Soybean meal

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Common names

Soybean meal, soyabean meal, soya bean meal, soybean cake, soybean oil meal, soybean oil cake [English]; tourteau
de soja [French]; Sojaschrot [German]; Bã đậu nành [Vietnamese]; 大豆粕 [Japanese]; Соевый жмых [Russian]

Species
Glycine max (L.) Merr. [Fabaceae]
Synonyms

Dolichos soja L., Glycine gracilis Skvortsov, Glycine hispida (Moench) Maxim., Glycine
hispida var. brunnea Skvortsov, Glycine hispida var. lutea Skvortsov, Glycine soja (L.) Merr., Phaseolus max L., Soja
hispida Moench, Soja max (L.) Piper

Feed categories
• Legume seeds and by-products
• Oil plants and by-products
• Plant products and by-products
Related feed(s)
• Soybean (general)
• Soybean seeds
• Soybean hulls
Description
Soybean meal is the most important protein source used to feed farm animals. It represents two-thirds of the total world
output of protein feedstuffs, including all other major oil meals and fish meal (Oil World, 2015). Its feeding value is
unsurpassed by any other plant protein source and it is the standard to which other protein sources are compared
(Cromwell, 1999). While it has been an accepted part of livestock and poultry diets in the USA since the mid-1930s (Lewis
et al., 2001), soybean feed production took off in the mid-1970s and then accelerated in the early 1990s due to a growing
demand from developing countries. The expansion of aquaculture and prohibitions on the feed use of slaughterhouse by-
products have also fueled the demand for this high-quality source of protein (Steinfeld et al., 2006).
Soybean meal is the by-product of the extraction of soybean oil. Several processes exist, resulting in different products.
Soybean meal is usually classified for marketing by its crude protein content. High-protein types are obtained from
dehulled seeds and contain 47-49% protein and 3% crude fibre (as fed basis). Other types of soybean meal include the
hulls or part of the hulls and contain less than 47% protein and more than 6% crude fibre. In solvent-extracted soybean
meals, the oil content is typically lower than 2% while it exceeds 3% in mechanically-extracted meals (Cromwell, 2012).

Distribution
Soybean meal is available worldwide. In 2014, soybean meal production reached 243 million tons and accounted for
62.5% of oil meals (Soybean Meal Info Center, 2018). Main producers were China (76 MT), the USA (44 MT), Argentina
(33 MT), Brazil (33 MT), and the EU-28 (12.5 MT). Main exporters were Argentina and Brazil (Oil World, 2015). The EU-
28 was the most important importer of soybean meal (22 MT) followed by South-East Asian countries like Indonesia,
Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines (Oil World, 2015). In the EU-28, soybean meal represented 61% of the proteins
used to feed livestock, 16% of compound feeds, and an amount of 24 MT (Booth, 2015). In the region, the demand for
partially defatted soybean meal from labelled non-GMO soybean was reported to be about 10% of the total amount of

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imported soybean equivalent (3.4 MT). This demand also addresses the need for organic farming, or locally produced
soybeans in 2020 in the EU (Royer et al., 2020).

Processes

There are 3 main processes to extract soybean oil:

• The most common process consists in extracting oil from soybean flakes by solvent. In the USA, virtually
all soybeans (99%) are solvent-extracted. This method is the most efficient and about 1.5% oil is left in the
resulting soybean meal.
• The second method consists in a mechanical extraction by a screw press (expeller). This method yields
less oil and a soybean meal containing more than 5% residual oil.
• The third method combines extruding and expelling of soybean flakes, and uses solvent for oil extraction
(Johnson et al., 2018).
Before extraction, the soybean seeds undergo different treatments aimed at increasing oil extraction and soybean meal
quality (Johnson et al., 2018; Dunford, 2012).

Pre-extraction treatments

Cooking
Cooking the seeds has positive effects on: moisture conditioning of seeds and easing dehulling, oil viscosity reduction,
increasing plasticity of seed, breaking of cell walls, protein clotting by denaturation, sterilization and deactivation of
thermosensitive enzymes, and destruction of thermolabile antinutritional factors (ANFs) (Dunford, 2012; Laisney 1992).

Crushing and flaking

Crushing and flaking operations promote solvent extraction step by changing the permeability of the soybean flakes
(Dunford, 2012).

Dehulling

Dehulling is a facultative process that separates the oil-rich kernel from hulls which represents 8% of the seed and are
mainly fibrous containing limited amount of oil. Dehulling also removes antinutritional factors.

Extraction processes

Solvent extraction
In the solvent extraction process, soybeans are cracked, dehulled (optional), heated, flaked and passed (or not) through
a kind of extruder called an expander. The expander produces a porous pellet with increased cell rupture and greater
density. This makes oil extraction by solvent easier (usually hexane but extraction with ethanol or with mixtures of hexane
and ethanol are also possible) (Dunford, 2012). The use of the expander reduces the quantity of solvent required. The
extraction is done by percolation of solvent through a bed of flakes (expanded or not): the lipid material is solubilised with
the solvent, the mixture percolates and is collected separately. The extracted flakes called spent flakes are further dried
to eliminate the solvent, then toasted and ground. The soybeans may be dehulled prior to extraction, and the hulls may
be added back at the end of the process. If the hulls are not added back, the defatted soybean meal contains 48% crude
protein and no more than 1.5% oil. This resulting meal is called high protein meal. The toasting of soybean meal after
desolventation increases soybean meal digestibility as it removes urease and trypsin inhibitors (Johnson et al., 2018).

Mechanical extraction

Screw pressing
In the mechanical process, the soybeans are cracked, dried, heated (steamed) and fed to a mechanical press (screw
press), then the resulting flakes are dried and ground. The heat generated by the friction of the screw press destroys the
anti-nutritional factors in raw soybeans. These specialized meals have higher levels of residual oil (energy), lower protein
contents, greater rumen by-pass values, and they are more palatable than other oilseed meals. They are valuable in dairy
rations to balance the amino acids supplied by alfalfa forage, or corn-based by-products (Johnson et al., 2018). The
extracted flakes may be further refined into soybean flour and isolates that have specific feed and food applications.

Extruding/expelling
Extruding/expelling is a variation of mechanical extraction. Soybean flakes are fed to a dry extruder and do not require
steaming. After dry extrusion, the meats are passed through a screw press to extract the oil. This process can be done at
small scale in farm facilities and are much appreciated for labelled non-GMO soybean, for organic farming, etc. There are
many variations of these processes, notably treatments that improve the rumen by-pass protein value of the meal for
ruminants, including combinations of heating, mechanical and chemical treatments (Johnson et al., 2018).

Removal of antinutritional factors and improvement of protein solubility

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While conventional extraction of oil from soybeans seeds is effective in removing ANFs, this is not true for mechanical
treatments that do not use high temperatures. Extruding prior to pressing may help solving this issue in expeller soybean
meal as it removes as much ANFs as conventional solvent extraction (Blair, 2008).

Pre-extraction treatments of expeller soybean meal

Physical/thermal treatments
A variety of physical/thermal treatments can be used to remove ANFs in expeller soybean meal. In France, combinations
of dehulling, flaking, and cooking as been reported (Quinsac, 2015). The overall choice of extraction process is guided by
technico-economical evaluation. In places where only small amounts of soybeans must be crushed, both processes of
extruding-expelling and screw pressing can be valuable, they can be precedented by cooking treatments (Quinsac et al.,
2015).

Tail-end treatments

Enzyme addition and fermentation

Enzyme addition and fermentation of soybean meal have been done in order to remove antinutritional factors like NSPs
and antigenic proteins from soybean meal but these treatments resulted in inconsistent improvements of soybean meal
nutritive value (energy and digestibility of aminoacids) in monogastric animals (Navarro et al., 2017; Sotak et al.,
2014; Cervantes-Pahm et al., 2010; Graham et al., 2002).

Fine grinding
Fine grinding (also described as "micronization") of soybean meal and of full-fat soybean have been reported to increase
ileal digestibilities of amino acids of those products in broilers. The fine grinding of soybean meal result in higher amino
acid digestibilities than those of full-fat soybeans (Valencia et al., 2009).

Environmental impact
The high phytate content of soybean meal requires supplementation with inorganic sources of phosphorus in monogastric
animals. Dietary P in excess of animal requirements is excreted into the environment and becomes an environmental
pollutant (Dilger et al., 2006).
The high digestibility of the amino acids of soybean meal in diets for monogastrics and the high content of lysine allow
the formulation of diets that contain less total protein than with other protein sources and less excess nitrogen in the feed,
thereby reducing nitrogen excretion into the biosphere (Pettigrew et al., 2008).
Soybean meals are usually extracted with hexane, a solvent that is extremely flammable and non-biorenewable, poses
health risks and is regulated as a hazardous air pollutant (O'Quinn et al., 1997).
Nutritional attributes
A highly palatable feedstuff, soybean meal is characterised by a high protein content (from 43 to 53% as fed) and a low
crude fibre content (less than 3% for the dehulled soybean meals). It has a very good amino acid balance and contains
high amounts of lysine, tryptophane, threonine and isoleucine, which are often lacking in cereal grains. However, the
concentration of cystine and methionine are suboptimal for monogastric animals, and methionine supplementation is
necessary (McDonald et al., 2002). Amino acid digestibility is also very high (more than 90% for lysine in pigs and poultry)
(Sauvant et al., 2004).
Soybean meal contains oligosaccharides such as raffinose and stachyose that cannot be digested by monogastric
animals, due to the lack of a specific endogenous alpha-galactosidase. Raffinose and stachyose can cause flatulence
and diarrhoea that may increase the digesta passage rate, and decrease digestion and absorption of dietary nutrients. In
poultry, these oligosaccharides have been shown to decrease nitrogen-corrected true metabolizable energy, fibre
digestion, and transit time (Parsons et al., 2000; Coon et al., 1990; Rackis, 1975 and Reddy, 1984 cited by Zuo et al.,
1996). Low-oligosaccharide soybean meals are now available.
About 60-70% of phosphorus in soybean meal is bound to phytic acid, which is nutritionally unavailable to monogastric
animals and reduces the availability of P and other minerals (Wilcox et al., 2000). Supplementation with inorganic
phosphorus is required, and the addition of phytase may alleviate the problem. Low-phytate soybeans are under
development but their productivity is still low (Waldroup et al., 2008).
Soybean meal is a poor source of B vitamins and lack of B vitamin supplementation in soybean meal-based diets may
cause reproductive and performance problems in sows, older pigs and hens (McDonald et al., 2002).

Potential constraints

Variability
Soybean meal is a very consistent product and one of the least variable protein sources for animal nutrition (Smith, 1986).
However, genetics, growing conditions, storage conditions and processes cause variations in its composition and
nutritional quality. Because soybean meal can be included in large amounts in animal diets, small changes in quality might

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translate into important changes in animal performance, therefore, it is necessary to monitor its quality very closely (van
Eys et al., 2004).

Antinutritional Factors
Soybean seeds contain antinutritional factors. Soybean meal usually undergoes several heat treatments that destroy
heat-labile antinutritional factors (particularly trypsin inhibitors and lectins) but it is necessary to assess whether the meal
was adequately processed. Inclusion of soybean meal in broilers (21 day-old) diets containing low levels of TIA - trypsin
inhibitor activity (1,8 mg/g vs. 4.8 mg/g) resulted in higher dietary digestibility coefficients for DM, N, energy, and
aminoacids (AA) (Dourado et al., 2011).
Both under- and over-processing of soybean meal has been shown to depress average daily gains in broilers (Perilla et
al., 1997). In pigs, performance of swine fed soybean meal will be depressed if it has not been adequately processed to
inactivate the anti-quality factors (Grala et al., 1998). Underheating, that may result in the incomplete destruction of
antinutritional factors, is verified by the urease test, which determines residual urease activity and is an indirect indicator
of active trypsin inhibitors. Overheating causes Maillard reactions that decrease the concentration and availability of heat-
sensitive amino acids, particularly lysine (van Eys et al., 2004). Overheating also suppresses phytate degradation in the
rumen and leads to lower availability of dietary phosphorus (Konishi et al., 1999). Several methods assess overheating,
including KOH protein solubility, Protein Dispersibility Index (PDI) and Nitrogen Solubility Index (NSI). Soybean meals
adequately heat-processed should have PDI values between 15 and 30%, KOH solubilities between 70 and 85% and a
urease index of 0.3 pH unit change or below. Residual antitrypsic activity can also be directly measured by reference
methods, but the procedure is less adapted to routine quality control (van Eys et al., 2004).

Goitrogens and oestrogens

Soybean meal may contain goitrogenic substances. Soybean meal is goitrogenic for monogastrics and it has been shown
to be responsible for the goitrous calves born to cows receiving soybean meal as the major source of supplementary
protein (Hemken et al., 1971). Soybean meal contains 1 g/kg of genistein, which has oestrogenic properties (McDonald
et al., 2002).

Non-Starch Polysaccharides (NSP)

Some carbohydrate components in the feed may interfere with digestion. For instance, soybean meal may contain a
substantial level of α-galactosaccharide which has been associated with reduced digestibility of soybean meal-based diets
(Araba et al., 1994). The addition of 40 g/kg NSP to a commercial broiler diet decreased weight gain, feed efficiency and
apparent metabolizable energy (AME) by 28.6, 27.0 and 21.2%, respectively (Choct et al., 1995). The antinutritive effects
of NSP in poultry and pigs might be due to their physicochemical properties. In particular, soluble viscous NSP depress
the digestibilities of protein, starch and fat (Smits et al., 1996). NSP content of soybean meal is approximately 61 and 103
g/kg (dry matter basis) for soluble NSP and insoluble NSP, respectively (Bach Knudsen, 1997). NSP increase microbial
activity (fermentations) and may cause intestinal disorder. A comparison between conventional soybean meal and low-
oligosaccharide soybean meals have shown an average difference of 7% in total metabolizable energy (TME), and up to
9.8% when the comparison was done with the lowest-oligosaccharide containing soybean meals, in roosters (Parsons et
al., 2000).
Enzyme addition (xylanase, protease and amylase) in poultry and pig diets could be a good way to limit NSP issues
(Dourado et al., 2011). Birds cannot degrade α-1:6 galactoside, thus the addition of galactosidase could alleviate this
problem (Leeson et al., 2005; Zanella et al., 1999). However, in a treatment with α-galactosidase optimized for
oligosaccharide degradation, raffinose and stachyose were effectively reduced by 69 and 54%, respectively, but the diets
containing enzyme-treated soybean meal failed to improve growth performance (Graham et al., 2002).

Phytates and mineral availability

Though soybean meal has a relatively high content in phosphorus, much of it is present in the form of phosphorus-phytate,
a poorly digestible complex for monogastric animals. Most of phosphorus is thus excreted in manure, which raises growing
concern about the effects of phosphorus upon the eutrophication of surface waters (Waldroup et al., 2008). Phytates also
link to zinc whose availability is then low in soybean meal (Blair, 2007). Pigs fed on soybean meal should receive 50
mg/kg zinc, whereas the recommendation is 18 mg/kg for pigs fed casein (animal protein) as the source of protein in the
diet (NRC, 1998 cited by Blair, 2007).

GM soybean meal
The potential health issues of genetically-modified soybean and other GM foods have been the matter of considerable
debate. While most studies have failed to show deleterious side-effects to GM soybean use (EFSA GMO Panel, 2008),
these varieties remain controversial, and are subject to legal authorisation in some countries. In the EU, for example, only
15 soybean varieties are allowed to be used as feeds (GMO Register, 2016).
Ruminants
Soybean meal is an important part of the diets of ruminants due to its high amount of rumen-degradable protein (more
than 60%), good amino acid balance and high cell-wall digestibility (INRA, 1988). It is very palatable to ruminants.
Inclusion levels in ruminant and pre-ruminant diets are about 35% in dairy cows and beef, 30% in ewes and 20% in calves
and lambs (Ewing, 1997).

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Cattle
Soybean meal is a staple of the diets of high-producing dairy and beef cattle in many countries. In dairy cows, it has
positive effects on feed intake, milk yield and milk protein content (Rego et al., 2008; McDonald et al., 1998; Polan et al.,
1997; Baldwin, 1986). In steers, supplementation of soybean meal on prairie diets resulted in higher forage intake and
nutrient digestibility (Krysl et al., 1989; Guthrie et al., 1988). In calves younger than 3 months, methionine, lysine and
tryptophan are the 3 first limiting amino acids of soybean meal, but this deficiency disappears after 3 months (Abe et al.,
1999; Abe et al., 1998).

While soybean meal is well degraded in the rumen and provides ammonia, amino acids and peptides for rumen microbial
protein synthesis, it may not provide enough undegraded intake protein to meet the demands of highly productive animals.
Therefore, an important line of research has consisted in developing techniques aiming at improving the rumen by-pass
quality of the soybean meal protein. Many methods have been tested over the years:

• Thermal and mechanical processes: heating, extruding, extruding-expelling, various combinations of

heat and pressure, etc.
• Chemical treatments: alcohol, formaldehyde, NaOH, NaCl, xylose, tannins, heated Ca salts, bentonite,
acids, alkalis, encapsulation with blood, zein or fat (Castro et al., 2008; Colmenero et al., 2006; Chen KuenJaw
et al., 2002; Wacyk et al., 2000; Atwal et al., 1995; Smith, 1986).
Replacing part of the soybean meal by non-protein sources of nitrogen such as urea has also been extensively studied.
For recent examples of this type of research, see Hadjipanayiotou, 1998; Melo et al., 2003; Paengkoum et al., 2009; Pires
et al., 2004.
Due to the importance of soybean meal and to its high cost, particularly in countries that have to import it, there have
been innumerable attempts at replacing it by other protein sources such as protein oil meals (cottonseed meal, sunflower
meal, rapeseed meal, groundnut meal…), legume seeds (peas, faba beans, lupins…), starch and distillery by-products,
leaf meals (alfalfa…), land animal proteins (meat and bone meals, poultry by-products and other slaughterhouse by-
products) and fish meals. For recent examples of this type of research where soybean meal was compared to an
alternative protein source, see Abu-Ghazaleh et al., 2001; McDonald et al., 1998; Brzoska, 2008; Wanapat et al.,
2007; Froidmont et al., 2004; Seoane et al., 1990; Veira et al., 1990; DelCurto et al., 1990; Claypool et al.,
1985; Ravichandiran et al., 2008; Tripathi et al., 2001.

The success (or failure) of replacing soybean meal by an alternative protein (or non-protein nitrogen) source, or of using
a technical process to improve its feed value, is actually measured by a cost-benefit analysis: an alternative protein source
that is nutritionally inferior to soybean meal may have a price and availability that makes it economically more interesting.
Conversely, a relatively expensive process may result in such higher animal performance that its cost is easily absorbed
by the additional gains. However, concerns about the potential health and safety issues associated with alternatives to
regular soybean meal should be taken into consideration.

Sheep
As with cattle, there have been numerous attempts at replacing soybean meal in sheep diets with locally available and
less expensive protein sources. In recent years, products as varied as sunflower meal (Irshaid et al., 2003), linseed
(Giannico et al., 2009), bitter vetch (Haddad, 2006), pongam cake (Soren et al., 2009), banana trunks (Mathius et al.,
2001) and fish meal (Aimone et al., 1996; Urbaniak, 1995) have been successfully tested from an economic perspective.
Soybean meal, compared with energy sources such as maize or barley grains in late pregnancy or early lactation ewes,
gave the same performance in animals fed low quality hay as a basal diet (Hill et al., 1995).

Goats
In goats, adding 1.6% urea to a soybean meal-based diet allowed a reduction of soybean meal by 12% (from 25% to 13%
inclusion level) resulting in lower feed costs (Costa et al., 2009). In countries where such a practice is allowed, soybean
meal can also be replaced by meat offals or poultry meal without altering animal performances (Oyeyemi et al.,
2006; Sanchez Estrada et al., 2002).
Pigs
Soybean meal is the preferred source of protein in pig diets due to its content of highly digestible essential amino acids
(lysine, but also threonine, tryptophan and isoleucine). It is a good complement to cereals that contain lower levels of
those amino acids but higher levels of sulphur-containing amino acids, particularly methionine, that are limiting in soybean
meal. Cereal/soybean meal-based diets are thereby typical in pig farms located in countries where soybean meal is
affordable (Pettigrew et al., 2008). Soybean meal can feed all classes of pigs, and the inclusion levels generally used are
about 30% in growing, finishing pigs and sows, and slightly lower (20-25%) in piglets (Ewing, 1997). However, newly
weaned pigs prefer dried milk products (whey or skim milk) as a protein source (Patience et al., 1995).
Dehulled soybean meal is roughly higher in energy by 5% and in lysine by 10 to 15% (Patience et al., 1995). It proved to
have a better feed conversion ratio and to sustain higher animal performance than non-dehulled soybean meal from
starters to finishing pigs (Swick, 1997).
Poultry
Soybean meal is the major and preferred source of protein for all types of poultry, due to the amount and quality of its
protein and amino acids. A diet based on maize and soybean meal provides a good balance of all essential amino-acids
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except methionine, but this problem can be solved by the inclusion of synthetic methionine (Waldroup et al., 2008).
Soybean meal inclusion levels range from 25% in chicks to 30-40% in broilers, breeders and laying hens (Willis,
2003; McDonald et al., 2002; Ewing, 1997).

Pre-extraction treatments have shown to be effective in improving soybean meal nutritive value.

Dehulling
It was shown that the dehulling of soy beans prior to making conventional soybean meal had positive effects on layers
who produced significantly bigger eggs with stronger eggshell when they were fed on dehulled soybean meal (Park et al.,
2002). Broilers fed on dehulled soybean meal also linearly increased their body weight gain with the provision of soybean
meal in their diet and their gain per feed ratio was higher (Park et al., 2002).
Recently, it was shown that dehulling soybeans prior to Extrusion-Pressing or prior to Flaking-Cooking-Pressing had no
effect on starter broilers (1-14d) and growing broilers (14-28d) for feed intake (FI), average daily gain (ADG) and the feed:
gain ratio (FCR) (Royer et al., 2020). Dehulling had only significant advantage on carcass yield, possibly resulting from
adaptive growth of gizzard and proventriculus (Royer et al., 2020).

Heat treatments
Heating soybeans prior to oil extraction or heating soybean meal is very important as heat can destroy heat labile
antinutritional factors present in soybean seeds. Heat has also some effects on protein solubility of soybean meal, which
is important for its nutritive value. It has been demonstrated that autoclaving raw hexane-extracted soybeans or soybean
meal increased the growth of broilers fed on this raw material by 140 to 150% (Dozier et al., 2011). Cooking, autoclaving
and microwaving were referred to as the most successful heat procedures that may have an important role in removing
ANFs in peas (Habiba, 2002). In soybean, heat procedures like extrusion, cooking, toasting and roasting have been
reported to be efficient in reducing trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) and phytic acid (PA) in soybeans (Ari et al., 2012).
In broiler chicken, feeding heat-processed soybean meal yielded higher final body weight and higher BWG and the broilers
had lower feed: gain ratio compared with broiler fed on raw soybean meal. However, no differences were found among
heating procedures (autoclaving, roasting and microwaving) on growth performance of animals for the starter, grower and
finisher periods (Tousi-Mojarrad et al., 2014).

On the contrary, overheating has deleterious effect on soybean meal nutritive value and it has been recommended not to
overheat soybean meal.

Nevertheless, the method, and the combination of time and temperature need to be optimized since under-heating results
in poor destruction of ANFs while over-heating causes unavailability of some amino acids. It has been suggested that the
digestibility and availability of essential amino acids are increased when autoclaving occurs at 121°C further than 20 min,
causing higher growth performance of broiler chickens thaks to higher destruction of ANFs by the heat treatment, while
the excessive hot processing when SBM was autoclaved at 121°C for 40 min decreased digestibility and availability of
lysine and cystine (Parsons et al., 1991) and resulted in lower growth performanceof broiler chickens (Tousi-Mojarrad et
al., 2014: Anderson-Hafermann et al., 1992). An other study suggested that over-heating occurred beoyond 10 minutes
of autoclaving: subsequently soybean meal nutritive value was impaired (Araba et al., 1990).
In the USA, approximately 66% of protein in broiler feeds comes from soybean meal (Dozier et al., 2011). The reference
soybean meal used in poultry feeding in the world is the solvent-extracted soybean meal.

However, the recent development of organic poultry production led to alternative processes like extrusion-pression
(expelling) and more energetic soybean meal.

Extrusion can be done at different temperatures and it was shown that at the lowest temperatures (121 and 135°C) the
resulting soybean meal could be considered underprocessed, with high urease activity and low amino acid digestibilities
in roosters. It was then suggested to extrude soybeans at temperatures higher than 135°C and no over processing was
noted at 160°C (Karr-Lilienthal et al., 2006).
Amino acid true digestibilities of expeller-extruded soybean meal were lower than those of solvent-extracted soybean
meal referred to in the NRC. However, it was found that broilers fed on such expeller-extruded soybean meal had no
difference in growth performance over a 49-day period but chicken had lower breast meat yield (24.95 vs. 26.30%) (Powell
et al., 2011). A further experiment reported that CP ileal digestibility and amino acids ileal digestibility of extruded soybean
meal was higher that those of solvent extracted soybean meal. Daily weight gains and feed intakes were increased and
FCR was improved by the use of extruded soybean meal which was thus considered valuable for poultry feeding
(Jahanian et al., 2016).
Other plant protein sources can partially and totally replace soybean meal in poultry rations, such as cottonseed meal,
groundnut meal, sunflower meal and palm kernel meal, provided that they are used in combination with lysine
supplementation. However, antinutritional factors and other potential issues may limit the use of these alternative protein
sources (Elkin, 2002).
Rabbits
Toasted soybean meal is a reference feedstuff for rabbits, and it is generally included at a 15-20% level in their diets
(Lebas, 2004). As with other species, many attempts have been made to find alternative sources of protein in order to
decrease feed costs. For example:

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 • Cottonseed meal could totally replace soybean meal in growing rabbits (Davila et al., 2007).
• A 50% replacement of soybean meal by Nigella sativa cake has been proposed in diets for weanling
rabbits (Amber et al., 2001).
• In diets for growing rabbits, a 50% replacement by radish seed meal, rocket seed meal or cumin seed
meal (El-Tohamy et al., 2007) with hydrolyzed cattle hide scrap meal (Furlan et al., 1997) have been proposed.
• For pregnant and lactating does 50% linseed meal (Amber, 2002), and 25 to 50% sunflower meal could
replace soybean meal (Amber et al., 2007).
Fish
Because of its global availability and cost, soybean meal is potentially considered as the most pertinent protein source as
an alternative to fish meal (Brown et al., 2008). The most commonly used products in aquaculture are toasted soybean
meals. Depending on availability, dehulled and non-dehulled soybean meals are used, as well as unground soybean
cakes in several tropical and/or developing countries.

The general limitations with regard to the use of soybean products in diets for aquatic animals are due to the relatively
high carbohydrate, low crude fat and crude protein levels, and the lower levels of sulphur-containing amino acids,
compared to those found in fish meal. Phytic phosphorus is not available to fish, and also interfers with the absorption of
other micronutrients. The presence of antinutritional factors in the seeds is also a matter of concern, though these are
normally destroyed in toasted soybean meal.

Soybean meal is highly palatable to most warm water fish (Lowell, 1998; Akiyama, 1991). In different species of
salmonids, partial replacement of fish meal by soybean products has been demonstrated (Kaushik, 2008). A commonly
observed adverse effect with soybean products in the feeds for Atlantic salmon is related to enteritis (Baeverfjord et al.,
1996; Bakke-McKellep et al., 2007), the exact cause of which has so far not been identified.
Crustaceans

Shrimps and prawns

Soybean meal has been used to feed marine shrimp since the 1980s (Akiyama, 1991). By proper feed formulation using
soybean meal along with other plant protein sources, it was possible to develop a “fish meal free” diet for rearing marine
shrimp under pond culture conditions (Amaya et al., 2008). Fish meal can be totally replaced with soybean meal and
distillers' by-products in the feeds for freshwater prawns (Tidwell et al., 1993).

Crabs
In the mud crab species Scylla paramamosain, soybean meal included at 30% in the diet had the highest digestibility of
DM, protein and energy, and was a better ingredient than maize flour, rice bran and cassava meal (Phuong Ha Truong et
al., 2009).

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Tables of chemical composition and nutritional value

• Soybean meal, high protein, type 50 and similar

• Soybean meal, type 48 and similar
• Soybean meal, low protein, type 44-46 and similar
• Soybean meal, high oil (expeller)

Avg: average or predicted value; SD: standard deviation; Min: minimum value; Max: maximum value; Nb: number of
values (samples) used

Soybean meal, high protein, type 50 and similar

Main analysis Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Dry matter % as fed 88 0.8 86.3 95.9 1259
Crude protein % DM 55.2 1.6 48.9 58.5 1372
Crude fibre % DM 4.4 0.6 1.6 5.7 382
Neutral detergent fibre % DM 10.5 1.7 6.2 12.1 19 *
Acid detergent fibre % DM 5.7 1.2 3.6 8.1 11 *
Lignin % DM 0.4 0.3 0.1 1.2 25
Ether extract % DM 1.7 0.6 0.4 3.8 1130
Ash % DM 7.3 0.5 6.1 9.2 315
Insoluble ash % DM 0.07 0.05 0.01 0.2 8
Starch (polarimetry) % DM 6.3 1.5 3.4 9.9 40
Starch (enzymatic) % DM 1.1 0.4 2.1 3
Total sugars % DM 10.8 1 8.6 12.4 29
Gross energy MJ/kg DM 19.7 0.3 19.2 20.8 20 *

Amino acids Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Alanine g/16g N 4.3 0.3 3.8 5.8 89 *
Arginine g/16g N 7.3 0.5 6 9.1 90 *
Aspartic acid g/16g N 11.3 0.6 9 14.1 87 *
Cystine g/16g N 1.6 0.1 0.8 1.7 93 *
Glutamic acid g/16g N 17.9 1 15 21.7 87 *
Glycine g/16g N 4.2 0.2 3.8 4.9 89 *
Histidine g/16g N 2.7 0.2 2.4 3.2 80 *
Isoleucine g/16g N 4.6 0.2 3.8 5.1 81 *
Leucine g/16g N 7.7 0.4 6.5 8.7 86 *
Lysine g/16g N 6.2 0.3 5.2 7 164 *
Methionine g/16g N 1.4 0.1 1 1.6 115 *
Methionine+cystine g/16g N 3 0.2 1.8 3.1 93 *
Phenylalanine g/16g N 5.1 0.2 4.4 5.7 91 *
Phenylalanine+tyrosine g/16g N 8.6 0.5 7.7 10.1 71 *
Proline g/16g N 5 0.3 4.5 6.2 45 *
Serine g/16g N 4.6 0.4 4.2 6.1 91 *
Threonine g/16g N 3.8 0.3 3.4 4.6 92 *
Tryptophan g/16g N 1.4 0.07 1.1 1.4 52 *
Tyrosine g/16g N 3.5 0.3 2.9 4.4 72 *
Valine g/16g N 4.8 0.3 4.1 5.8 89 *

Fatty acids Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Myristic acid C14:0 % fatty acids 0.2 0.3 0 1.1 14
Palmitic acid C16:0 % fatty acids 11.2 2.2 9.6 20.8 22
Palmitoleic acid C16:1 % fatty acids 0.1 0.08 0 0.2 7
Stearic acid C18:0 % fatty acids 3.8 0.4 3.2 4.8 22
Oleic acid C18:1 % fatty acids 23.1 1.6 19.8 27.3 23
Linoleic acid C18:2 % fatty acids 54 2.9 42.9 58.2 22
Linolenic acid C18:3 % fatty acids 7.2 0.9 4.8 8.7 22

Minerals Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

8
 Calcium g/kg DM 3.9 0.7 2 6 359 *
Phosphorus g/kg DM 7.1 0.6 5.7 8.9 362 *
Potassium g/kg DM 24.3 *
Sodium g/kg DM 0.13 0.18 0.01 0.61 24
Chlorine g/kg DM 1 1 0.4 3.2 7
Magnesium g/kg DM 3.2 0.3 3 3.9 7 *
Sulfur g/kg DM 4.6 0.3 4.4 5.1 6
Manganese mg/kg DM 44 12 25 75 10
Zinc mg/kg DM 57 11 45 77 9
Copper mg/kg DM 17 1 15 19 8
Iron mg/kg DM 201
Selenium mg/kg DM 0.5 0.4 0.5 2

Pig nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Energy digestibility, growing pig % 87.5 1 *
DE growing pig MJ/kg DM 17.3 1 *
MEn growing pig MJ/kg DM 15.8 *
NE growing pig MJ/kg DM 9.8 *
Nitrogen digestibility, growing pig % 90.1 1 *

Poultry nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

AMEn cockerel MJ/kg DM 11.4 *
AMEn broiler MJ/kg DM 11.2 *

Ruminants nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

OM digestibility, ruminants % 91.1 1 *
Energy digestibility, ruminants % 91.6 1 *
ME ruminants MJ/kg DM 13.4 *
Nitrogen digestibility, ruminants % 80.2 *
Nitrogen degradability (effective, k=6%) % 63 1 *
Nitrogen degradability (effective, k=4%) % 71 *
a (N) % 13 1
b (N) % 85 1
c (N) h-1 0.085 1
Dry matter degradability (effective, k=6%) % 67 1 *
Dry matter degradability (effective, k=4%) % 73 1 *
a (DM) % 26 1
b (DM) % 71 1
c (DM) h-1 0.08 1

Rabbit nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

DE rabbit MJ/kg DM 17.2 *
MEn rabbit MJ/kg DM 15 *
Energy digestibility, rabbit % 87.1 *
Nitrogen digestibility, rabbit % 79.9 *

The asterisk * indicates that the average value was obtained by an equation.

9
Soybean meal, type 48 and similar

Main analysis Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Dry matter % as fed 88 0.7 80.1 96.3 9654
Crude protein % DM 52.6 1.1 43.8 58.4 9722
Crude fibre % DM 6.8 0.7 4.8 10.7 3328
Neutral detergent fibre % DM 14.2 2.9 6.6 19.5 269 *
Acid detergent fibre % DM 8.4 2.3 3.4 14.8 238 *
Lignin % DM 0.6 0.4 0.1 1.8 213
Ether extract % DM 1.8 0.5 0.3 5.5 7801
Ash % DM 7.1 0.6 5.7 11.2 2899
Insoluble ash % DM 0.6 0.5 0 2.4 72
Starch (polarimetry) % DM 5.7 1.4 0.2 11.4 367
Starch (enzymatic) % DM 1.9 1.4 2.7 4
Total sugars % DM 9.2 1 7.2 13.7 211
Gross energy MJ/kg DM 19.7 0.6 17 22.6 136 *

Amino acids Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Alanine g/16g N 4.4 0.2 3.7 5.6 151 *
Arginine g/16g N 7.3 0.3 6.2 8.3 154 *
Aspartic acid g/16g N 11.3 0.4 9.6 12.8 139 *
Cystine g/16g N 1.6 0.08 1.2 1.9 147 *
Glutamic acid g/16g N 17.8 0.5 15.2 18.9 147 *
Glycine g/16g N 4.2 0.1 3.8 4.8 150 *
Histidine g/16g N 2.7 0.1 2.3 3 158 *
Isoleucine g/16g N 4.6 0.2 3.6 5.2 158 *
Leucine g/16g N 7.6 0.2 7.1 8.3 156 *
Lysine g/16g N 6.2 0.2 5.3 7 212 *
Methionine g/16g N 1.4 0.06 1 1.5 155 *
Methionine+cystine g/16g N 3 0.1 2.3 3.6 147 *
Phenylalanine g/16g N 5.1 0.1 4.5 5.6 156 *
Phenylalanine+tyrosine g/16g N 8.6 0.2 7.8 9.7 114 *
Proline g/16g N 5 0.2 4.4 5.7 142 *
Serine g/16g N 4.7 0.2 3.9 6 148 *
Threonine g/16g N 3.8 0.1 3.3 4.5 156 *
Tryptophan g/16g N 1.4 0.04 1.2 1.5 123 *
Tyrosine g/16g N 3.5 0.1 3.1 4.1 117 *
Valine g/16g N 4.8 0.2 4.4 5.6 156 *

Fatty acids Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Myristic acid C14:0 % fatty acids 0.2 0.3 0 1.1 14
Palmitic acid C16:0 % fatty acids 11.2 2.2 9.6 20.8 22
Palmitoleic acid C16:1 % fatty acids 0.1 0.08 0 0.2 7
Stearic acid C18:0 % fatty acids 3.8 0.4 3.2 4.8 22
Oleic acid C18:1 % fatty acids 23.1 1.6 19.8 27.3 23
Linoleic acid C18:2 % fatty acids 54 2.9 42.9 58.2 22
Linolenic acid C18:3 % fatty acids 7.2 0.9 4.8 8.7 22

Minerals Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Calcium g/kg DM 3.8 0.9 1.6 7.9 1729 *
Phosphorus g/kg DM 7.1 0.6 4.4 8.1 47 *
Potassium g/kg DM 23.8 1.4 20.9 28.6 76 *
Sodium g/kg DM 0.16 0.25 0 1.49 275
Chlorine g/kg DM 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.9 95
Magnesium g/kg DM 3.1 0.4 2.5 4.1 21 *
Sulfur g/kg DM 4.5 0.2 4.3 4.9 5
Manganese mg/kg DM 45 13 25 88 66
Zinc mg/kg DM 62 39 29 303 43
10
 Copper mg/kg DM 19 7 7 61 44
Iron mg/kg DM 274 166 13 617 18
Selenium mg/kg DM 0.2

Pig nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Energy digestibility, growing pig % 85 4.7 72.5 97.7 28 *
DE growing pig MJ/kg DM 16.8 1.1 14.6 20.7 34 *
MEn growing pig MJ/kg DM 15.3 *
NE growing pig MJ/kg DM 9.4 *
Nitrogen digestibility, growing pig % 86.7 3.9 78.8 94.2 24 *

Poultry nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

AMEn cockerel MJ/kg DM 10.9 1.4 9.1 16.5 24 *
AMEn broiler MJ/kg DM 10.7 9.4 11.1 4 *

Ruminants nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

OM digestibility, ruminants % 90.3 86 91.8 3 *
Energy digestibility, ruminants % 90.7 *
ME ruminants MJ/kg DM 13.3 *
Nitrogen digestibility, ruminants % 80.2 1 *
Nitrogen degradability (effective, k=6%) % 63 10 45 93 39 *
Nitrogen degradability (effective, k=4%) % 71 63 86 4 *
a (N) % 13 1
b (N) % 85 1
c (N) h-1 0.085 1
Dry matter degradability (effective, k=6%) % 67 17 40 98 14 *
Dry matter degradability (effective, k=4%) % 73 72 85 4 *
a (DM) % 26 10 5 47 12
b (DM) % 71 11 52 93 12
c (DM) h-1 0.08 0.047 0.017 0.151 12

Rabbit nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

DE rabbit MJ/kg DM 16.4 1 *
MEn rabbit MJ/kg DM 14.2 *
Energy digestibility, rabbit % 83.1 1 *
Nitrogen digestibility, rabbit % 82.8 1 *

The asterisk * indicates that the average value was obtained by an equation.

11
Soybean meal, low protein, type 44-46 and similar

Main analysis Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Dry matter % as fed 87.7 0.9 85.1 93.5 803
Crude protein % DM 49.5 1.7 44.1 54.9 818
Crude fibre % DM 7.2 0.9 4.9 11.2 589
Neutral detergent fibre % DM 14.8 2.3 10.9 20.7 38 *
Acid detergent fibre % DM 8.9 2.2 7.6 15.2 39 *
Lignin % DM 0.8 0.5 0.3 2.1 25
Ether extract % DM 1.9 0.6 0.6 5.1 603
Ash % DM 7.4 0.7 5.8 10 216
Insoluble ash % DM 0.3 0.3 0.03 0.8 5
Starch (polarimetry) % DM 6.8 1.3 5.2 9.7 20
Starch (enzymatic) % DM 0.9 0.8 1.1 4
Total sugars % DM 10.6 1.2 8.3 12.6 20
Gross energy MJ/kg DM 19.5 0.6 17.8 20.8 16 *

Amino acids Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Alanine g/16g N 4.4 0.4 3.6 5.3 46 *
Arginine g/16g N 7.3 0.4 6 8.2 49 *
Aspartic acid g/16g N 11.3 0.6 10 12.9 47 *
Cystine g/16g N 1.5 0.1 1.1 1.6 35 *
Glutamic acid g/16g N 17.8 1.4 14.4 23.3 48 *
Glycine g/16g N 4.2 0.2 3.4 4.8 46 *
Histidine g/16g N 2.7 0.2 2.3 3.1 31 *
Isoleucine g/16g N 4.6 0.4 4.2 6.1 32 *
Leucine g/16g N 7.6 0.4 6.4 8.6 36 *
Lysine g/16g N 6.2 0.3 5.6 6.6 52 *
Methionine g/16g N 1.4 0.2 1.1 1.8 45 *
Methionine+cystine g/16g N 3 0.2 2.5 3.3 35 *
Phenylalanine g/16g N 5.1 0.2 4.5 5.5 49 *
Phenylalanine+tyrosine g/16g N 8.6 0.4 7.7 9.6 24 *
Proline g/16g N 5 0.3 4.5 5.7 13 *
Serine g/16g N 4.8 0.3 4.4 5.5 46 *
Threonine g/16g N 3.9 0.2 3.4 4.5 49 *
Tryptophan g/16g N 1.4 0.05 1.3 1.4 20 *
Tyrosine g/16g N 3.5 0.3 3.1 4.3 24 *
Valine g/16g N 4.8 0.3 4.2 5.5 49 *

Fatty acids Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Myristic acid C14:0 % fatty acids 0.2 0.3 0 1.1 14
Palmitic acid C16:0 % fatty acids 11.2 2.2 9.6 20.8 22
Palmitoleic acid C16:1 % fatty acids 0.1 0.08 0 0.2 7
Stearic acid C18:0 % fatty acids 3.8 0.4 3.2 4.8 22
Oleic acid C18:1 % fatty acids 23.1 1.6 19.8 27.3 23
Linoleic acid C18:2 % fatty acids 54 2.9 42.9 58.2 22
Linolenic acid C18:3 % fatty acids 7.2 0.9 4.8 8.7 22

Minerals Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Calcium g/kg DM 3.9 1.1 1.7 7.4 61 *
Phosphorus g/kg DM 7.1 0.6 6.2 9.1 60 *
Potassium g/kg DM 24.5 1.3 22.4 27 17 *
Sodium g/kg DM 0.09 0.08 0 0.2 26
Chlorine g/kg DM 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.9 7
Magnesium g/kg DM 3.3 0.3 2.4 3.4 10 *
Sulfur g/kg DM 4.5

12
 Manganese mg/kg DM 36 11 23 53 9
Zinc mg/kg DM 41 8 28 48 5
Copper mg/kg DM 16 12 18 4
Iron mg/kg DM 274
Selenium mg/kg DM 0.2

Pig nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Energy digestibility, growing pig % 84.6 *
DE growing pig MJ/kg DM 16.5 *
MEn growing pig MJ/kg DM 15.1 1 *
NE growing pig MJ/kg DM 9.4 *
Nitrogen digestibility, growing pig % 86.1 *

Poultry nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

AMEn cockerel MJ/kg DM 10.8 *
AMEn broiler MJ/kg DM 10.6 *

Ruminants’ nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

OM digestibility, ruminants % 90.2 *
Energy digestibility, ruminants % 90.2 3.3 86 97 8 *
ME ruminants MJ/kg DM 13.2 0.5 13 14.5 8 *
Nitrogen digestibility, ruminants % 80.1 *
Nitrogen degradability (effective, k=6%) % 63 8 56 77 5 *
Nitrogen degradability (effective, k=4%) % 71 *
a (N) % 13 1
b (N) % 85 1
c (N) h-1 0.085 1
Dry matter degradability (effective, k=6%) % 67 56 75 4 *
Dry matter degradability (effective, k=4%) % 73 1 *
a (DM) % 26 23 27 3
b (DM) % 71
c (DM) h-1 0.08 0.06 0.147 3

Rabbit nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

DE rabbit MJ/kg DM 15.9 14.9 18.4 2 *
MEn rabbit MJ/kg DM 13.8 *
Energy digestibility, rabbit % 81.3 76.2 90 2 *
Nitrogen digestibility, rabbit % 83.7 79.4 89.7 2 *

The asterisk * indicates that the average value was obtained by an equation.

13
Soybean meal, high oil (expeller)

Main analysis Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Dry matter % as fed 93.2 2.1 85.2 97.7 601
Crude protein % DM 47 2.3 38.4 53.1 583
Crude fibre % DM 6.4 1.1 2.9 11.1 444
Neutral detergent fibre % DM 13.6 4.6 9.8 21.7 6 *
Acid detergent fibre % DM 8 2 5.8 11.7 7 *
Lignin % DM 0.8 0.6 0.1 1.8 7
Ether extract % DM 9.5 2.5 5.8 21.3 292
Ash % DM 6.6 0.5 5.6 8.8 201
Insoluble ash % DM 0.7 1
Starch (polarimetry) % DM 5 2.7 1 8.9 13
Starch (enzymatic) % DM 0.8
Total sugars % DM 9.3 8.8 9.7 3
Gross energy MJ/kg DM 21.1 0.4 20.2 21.5 6 *

Amino acids Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Alanine g/16g N 4.4 0.2 3.8 4.4 21 *
Arginine g/16g N 7.3 0.4 6.4 8.3 22 *
Aspartic acid g/16g N 11.2 0.7 10.4 12.8 11 *
Cystine g/16g N 1.5 0.2 1.1 1.8 22 *
Glutamic acid g/16g N 17.8 1 15.2 19.4 21 *
Glycine g/16g N 4.2 0.1 4 4.4 20 *
Histidine g/16g N 2.7 0.1 2.4 3 21 *
Isoleucine g/16g N 4.6 0.3 4.1 5.1 23 *
Leucine g/16g N 7.6 0.2 7.2 8.1 24 *
Lysine g/16g N 6.2 0.4 4.9 6.9 77 *
Methionine g/16g N 1.4 0.2 1 1.7 34 *
Methionine+cystine g/16g N 3 0.2 2.2 3.3 16 *
Phenylalanine g/16g N 5.1 0.2 4.8 5.4 22 *
Phenylalanine+tyrosine g/16g N 8.6 0.2 8.4 9.1 12 *
Proline g/16g N 5 0.4 4.4 6.6 21 *
Serine g/16g N 4.9 0.6 3.8 5.6 18 *
Threonine g/16g N 3.9 0.2 3.5 4.4 23 *
Tryptophan g/16g N 1.3 0.2 0.8 1.5 13 *
Tyrosine g/16g N 3.5 0.2 3.5 4.2 16 *
Valine g/16g N 4.8 0.3 4.2 5.3 12 *

Fatty acids Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Myristic acid C14:0 % fatty acids 0.2 0.3 0 1.1 14
Palmitic acid C16:0 % fatty acids 11.2 2.2 9.6 20.8 22
Palmitoleic acid C16:1 % fatty acids 0.1 0.08 0 0.2 7
Stearic acid C18:0 % fatty acids 3.8 0.4 3.2 4.8 22
Oleic acid C18:1 % fatty acids 23.1 1.6 19.8 27.3 23
Linoleic acid C18:2 % fatty acids 54 2.9 42.9 58.2 22
Linolenic acid C18:3 % fatty acids 7.2 0.9 4.8 8.7 22

Minerals Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Calcium g/kg DM 3.7 1.1 1.3 5.2 18 *
Phosphorus g/kg DM 6.9 0.7 6 8.2 24 *
Potassium g/kg DM 22.4 2.6 15.2 24.6 23 *
Sodium g/kg DM 0.11 0.08 0 0.22 5
Chlorine g/kg DM 0.3
Magnesium g/kg DM 2.9 0.4 2.6 3.5 5 *
Sulfur g/kg DM 3.2 2.6 3.8 2

14
 Manganese mg/kg DM 37 32 42 2
Zinc mg/kg DM 52 34 69 2
Copper mg/kg DM 18 13 23 2
Iron mg/kg DM 280 129 465 3
Selenium mg/kg DM 0.2 1

Pig nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Energy digestibility, growing pig % 85.4 *
DE growing pig MJ/kg DM 18.1 *
MEn growing pig MJ/kg DM 16.7 *
NE growing pig MJ/kg DM 11 *
Nitrogen digestibility, growing pig % 87.3 1 *

Poultry nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

AMEn cockerel MJ/kg DM 12.8 12.6 13.8 2 *
AMEn broiler MJ/kg DM 12.2 10.7 13 3 *

Ruminants nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

OM digestibility, ruminants % 88.2 *
Energy digestibility, ruminants % 89.2 *
ME ruminants MJ/kg DM 14.3 *
Nitrogen digestibility, ruminants % 79.5 1 *
Nitrogen degradability (effective, k=6%) % 63 47 83 2 *
Nitrogen degradability (effective, k=4%) % 71 1 *
a (N) % 13 1
b (N) % 85 1
c (N) h-1 0.085 1
Dry matter degradability (effective, k=6%) % 67 1 *
Dry matter degradability (effective, k=4%) % 73 *
a (DM) % 26 10 5 47 12
b (DM) % 71 11 52 93 12
c (DM) h-1 0.08 1

Rabbit nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

DE rabbit MJ/kg DM 16.9 *
MEn rabbit MJ/kg DM 14.9 *
Energy digestibility, rabbit % 80 *
Nitrogen digestibility, rabbit % 85.1 *

The asterisk * indicates that the average value was obtained by an equation.

15