Control System Instrumentation
Chapter 9
Feedback control of composition for a stirred-tank blending system.
Four components: sensors, controllers, actuators, transmission lines
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Chapter 9
Figure 9.3 A typical process transducer.
Transducers and Transmitters
• Figure 9.3 illustrates the general configuration of a measurement
transducer; it typically consists of a sensing element combined
with a driving element (transmitter).
2
• Transducers for process measurements convert the magnitude of a
process variable (e.g., flow rate, pressure, temperature, level, or
concentration) into a signal that can be sent directly to the
controller.
• The sensing element is required to convert the measured quantity,
that is, the process variable, into some quantity more appropriate
Chapter 9
for mechanical or electrical processing within the transducer.
Standard Instrumentation Signal Levels
• Before 1960, instrumentation in the process industries utilized
pneumatic (air pressure) signals to transmit measurement and
control information almost exclusively.
• These devices make use of mechanical force-balance elements
to generate signals in the range of 3 to 15 psig, an industry
standard.
• Since about 1960, electronic instrumentation has come into
widespread use. 3
Sensors
The book briefly discusses commonly used sensors for the most
important process variables. (See text and next slide)
Sensor Selection Criteria
Chapter 9
• Measurement Range
• Performance
• Reliability
• Materials of construction
• Prior Use
• Environmental issue: potential of accidental release of materials
• Electrical Classification
• Invasive or non-invasive 4
Typical Sensors for Common Measurements
Temperature Flow Pressure Level Composition
Thermocouple Orifice Liquid column Float- GC
activated
RTD Venturi Elastic column Head devices LC, HPLC
Chapter 9
(burdon tube,
bellows,
diaphragm)
Thermo-meter Rotameter Strain gauge Electrical Mass
spectrometry
Pyrometer Turbine Piezo-electric Radiation MRA
transducers
Laser Vortex- Optical fibre radar Capacitance
shedding probe
Semiconductor Magnetic IR
spectroscopy
coriolis Chemi-
luminescence
5
Transmitters
• A transmitter usually converts the sensor output to a
signal level appropriate for input to a controller, such
as 4 to 20 mA.
Chapter 9
• Transmitters are generally designed to be direct acting.
• In addition, most commercial transmitters have an
adjustable input range (or span).
• For example, a temperature transmitter might be
adjusted so that the input range of a platinum
resistance element (the sensor) is 50 to 150 °C.
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• In this case, the following correspondence is obtained:
Input Output
50 °C 4 mA
150 °C 20 mA
Chapter 9
• This instrument (transducer) has a lower limit or zero of 50 °C
and a range or span of 100 °C.
• For the temperature transmitter discussed above, the relation
between transducer output and input is
20 mA − 4 mA
Tm ( mA ) = ( )
T − 50 C + 4 mA
150 C − 50 C
= 0.16
mA
C
( )
T C − 4 mA
7
The gain of the measurement element Km is 0.16 mA/°C. For any
linear instrument:
range of instrument output
Km = (9-1)
range of instrument input
Chapter 9
Figure 9.4 A linear instrument calibration showing its zero and
span.
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Final Control Elements
• Every process control loop contains a final control element
(actuator), the device that enables a process variable to be
manipulated.
• For most chemical and petroleum processes, the final control
Chapter 9
elements (usually control valves) adjust the flow rates of materials,
and indirectly, the rates of energy transfer to and from the process.
• There are many different ways to manipulate the flows of material
and energy into and out of a process; for example, the speed of a
pump drive, screw conveyer, or blower can be adjusted.
• However, a simple and widely used method of accomplishing this
result with fluids is to use a control valve, also called an automatic
control valve.
• The control valve components include the valve body, trim, seat,
and actuator.
9
Chapter 9
Figure 9.7 A pneumatic control valve (air-to-open).
10
Air-to-Open vs. Air-to-Close Control Valves
• Normally, the choice of A-O or A-C valve is based on safety
considerations.
• We choose the way the valve should operate (full flow or no
flow) in case of a transmitter failure.
• Hence, A-C and A-O valves often are referred to as fail-open and
fail-closed, respectively.
Chapter 9
Example 9.1 Pneumatic control valves are to be specified for the
applications listed below. State whether an A-O or A-C valve
should be used for the following manipulated variables and give
reason(s).
a) Steam pressure in a reactor heating coil.
b) Flow rate of reactants into a polymerization reactor.
c) Flow of effluent from a wastewater treatment holding tank into
a river.
d) Flow of cooling water to a distillation condenser. 11
Valve Positioners
Pneumatic control valves can be equipped with a valve
positioner, a type of mechanical or digital feedback controller
that senses the actual stem position, compares it to the desired
position, and adjusts the air pressure to the valve accordingly.
Chapter 9
Specifying and Sizing Control Valves
A design equation used for sizing control valves relates valve
lift to the actual flow rate q by means of the valve coefficient
Cv, the proportionality factor that depends predominantly on
valve size or capacity:
Pv
q = Cv f ( ) (9-2)
gs
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• Here q is the flow rate, f ( ) is the flow characteristic, Pv is the
pressure drop across the valve, and gs is the specific gravity of
the fluid.
• This relation is valid for nonflashing fluids.
• Specification of the valve size is dependent on the so-called
Chapter 9
valve characteristic f.
• Three control valve characteristics are mainly used.
• For a fixed pressure drop across the valve, the flow
characteristic f ( 0 f 1) is related to the lift ( 0 1) , that
is, the extent of valve opening, by one of the following relations:
Linear: f =
Quick opening: f = (9-3)
Equal percentage: f = R −1
where R is a valve design parameter that is usually in the range
of 20 to 50. 13
Chapter 9
Figure 9.8 Control valve characteristics.
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