Advanced Lecture Notes on Functions Part 9:

Symmetries & Periodicity

For the Serious Aspirant

Contents

1 Recap: The Functional Menagerie 1

2 Even and Odd Functions: Fundamental Symmetries 1

3 General Symmetries 2

4 Periodic Functions: Repetitive Behaviors 3

4.1 Functional Equations Leading to Periodicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

5 Problems for the Adept: Part 9 5

6 Answer Key (Part 9) 6

Part 9: Symmetries & Periodicity Advanced Functions by Yuki

1 Recap: The Functional Menagerie

Parts 6, 7, and 8 equipped us with a detailed understanding of algebraic functions (polynomials, rational,
irrational) and transcendental functions (exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric, inverse trigonometric,
hyperbolic), along with the specialized piecewise functions (modulus, signum, GIF, fractional part). We
now explore global properties of functions related to their symmetry and repetitive nature—concepts
that often simplify complex problems or reveal hidden structures.

2 Even and Odd Functions: Fundamental Symmetries

The domain D of f must be symmetric about 0 (i.e., if x ∈ D, then −x ∈ D) for these definitions to
be meaningful across the entire domain.

Definition 2.1. Even and Odd Functions

• A function f : D → R is even if f (−x) = f (x) for all x ∈ D. Its graph is symmetric
about the y-axis.

• A function f : D → R is odd if f (−x) = −f (x) for all x ∈ D. Its graph is symmetric

about the origin (point symmetry). If 0 ∈ D for an odd function, then f (0) = 0.

Theorem 2.1. Properties of Even/Odd Functions

Let E denote an even function and O denote an odd function.

1. E1 ± E2 is Even.

2. O1 ± O2 is Odd.

3. E · O is Odd. (f (−x) = E(−x)O(−x) = E(x)(−O(x)) = −E(x)O(x) = −f (x))

4. O1 · O2 is Even.

5. E1 · E2 is Even.

6. E/O is Odd (provided O(x) ̸= 0).

7. O/E is Odd (provided E(x) ̸= 0).

8. Composition:

• E(E(x)) is Even.
• E(O(x)) is Even. (f (−x) = E(O(−x)) = E(−O(x)) = E(O(x)) = f (x))
• O(E(x)) is Even.
• O(O(x)) is Odd.

9. The derivative of an even differentiable function is odd. The derivative of an odd differ-
entiable function is even.
Ra Ra
10. −a E(x)dx = 2 0 E(x)dx.
Ra
11. −a O(x)dx = 0.

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Part 9: Symmetries & Periodicity Advanced Functions by Yuki

Theorem 2.2. Decomposition into Even and Odd Parts

Any function f : D → R (where D is symmetric about 0) can be uniquely expressed as the sum
of an even function fe (x) and an odd function fo (x):

f (x) = fe (x) + fo (x)

f (x)+f (−x) f (x)−f (−x)
where fe (x) = 2
and fo (x) = 2
.

Proof

Existence: Define fe (x) and fo (x) as above. fe (−x) = f (−x)+f2(−(−x)) = f (−x)+f 2

(x)
= fe (x),
so fe is even. fo (−x) = f (−x)−f (−(−x))
2
= f (−x)−f (x)
2
= − f (x)−f (−x)
2
= −fo (x), so fo is
f (x)+f (−x) f (x)−f (−x) 2f (x)
odd. And fe (x) + fo (x) = 2
+ 2
= 2 = f (x). Uniqueness: Suppose
f (x) = E1 (x) + O1 (x) = E2 (x) + O2 (x), where E1 , E2 are even and O1 , O2 are odd. Then
E1 (x) − E2 (x) = O2 (x) − O1 (x). The LHS is even, RHS is odd. The only function that is
both even and odd is the zero function. So E1 (x) − E2 (x) = 0 =⇒ E1 (x) = E2 (x), and
O2 (x) − O1 (x) = 0 =⇒ O1 (x) = O2 (x).

Example 2.1. Decomposition

ex +e−x ex −e−x
Decompose f (x) = ex . fe (x) = 2
= cosh x. fo (x) = 2
= sinh x. So ex =
cosh x + sinh x.

3 General Symmetries
Definition 3.1. Symmetry about a Vertical Line x = a

A function f (x) is symmetric about the line x = a if f (a − x) = f (a + x) for all x such that
a − x and a + x are in the domain. Equivalently, by letting x → x − a, this is f (2a − X) = f (X)
where X is a new variable.

(If a = 0, this reduces to f (−x) = f (x), the condition for an even function).

Definition 3.2. Symmetry about a Point (a, b)

A function f (x) is symmetric about the point (a, b) if f (a−x)+f

2
(a+x)
= b for all x such that a − x
and a + x are in the domain. This is equivalent to f (a − x) + f (a + x) = 2b. Alternatively,
letting X = a + x, then x = X − a, a − x = 2a − X. So f (X) + f (2a − X) = 2b.

(If (a, b) = (0, 0), this reduces to f (−x) + f (x) = 0 =⇒ f (−x) = −f (x), the condition for an
odd function).

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Part 9: Symmetries & Periodicity Advanced Functions by Yuki

Theorem 3.1. Combining Symmetries and Periodicity

1. If f (x) is symmetric about x = a and x = b (a ̸= b), then f (x) is periodic with period
2|a − b|.

2. If f (x) is symmetric about the point (a, c) and the point (b, d) (a ̸= b), then f (x)
is periodic with period 2|a − b| (unless f is linear, in which case this may also imply
conditions on c, d).

3. If f (x) is symmetric about x = a and also symmetric about the point (a, b), then b = 0
and f (x) is odd with respect to the origin if we shift the origin to (a, 0), i.e. f (a + x) =
−f (a − x), which implies f (a) = 0.

Proof
Proof of Property 1 Given f (x) = f (2a − x) and f (x) = f (2b − x). So f (2a − x) = f (2b − x).
Let u = 2a − x. Then x = 2a − u. f (u) = f (2b − (2a − u)) = f (2(b − a) + u). This shows
f (u) is periodic with period 2(b − a) (if b > a) or 2(a − b) (if a > b). Thus, period is 2|a − b|.

4 Periodic Functions: Repetitive Behaviors

Definition 4.1. Periodic Function
A function f : D → R is said to be periodic if there exists a positive real number T > 0 such
that for all x ∈ D, x + T ∈ D and x − T ∈ D, and f (x + T ) = f (x). The smallest such
positive value of T is called the fundamental period of f . If no such smallest positive T exists,
the function may still be periodic but without a fundamental period (e.g., a constant function,
Dirichlet function).

Theorem 4.1. Properties of Periodic Functions

1. If f (x) has period T , then f (ax + b) (where a ̸= 0) has period T /|a|.

2. If f (x) has period T1 and g(x) has period T2 :

• h(x) = αf (x) ± βg(x) and k(x) = f (x)g(x) (or f (x)/g(x)) are periodic with
period T = LCM(T1 , T2 ), provided the LCM exists (i.e., T1 /T2 is rational). The
fundamental period may be a divisor of T .
• If T1 /T2 is irrational, then f (x) ± g(x) is generally not periodic (unless one function
is zero or other specific cancellations occur).

3. A constant function f (x) = c is periodic for any T > 0, but has no fundamental period.

4. The Dirichlet function (1 for rationals, 0 for irrationals) is periodic with any non-zero
rational number as a period, hence no fundamental period.

5. If f (x) is periodic with period T and differentiable, f ′ (x) is also periodic with period T .
R a+T RT
6. a f (x)dx = 0 f (x)dx.

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Part 9: Symmetries & Periodicity Advanced Functions by Yuki

Example 4.1. LCM Rule Nuances

Let f (x) = | sin x| and g(x) = | cos x|. Period of f (x) is T1 = π. Period of g(x) is T2 = π.
LCM(π, π) = π. Consider h(x) = | sin x| + | cos x|. h(x + π/2) = | sin(x + π/2)| + | cos(x +
π/2)| = | cos x| + | − sin x| = | cos x| + | sin x| = h(x). So the fundamental period of h(x) is
π/2, which divides LCM(π, π) = π.

Example 4.2. Functions involving {x} and ⌊x⌋

• f (x) = {x}: Fundamental period is 1.

• f (x) = ⌊x⌋: Not periodic.

• f (x) = x − ⌊x⌋ = {x}: Fundamental period is 1.

• f (x) = sin({x}π): {x} has period 1. So f (x + 1) = sin({x + 1}π) = sin({x}π) = f (x).

Period is 1.

• f (x) = ⌊sin x⌋: sin x has period 2π. Does f (x + 2π) = ⌊sin(x + 2π)⌋ = ⌊sin x⌋ = f (x)?
Yes. So 2π is a period. It is indeed the fundamental period.

4.1 Functional Equations Leading to Periodicity

Certain functional equations imply periodicity.

Theorem 4.2. Types of Functional Equations Implying Periodicity

1. If f (x + a) = −f (x) for some a > 0: f (x + 2a) = f ((x + a) + a) = −f (x + a) =

−(−f (x)) = f (x). So f (x) is periodic with period 2a. (e.g. sin x, a = π)
1 1 1
2. If f (x + a) = f (x) for some a > 0: f (x + 2a) = f ((x + a) + a) = f (x+a)
= 1/f (x)
= f (x).
So f (x) is periodic with period 2a.
1−f (x) k+f (x)
3. If f (x + a) = 1+f (x)
or f (x + a) = 1−kf (x)
(related to tan sum formula): Often leads
1+f (x) 1+f (x+a)
to periodicity after a few iterations. For f (x + a) = 1−f (x)
: f (x + 2a) = 1−f (x+a)
=
1+f (x)
1+ 1−f (x)
1+f (x) = 1−f (x)+1+f (x)
1−f (x)−(1+f (x))
= 2
−2f (x)
= − f (x)
1
. f (x+3a) = − f (x+a)
1
= − (1+f (x))/(1−f
1
(x))
=
1− 1−f (x)

− 1−f (x)
1+f (x)
. f (x + 4a) = − f (x+2a)
1
= − −1/f1 (x) = f (x). So f (x) is periodic with period 4a.
(Example: f (x) = tan x, a = π/4. Check this.)

For the Curious

Fourier Series - The Ultimate Tool for Periodicity A profoundly important result in mathematics
is that ”most” periodic functions f (x) with period T can be expressed as an infinite sum (a
series) of sines and cosines whose periods are T, T /2, T /3, . . . :
X∞ Å Å ã Å ãã
2πnx 2πnx
f (x) = a0 + an cos + bn sin
n=1
T T
This is called the Fourier Series of f (x). The coefficients an , bn are determined by integrals
involving f (x). This decomposition is fundamental in physics, engineering (signal processing),
and many areas of mathematics. It shows that sines and cosines are the elemental building
blocks of periodic behavior.

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Part 9: Symmetries & Periodicity Advanced Functions by Yuki

5 Problems for the Adept: Part 9

Problem 5.1. prob:P9.1

Let f (x) be a function such that f (x) + f (x + 1/2) + f (x + 1) = 0 for all x ∈ R. Prove that
f (x) is periodic and find its period.

Problem 5.2. prob:P9.2

Determine if f (x) = sin(x2 ) is periodic. Justify your answer.

Problem 5.3. prob:P9.3

A function f : R → R satisfies f (x + 2) + f (x − 2) = f (x) for all x ∈ R. Prove that f is

periodic and find its period.

Problem 5.4. prob:P9.4

Let f : R → R be a non-constant function such that for some a ̸= 0, f (x + a) = 21 +

p
f (x) − (f (x))2 for all x ∈ R for which f (x) − (f (x))2 ≥ 0. Show that f is periodic and find
its period. (Hint: what is the range of f (x)? Let f (x) = sin2 θ).

Problem 5.5. prob:P9.5

If f (x) is an even function and g(x) is an odd function, and h(x) = f (x) · sin(g(x)) + g(x) ·
cos(f (x)). Determine the parity of h(x).

Problem 5.6. prob:P9.6

Find the fundamental period of f (x) = cos(cos x) + cos(sin x).

Problem 5.7. prob:P9.7

A function f (x) is symmetric about x = 2 and x = 5. If f (x) is not constant, what can you
deduce about its fundamental period? What if it is also symmetric about the point (3.5, 0)?

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Part 9: Symmetries & Periodicity Advanced Functions by Yuki

6 Answer Key (Part 9)

Solutions (Part 9)

1. Problem 9.1: f (x)+f (x+1/2)+f (x+1) = 0 (1) Replace x with x+1/2: f (x+1/2)+
f (x + 1) + f (x + 3/2) = 0 (2) Subtracting (1) from (2): (f (x + 1/2) + f (x + 1) + f (x +
3/2))−(f (x)+f (x+1/2)+f (x+1)) = 0 f (x+3/2)−f (x) = 0 =⇒ f (x+3/2) = f (x).
So f (x) is periodic with period 3/2. (This is the fundamental period unless a smaller one
exists that also satisfies the original equation, but 3/2 is certainly a period).

2. Problem 9.2: f (x) = sin(x2 ). Assume f (x) is periodic with period T > 0. Then
f (x+T ) = f (x) for all x. sin((x+T )2 ) = sin(x2 ). This requires (x+T )2 = kπ+(−1)k x2
for some integer k that might depend on x. x2 + 2xT + T 2 = kπ + (−1)k x2 . If k is
even, (x + T )2 = 2jπ + x2 =⇒ 2xT + T 2 = 2jπ. This must hold for all x. If
we take the derivative w.r.t x: 2T = 0 =⇒ T = 0, contradiction. If k is odd,
(x + T )2 = (2j + 1)π − x2 =⇒ 2x2 + 2xT + T 2 − (2j + 1)π = 0. This must hold for all
x, which is only possible if coefficients are zero, leading to T = 0. Thus, sin(x2 ) is not
periodic. The difference between arguments of sine required for equality keeps changing
with x.

3. Problem 9.3: f (x + 2) + f (x − 2) = f (x) (1) Replace x with x + 2: f (x + 4) +

f (x) = f (x + 2) (2) From (1), f (x + 2) = f (x) − f (x − 2). Substitute into (2):
f (x + 4) + f (x) = f (x) − f (x − 2) =⇒ f (x + 4) = −f (x − 2). Replace x with x + 2:
f (x + 6) = −f (x). Now, f (x + 12) = f ((x + 6) + 6) = −f (x + 6) = −(−f (x)) = f (x).
So f (x) is periodic with period 12.
p
4. Problem 9.4 (Yuki’s Challenge): f (x + a) = 21 + f (x) − (f (x))2 . Let y = f (x).
The term under the square root is y − y 2 . For this to be ≥ 0, y(1 − y) ≥ 0, which
implies 0 ≤ y ≤ 1. So the range of f (x) must be [0, 1]. Let f (x) = sin2 θ(x) for some
function θ(x), since f (x) ∈ [0, 1]. Then f (x) − (f (x))2 = sin2 θ − sin4 θ = sin2 θ(1 −

2 p
sin2 θ) = sin2 θ cos2 θ = (sin θ cos θ)2 = sin22θ . So f (x) − (f (x))2 = sin22θ . The
equation is f (x + a) = 1
2
+ sin 2θ(x)
2
. If we choose θ(x) such that sin 2θ(x) ≥ 0, then
1+sin 2θ(x)
f (x + a) = 2
We know 1 + sin ϕ = 1 + 2 sin(ϕ/2) cos(ϕ/2) and cos2 ψ =
.
(1 + Äcos 2ψ)/2.
ä We want 1+sin
2
2θ
= sin2 ϕ. Using sin 2θ = cos(π/2 − 2θ): 1+cos(π/2−2θ)
2
=
cos 2 π/2−2θ
2
= cos (π/4 − θ). So if f (x) = sin θ, then f (x + a) = cos (π/4 − θ) =
2 2 2

sin (π/2 − (π/4 − θ)) = sin2 (π/4 + θ). So sin2 θ(x + a) = sin2 (π/4 + θ(x)). This implies
2

θ(x + a) = π/4 + θ(x)(+kπ). Then θ(x + 2a) = π/4 + θ(x + a) = π/4 + (π/4 + θ(x)) =
π/2 + θ(x). θ(x + 4a) = π/2 + θ(x + 2a) = π/2 + (π/2 + θ(x)) = π + θ(x). So
f (x + 4a) = sin2 (π + θ(x)) = (− sin θ(x))2 = sin2 θ(x) = f (x). The period is 4a.
(Careful: the absolute value means we effectively always take the result as sin2 (. . . )).

5. Problem 9.5: h(x) = f (x) · sin(g(x)) + g(x) · cos(f (x)). f is even, g is odd. h(−x) =
f (−x) · sin(g(−x)) + g(−x) · cos(f (−x)). Since f is even, f (−x) = f (x). Since g is
odd, g(−x) = −g(x). h(−x) = f (x) · sin(−g(x)) + (−g(x)) · cos(f (x)). Since sin is an
odd function, sin(−g(x)) = − sin(g(x)). h(−x) = f (x) · (− sin(g(x))) − g(x) · cos(f (x))
h(−x) = −(f (x) sin(g(x)) + g(x) cos(f (x))) = −h(x). So h(x) is an odd function.

6. Problem 9.6: f (x) = cos(cos x)+cos(sin x). Period of cos x is 2π. Period of sin x is 2π.
So f (x + 2π) = cos(cos(x + 2π)) + cos(sin(x + 2π)) = cos(cos x) + cos(sin x) = f (x).
So 2π is a period. Consider x + π: f (x + π) = cos(cos(x + π)) + cos(sin(x + π)) =

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Part 9: Symmetries & Periodicity Advanced Functions by Yuki

cos(− cos x) + cos(− sin x) Since cos is even, this is cos(cos x) + cos(sin x) = f (x). So
π is a period. Consider x + π/2: f (x + π/2) = cos(cos(x + π/2)) + cos(sin(x + π/2)) =
cos(− sin x) + cos(cos x) = cos(sin x) + cos(cos x) = f (x). So π/2 is the fundamental
period.

7. Problem 9.7: Symmetric about x = 2 =⇒ f (x) = f (4 − x). Symmetric about

x = 5 =⇒ f (x) = f (10 − x). So f (4 − x) = f (10 − x). Let u = 4 − x. Then x = 4 − u.
f (u) = f (10−(4−u)) = f (6+u). This implies f (x) is periodic with period 6. If it is also
symmetric about point (3.5, 0): f (x) + f (2(3.5) − x) = 2(0) =⇒ f (x) + f (7 − x) = 0.
Since it’s periodic with period 6, f (7−x) = f (7−x−6) = f (1−x). So f (x)+f (1−x) = 0,
or f (x) = −f (1 − x). Let x = 0.5. f (0.5) = −f (0.5) =⇒ 2f (0.5) = 0 =⇒ f (0.5) =
0. The condition f (x) = −f (1 − x) combined with period 6 means it has certain half-
wave/quarter-wave symmetries. If f (x) = −f (1 − x), and period is 6. f (x + 6) = f (x).
f (x + 3) = −f (1 − (x + 3)) = −f (−x − 2). This does not simplify much further without
more information. The fundamental period is a divisor of 6 (could be 6, 3, 2, 1). If
f (x) = −f (1 − x), and also f (x) = f (6 + x). Consider symmetry about point (a, 0)
is f (a + x) = −f (a − x). Here a = 3.5. So f (3.5 + x) = −f (3.5 − x). This means
f (3.5) = 0.