapors that may have been
collected. These are condensed and returned to the solvent supply system.
Modern hexane extraction systems operate at 70°C (158°F) in the DT dome
(head space), with the desolventized meal exiting the DT at ~18 to 19%
moisture content. The miscella/oil mixture leaves the first-stage evapora-
tor at 85% oil content, and is heated by an in-line heat exchanger for sec-
ond-stage evaporation 75.5°C (170°F). Modern solvent extraction and re-
covery uses about 188 kg of steam t–1 (375 lb short ton–1) of soybean
crushed (DeSmet, 2001).

20–4 SOYBEAN OIL PROCESSING

Technically, “refining” means alkali neutralization of oil. But, over time, all
processing which occurs after extraction in production of oil ingredients has become
known as refining, and the facility in which it occurs a “refinery.” Production of con-
sumer products, like margarine, often is done at a different location or firm. Soy-
bean extraction plants may have simple partial degumming capability for reducing
phosphorous content of the oil to <0.02% to prepare it for trading as Crude
Degummed Soybean Oil (NOPA, 2000), or an extended refining and processing fa-
cility which makes packaged consumer goods, sometimes including soaps and de-
tergents. A flow sheet of the more common operations in fats and oils processing
is shown in Fig. 20–9.

20–4.1 Crude Oil Receiving and Handling

Maximizing yields of saleable soybean oil requires even more detailed at-
tention to lot-to-lot differences than for soybean extraction. The first priority after
990 LUSAS

receiving a shipment of oil is to characterize its quality level and determine how to
convert it into the most profitable products. If purchased, typical composition
checks to determine the price paid typically include:
- Flash point—AOCS Cc 9c-95 (>250°F, to ensure low hexane residues)
- Unsaponifiable Matter—AOCS Ca 6a-40 (<1.5%)
- Free Fatty Acids, as Oleic—AOCS Ca 5a-40 (<0.75%)
- Moisture and Volatile Matter—AOCS Ca 2d-25 and Insoluble Impuri-
ties—AOCS Ca 3a-46 (<0.3%)
- Phosphorous - AOCS Ca 12-55 (<0.02%)

Fig. 20–9. Composite flow sheet of oils and fats refining and processing.