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 Sr. Chapter Name Page
01 Biological Molecules 01

02 Enzymes 06

03 Cell Structure & Function 09

04 Viruses 14

07 Bioenergetics 20

08 Nutrition 23

09 Gaseous Exchange 31

10 Transport 38

11 Immunity 48

12 Support & Movement 57

13 Nervous Coordination 62

15 Reproduction 71

16 Genetics 76

17 Evolution 83

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CHAPTER MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)

01 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CELL:
Chemically it contains 70% to 90% of H₂O.
If the water is evaporated, the remaining mass of cell is called Dry Weight of cell, consists of
many carbons containing long chain molecules called Biomolecules which are the types of
organic molecules.

FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF BIOMOLECULES:

Biomolecules can be divided into following groups according to variability in their structures
and functions in cells and organisms i.e.

BIOMOLECULES UNITS LINKAGES

Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides Glycoside linkage
(oligo &
Polysaccharide)

Proteins Amino Acids Peptide linkage

Lipids

Glycerol & Fatty Acids Removal of undigested food from

Fats & Oils
the body or cell
Glycerol, Fatty acids, Phosphate & Ester & C–C linkages
Phospholipids
Choline

Terpenoids Isoprenoids units C–C linkages

Nucleic Acids

DNA Deoxyribonucleotides Phosphoester linkages

RNA Ribonucleotides Phosphoester linkages

Conjugated Different biomolecules Different linkages

molecules

IMPORTANCE OF WATER
Water as a Polar Molecule
Water is a polar molecule, meaning it possesses:
A partial negative charge (δ⁻) on oxygen
A partial positive charge (δ⁺) on hydrogen
This polarity is due to the difference in electronegativities between hydrogen and oxygen
atoms, leading to a dipole.
This dipole nature gives water several critical properties, such as: High polarity, hydrogen
bonding, cohesion and adhesion, high specific heat and high heat of vaporization,
hydrophobic exclusion, ionization, low density of ice.

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 MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)
These make water the best solvent and the cradle of life.
High Heat of Vaporization
Water has a very high heat of vaporization requiring high energy input to convert it from
liquid to vapor.
This Provides stability to water molecules and their state in cells and also plays an
important role in thermoregulation.
Ionization of Water
Water molecules ionize into H⁺ and OH⁻, a reversible reaction maintaining equilibrium.
Due to this ionization, water can act as:
An acid or base → Amphoteric in nature
A buffer → Maintains pH for enzymatic activity in cells and organs

CARBOHYDRATES
NON-REDUCING SUGARS IN PLANTS
Living organisms, especially plants, transport sugar from source (leaf) to sink (fruit) tissues as
non-reducing sugar (like sucrose), where:
Glycosidic bonds form between carbonyl groups of both sugars.
Sucrose is non-reducing, energy-efficient and does not oxidize or react with other substances
during transport. This makes it stable and effective for transport and storage.

CELLULOSE
Glucose units are joined in straight chains with no branching, forming coiled and condensed
tubes.
These tubes form the cell wall in plant cells.

CHITIN (C₈H₁₃O₅N)N
Its structure resembles cellulose and forms crystalline nano-fibrils.
Functionally, it is similar to keratin protein.

KEY PROPERTIES:
Modified polysaccharide allowing hydrogen bonding between adjacent polymers → adds
strength
In pure and unmodified form, chitin is translucent, pliable, and resilient.
In modified form (e.g., in insect exoskeletons with CaCO₃), it becomes much harder and stiffer
than pure chitin.

PROTEINS

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 MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)

STRUCTURE AND NATURE OF AMINO ACIDS

Modified polysaccharide allowing hydrogen bonding between adjacent polymers → adds
Amino acids are organic compounds that contain at least:
One amino group (–NH₂) → acts as a base
One carboxylic acid group (–COOH) → acts as an acid
These functional groups are chemically bonded to an asymmetric carbon, known as the α-
Carbon.

PEPTIDE AND PEPTONE BREAKDOWN

A polypeptide chain can be broken by hydrolysis of peptide bonds using hydrolytic enzymes.
Upon breakdown:
If the chain has more than 10 amino acids, it's called a peptone.
Peptone can be further hydrolyzed into peptides (few amino acids).
Peptides are finally broken down into individual amino acids.

PROTEIN FUNCTION / DESCRIPTION

Actin Muscle forming protein

Amyloid Works as cell surface protein

Caddisfly (Fibroin) Used to bind debris like rocks, sticks, twigs, and shells for net of prey

Chondrocalcin Forms extracellular matrix

Conjugated Gives strength and elasticity to skin; main component of cartilage,

molecules ligaments, tendons, bone, and teeth

Elastin Provides resilience and elasticity to tissues and organs

Glycoprotein providing force-bearing structural support in elastic and non-

Fibrillin
elastic connective tissues

Gelatin Nutritious protein derived from collagen of skin and bones

Sclera Protein Includes keratin, collagen, elastin, and fibrin

Titin Provides elastic stabilization of myosin and actin filaments

Tubulin Microtubule-forming protein

Keratin Forms nails and hair

PEPTIDE AND PEPTONE BREAKDOWN

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 MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)

TYPE EXAMPLES FUNCTION

Digestive
Amylase, lipase, pepsin, trypsin Help in digestion of food by
enzymes
hydrolysis into simple monomers.

Transport Hemoglobin, albumin Carry O₂, CO₂, and other substances

in the blood or lymph.
Hormones Insulin, thyroxin Coordinate different functions of the
body.
Defenses Immunoglobulin, interferon Protect the body from foreign
pathogens.
Contractile Actin, myosin Responsible for muscle contraction.

Legume storage protein, egg white Provide nourishment during

Storage
(albumin) embryonic development.

LIPIDS
Energy Content:
It is estimated that a person of average size contains approx. 16 kg of fats, which provide
around 144 × 10³ KCal of energy.
Phospholipids
Similar to acylglycerols, but one fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate group, which is further
attached to choline.
They have two ends:
Non-polar tail → Hydrophobic (repels water)
Polar head (phosphate + choline) → Hydrophilic (attracts water)
Waxes
Esters of long-chain mono-alcohol and long-chain fatty acids.
Water repellent and non-reactive due to their non-polar nature. i.e hydrophobic compounds
Commercial Importance: Used as machine lubricants; sperm whales were a primary source of
these waxes.
Terpenoids
Types of terpenoids include terpenes, steroids, carotenoids, and prostaglandins.
These compounds are found in cell membranes as cholesterol, act as pigments like
chlorophyll, and contribute to fragrance, as seen in menthol, etc.
Terpenes
Terpenes are a subgroup of terpenoids that contain few isoprenoid units such as diterpenes
and triterpenes.
These small-sized terpenes are volatile and produce special fragrances.
Some commonly used terpenes in perfumes include myrcenes (from oil of bay), geraniol (from
rose), limonene (from lemon oil), and menthol (from peppermint oil).
Terpenes are also components of vitamin A₁, A₂, chlorophyll molecules, and other
compounds involved in the synthesis of rubber and latex.
Carotenoids
Carotenoids are a type of polyterpenes, consisting of long chains of isoprenoid units.
These chains contain isoprenoid rings at one or both terminals.
Carotenoids function as pigments, producing red, orange, yellow, and brown colors in plants.
Notable carotenoids include chlorophyll, cytochromes, phytochromes, latex, and rubber,
making them essential in plant pigmentation and various biological processes.

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 MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)

LIPIDS
Glycolipids or Cerebrosides
Also called cerebrosides because:
They are present in white matter of the brain.
Found in the myelin sheath of nerve fibers.
Glycoproteins or Mucoids
It is one of the parts of egg albumin and gonadotropins.
Lipoproteins
Help in the transportation of lipids in blood plasma.
Occur as components of mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, nucleus, egg yolk, and
chloroplast membrane.

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CHAPTER MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)

02 ENZYMES
Just few years ago, it was considered that all enzymes were proteins.
During the 1980s, Thomas Cech and Sidney Altman discovered that certain molecules of
ribonucleic acid also function as enzymes.
These molecules are called Ribozymes, which catalyze reactions involved in processing
genetic information to be used by a cell.
But generally, enzymes are proteinaceous in nature.
Enzymes are biocatalysts produced in the protoplasm, synthesized in the cell.
Enzymes act within the cell where they have produced—called endo-enzymes, and the
enzymes which act outside the cell are called exo-enzymes.
They are much greater in size than the substrate.
Binding site is the region of active site whose amino acids make temporary bonds with the
substrate.
Conjugated enzymes (protein + non-protein part)
According to lock and key model a particular enzyme acts on a particular substrate like a
particular lock can be unlocked by a particular key.
This theory depends upon physical contact between substrate and enzyme molecule.

ENERGY OF ACTIVATION

The question arises how enzymes are able to accomplish effective catalysis and why
thermodynamically favorable reactions do not proceed on their own at relatively rapid rates
in the absence of enzymes?
Chemical transformation requires the breakdown of certain covalent bonds of substrate. For
this, reactants must contain sufficient energy to overcome a barrier. This barrier is energy of
activation or activation energy. It can be defined as the minimum quantity of energy that is
required to activate atoms or molecules to a condition in which they can undergo chemical
transformation.
In non-living systems, heat is used to increase the effective collision and work as activation
energy, but in living systems, this heat cannot be provided because the biomolecules are
sensitive to heat. So, the system decreases the amount of this activation energy by enzymes.
The important role played by the enzyme during reaction is that they lower the activation
energy of the reaction. The enzyme reacts with the energy-rich and energy-poor molecules to
form an intermediate complex. This complex again breaks into product and enzyme. If
activation of this complex is low, many molecules can participate in reaction. In this way,
activation energy is lowered by the enzyme but in this action equilibrium i.e., ratio of reactant
and product concentration is never altered.

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 MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)

ALLOSTERIC ACTIVATORS
Some molecules also work as activators when bind to the enzyme away from the active site.
These molecules are called allosteric activators.
These allosteric activators increase the function of the active site.
These molecules do not bind covalently to the enzymes, so their interactions are reversible.
These activators may be influenced by thermal factors and the concentration of substrates.

FACTORS EFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY

TEMPERATURE
The human enzymes are highly active at about 37°C, and all are completely denatured at
100°C.
At minimums i.e. 0°C, activity is reduced to minimum but enzymes are not destroyed.
Most of the enzymes in higher organisms have optimum temperature between 25°C to 42°C.

EFFECT OF PH
Majority of the human digestive enzymes work in the range of 7 to 8.
Pepsin, a gastric enzyme secreted by stomach cells, works at highly acidic condition, with
optimum pH 1.4 and an effective range from 1.5 to 2.5.
Amylase, released from the pancreas, works at highly alkaline pH ~8.5.

ENZYME INHIBITION
Sometimes enzyme does not work properly or system wants to decrease this enzyme activity
because the products are no more required.
This condition of decrease in enzymatic related processes, enzyme production or enzyme
activity is called enzyme inhibition.

TYPES OF ENZYMES INHIBITION:

There are three types of enzyme inhibition:
1. Competitive inhibition
2. Non-competitive inhibition
3. Uncompetitive inhibition
The inhibitor may act by combining directly with the enzymes or they may react with the
activators therefore, activator does not remain available to enzyme for activation.

COMPETITIVE INHIBITION:
These molecules block active site for actual substrate e.g. Penicillin is a competitive inhibitor
which block the enzyme which is responsible to construct bacterial cell-wall.
If this inhibition is reversible it can overcome by increasing concentration of substrate so that
as active site becomes available more substrate molecule than inhibitor molecules are around
to gain entry to these sites.

UN-COMPETITIVE INHIBITION:
It is also known as anti-competitive inhibition.
It takes place when an enzymes inhibitor binds only to the complex formed between the
enzyme and the substrate (E-S-Complex).
This type of inhibition typically occurs in reactions with two or more substrate or product.

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 MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)

SIGNIFICANCE OF ENZYME INHIBITION:

It serves as a major control mechanism of biological systems especially when inhibition
occurs by small molecules.
It is also used as strategy for drug discovery.
It also gives knowledge into the metabolic path way e.g. identify substrate and condition
critical for catalysis.
Enzyme inhibitors are used to screen various levels of diseases which propel the growth of
inhibitors.

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CHAPTER MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)

03 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

PLANT CELL WALL
Cell wall is composed of mainly cellulose, pectin, and other polysaccharides.
These materials are secreted out of the cell and deposited around the plasma membrane.
The middle lamella is made up of calcium and magnesium pectates. These two cells will
separate when middle lamella is dissolved.
The primary layer of cell wall is synthesized by protoplast and remains thin and elastic in
young cells, becoming thick and rigid in mature cells.
It contains hemicellulose, and the cross arrangement of cellulose increases its strength.
At some places, deposition of wall material does not occur—these regions are known as
plasmodesmata, which allow communication between neighboring cells.
The secondary cell wall plays an important role in plant support, especially in sclerenchyma
fibers, scleroids, xylem vessels, and tracheids.

FUNCTION OF CELL WALL

The cell wall performs two major functions:
Mechanical support to the cell.
Due to its hydrophilic nature, it is capable of imbibing water, helping in the movement of
water and solutes toward the protoplast.
Thus, the cell wall acts as a permeable structure.

PLASMA MEMBRANE
Plasma membrane contains several types of lipids, including cholesterol, which can make up
50% of lipid molecules in animal cells but is absent in plant cells.
Most of the plasma membrane is composed of approximately 50% lipids and 50% proteins by
weight. The carbohydrate portion of glycolipids and glycoproteins makes up about 5–10% of
membrane mass.
Cholestrol helps to regulate the membrane fluidity over the range of temperature.
It also prevents the passage of proton and sodium ions across the plasma membrane.

FLUID MOSAIC MODEL

In the fluid mosaic model, lipid bilayer remains the core of the membrane.
Lipid molecules are fluid and capable of rotating, vibrating, and moving laterally within the
layers of membrane.

INTEGRAL AND PERIPHERAL PROTEINS

Integral proteins (Intrinsic proteins) are directly incorporated within the lipid bilayer and
form channels for movement of water-soluble substances like ions between intra- and
extracellular compartments.
Peripheral proteins (Extrinsic proteins) are located entirely outside the lipid bilayer on either
the extracellular or cytoplasmic surface, showing a loose association with the membrane.

INTEGRAL AND PERIPHERAL PROTEINS

Glycolipids, located on the outer side of the phospholipid bilayer in eukaryotic cells, help
maintain membrane stability and promote cell-cell interaction or cell adhesion.

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 MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)
They also help in cellular identification during immune responses and serve as receptors for
viruses and pathogens.
Specific glycoproteins present on red blood cell surfaces help determine blood groups A, B,
AB, and absence in O.
The Glycolipids on the plasma membrane of R.B.C are of particular importance, it plays
important role in blood transfusion. These glycolipids form AB antigen.

CYTOPLASM
The term cytoplasm was introduced by Rudolf Von Kolliker in 1868.
It refers to the material found between the cell membrane and nuclear membrane in
eukaryotic cells, and the entire internal content in prokaryotic cells.
In some cells, cytoplasm is divided into two regions:
Cytogel: (previously called ectoplasm).
Cytosol: (previously called endoplasm).
Cytoplasm shows cyclosis—a streaming movement responsible for distributing cell content
evenly.
It is the seat of all metabolic activities, including gene expression, glycolysis, and Kreb’s cycle.
Energy is captured and converted in chloroplasts. It also functions in molecular modification,
detoxification, and storage in vacuoles and other organelles.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

Usually, a cell contains both types of ER in different ratios depending on function. However,
some cells (e.g., skeletal muscle fibers) have only smooth ER, called sarcoplasmic reticulum.
The ER performs various roles:
Forms the structural framework of the cell.
Increases surface area for metabolic reactions, especially SER.
Provides conducting pathways for import, export, and intercellular transport.
Offers a passage for RNA from the nucleus to organelles.
Assists in detoxification, Ca²⁺ storage, lipid production, and Golgi apparatus formation.
SER transports proteins from RER to Golgi bodies.

RIBOSOMES
Each ribosome consists of two unequal subunits:
Larger subunit is dome-shaped.
Smaller subunit caps the flat surface of the larger one.
They are composed of 50 or more different kinds of proteins.

GOLGI COMPLEX
It also known as Golgi apparatus, Golgi bodies, Golgisome, or Golgi complex.
Like ER, it is a canalicular system with sacs, but:
Lacks ribosomes
Consists of parallel, flattened, membrane-bound vesicles
Developed from S.E.R

LYSOSOMES
The body sometimes eliminates old or unwanted cells at the embryonic stage based on
genetic information. This process is called apoptosis.
During this self-destruction process, the lysosomal membrane ruptures, releasing hydrolytic

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 MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)
enzymes into the cell. The cell then undergoes chemical breakdown or lysis, digesting its own
macromolecules.
Hence, lysosomes are known as "suicidal sacs", and this process is referred to as autolysis.
Lysosomes also help maintain metabolic balance within cells.
If the cell is unable to synthesize any specific enzyme due to hereditary or congenital
reasons, the substrate accumulates, leading to metabolic imbalance.
When enzyme deficiency causes such disorders, they are classified as lysosomal storage
diseases.
More than 30 such diseases are reported.

SOME LYSOSOMAL STORAGE DISEASES

DISEASE SYMPTOMS AND PROBLEMS

Tay-Sachs Mental retardation, blindness, death by age of 3

disease
Gaucher’s Liver and spleen enlargement, erosion of long bones, mental
disease retardation in infancy form only

Krabbe’s disease Loss of myelin, mental retardation, death by age of 2

PEROXISOME
Peroxisomes are smaller than lysosomes and originate from the Golgi complex. They are
present in both animal and plant cells.
Their primary function is the formation and breakdown of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) using
enzymes like peroxidase, catalase, and glycolic acid oxidase.
In animal cells, they:
Aid in lipid metabolism (e.g., fatty acid oxidation)
Participate in phospholipid and isoprenoid biosynthesis
Help in cholesterol export
Produce plasmalogen, especially important in brain and heart tissues
In plants, they:
Convert glycolate (from photosynthesis) into glycine via glycolic acid oxidase
They are abundant in liver cells and also found in organisms like camels and kangaroos,
which use them to store and manage fats and water.
Key Function: Detoxify alcohol and toxic compounds by converting H₂O₂ to H₂O using
catalase
Fact: Peroxisomes in liver and kidney detoxify up to half of the alcohol consumed

GLYOXYSOME
Glyoxysomes are specialized peroxisomes found in plants, especially in fat-storing tissues like
seeds (endosperm).
They have a single membrane enclosing granular stroma, and contain enzymes that convert
stored fatty acids into sugars during germination.
This conversion occurs through the Glyoxylate cycle, enabling seedlings to use stored fats as
a source of energy and carbohydrates.

MITOCHONDRIA OR CHONDRIOSOME

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 MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)
They appear minute granular, vesicle, rodlets, thread or strings, depending on the nature of
cells, but usually it is considered that it found in bean shaped.
They are seen to be in constant motion in living cells.
These folds are called cristae which increase the surface area to attach number of proteins
containing molecules.
These molecules are ATPase complex, variable types of cytochrome, NAD, FAD etc.
These complexes and molecules serve as electron carrier, which metabolize carbohydrates
(starch), fatty acid (lipids) and amino acids (protein) into CO₂ and H₂O with energy in the form
of ATP which is stored in mitochondria.

PLASTIDS
They are special protoplasmic, double membrane bound organelles which function as
chemical synthesizers and storage bodies.

CHROMOPLAST
It is the type of plastid which contain different pigments except chlorophyll i.e. xanthophyll,
carotene etc.
The chromoplasts are responsible for the various color combinations in flowers, fruits and
other colour parts except green. The chloroplast after loosing their green pigments may
convert into chromoplast.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CHLOROPLAST

The thylakoid membrane contains green pigment chlorophyll as well as other pigments like
xanthophylls and carotene.
During photosynthesis chlorophyll captures energy of sunlight and transfer it to other
molecule in the thylakoid membrane.
These molecules in turn transfer the energy to ATP and other energy carrier molecule like
NADPH₂.
These molecules differentiate stroma where their energy is used to drive the synthesis of
sugar from carbon dioxide.
Due to this flow of energy from one form to another, chloroplast is an energy converting
organelle.

CYTOSKELETON
A network of different protein fibers which provide three dimensional shapes to cell called
cytoskeleton.
Microfilament
They also perform function of change in cell shape, division of cytoplasm among daughter
cells, cyclosis, movement of pseudopodia etc.
Microtubules
A single microtubule consists of hundreds of thousands of tubulin sub-units usually
arranged in 13 columns. Each column is called proto-filament.
It means microtubules are responsible for the movement of chromosomes during cell-
division, movement of organelles within cytoplasm, movement of cilia and flagella.
Intermediate Filaments
They are made up of at least five different types of proteins collectively called vimentin,
form rope like polymer.
They are important in maintaining the shape of the cell, attachment of muscle cells and
support of nerve cell processes axon.

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 MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)

CENTRIOLES
Centrioles are short, barrel shaped structure of microtubules, which are non-membranous,
lying perpendicular to one another.
They appeared in animal cell and fungi like protist before cell-division near outer membrane
of the nucleus, therefore the place where they are present in cytoplasm is called centrosome
(Centro = nucleus, soma = body).
At the time of cell division the centriole duplicates and became two pairs, move to opposite
sides of the cell and thread like fiber began to radiate from centriole in all directions called
astral rays.
The centriole also forms basal body (kinetosome) which form cilia and flagella.

VACUOLE
The tonoplast is selectively permeable; tono means tension and keep tension on the vacuole.

NUCLEUS
The nuclear membrane is not a complete barrier.
It is perforated by nuclear pores which are made up of a specialized transport protein called
nucleoporin.
Nucleoplasm is also called as karyolymph.
Chromatin network is also called as nuclear reticulum.

CHROMATIDS AND CHROMOSOMES

A chromosome in the beginning of cell-division consists of two genetically identical threads
attached at least at centromere called chromatids or sister chromatids, chromosome consist
of two parts, Arms and Centromere.
The part of chromosome or chromatids from centromere to end is called arm.
The arms or chromatids are joined at a constriction called primary constriction or
centromere.

TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES (BASED ON CENTROMERE POSITION)

On the basis of shapes and the position of centromere. The chromosomes are of different
types, they are as follows:
Metacentric – Chromosomes with equal arms. Centromere is present exact in centre.
Sub-metacentric: Chromosomes with slightly unequal arms. Centromere slightly away
from centromere.
Acro or sub-Telocentric: Chromosomes with one very long and the other is very short arm.
Centromere is far away from centromere.
Telocentric: Centromere is in the end of arms.

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CHAPTER MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)

04 VIRUSES
LIVING CHARACTERS OF VIRUSES
Viral genome determines its functionality and formation of important biomolecules of its own
structural importance.
Viruses also contain some proteins which work as enzymes in host cell.
Viruses interact genetically and physiologically with the host organisms they infect.

NON-LIVING CHARACTERS OF VIRUSES

Viruses may become inactive for an indefinite period of time without replication.

DISCOVERY OF VIRUSES
In 1984 an assistant of Louis Pasteur named Charles Chamberland invented a porcelain water
filter (Chamberland-Pasteur filter) to isolate the microorganisms from some infectious
samples. Porcelain Chamberland filters have a pore size of 0.1 µm, which is small enough to
remove all bacteria ≥ 0.2 µm from any liquids passed through the device.
After few years in 1899 another scientist Martinus Beijerinck proceeded the investigation
about the cause of TMD and reported that the pathogenic agent responsible was a contagious
living fluid. These pathogenic fluids were known as filterable agents and were later named as
virus.

ENVELOPED AND NON-ENVELOPED VIRUSES

Enveloped viruses have outer lipid covering e.g., COVID-19, Influenza, Hepatitis B and C,
Ebola virus etc.
While non-enveloped viruses do not have a lipid covering and are more resistant to
environmental stresses like drying out and heat. These include common colds (Rhinovirus)
and Polio viruses.

CLASSIFICATION OF VIRUSES
Viruses are obligate parasites, so they can be classified on the basis of host or shape or genome.
CLASSIFICATION ON PHYTOPHAGE ZOOPHAGE BACTERIOPHAGE
THE BASIS OF HOST (PLANT VIRUSES) (ANIMAL VIRUSES) (BACTERIAL
VIRUSES)
Genome RNA genome DNA or RNA genome ds DNA as genome
both

Capsid Shape Rod-shaped capsid Spherical in shape Have head and tail
usually

Examples e.g. T.M.V., CaMV e.g. Rhino viruses, e.g. T phages, X

(Cauliflower mosaic Covid-19 etc. phages
viruses)

CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF CAPSID

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SHAPE OF CAPSID VIRUSES

Helical shape TMV Enveloped Flu viruses

shape
Polyhedron Adenoviruses Circular HIV

Tadpole shaped Bacteriophage Spherical shaped CaMV

CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF GENOME

DOUBLE-STRANDED DNA VIRUSES
Their DNA is double stranded which synthesizes mRNA by using host cell enzymes in the host
cell nucleus. Some of them may cause cancer but no one is known to infect a plant.

SINGLE-STRANDED DNA VIRUSES

They also prepare mRNA by transcription but first they become double-stranded in the host
cell and then synthesize mRNA after that new progeny again have single-stranded DNA.

DOUBLE-STRANDED RNA VIRUSES

Their RNA is present as genome.
When they enter the host cell, they prepare single-stranded mRNA by using cell enzymes.
The newly formed mRNA is used either for translation or replication of double-stranded RNA
genome for new progeny.
Example: Reovirus

POSITIVE SENSE SINGLE-STRANDED RNA VIRUSES

Positive sense means that their RNA acts as mRNA and is directly translated by host cell
enzymes for translation involving transcription.
Examples: Corona virus, Dengue virus, Hepatitis C virus.

NEGATIVE SENSE SINGLE-STRANDED RNA VIRUSES

When they enter the host cell, they prepare mRNA from their RNA in the host cell for any
translation.
Example: Paramyxovirus.

REVERSE TRANSCRIBING VIRUSES

A. SINGLE-STRANDED RNA VIRUSES WITH A DNA INTERMEDIATE
They have single-stranded positive sense RNA, but it needs to replicate via DNA
intermediate.
At first, their RNA forms a DNA by using an enzyme reverse transcriptase inside the host, later
on, that DNA is integrated into the host genome for transcription and translation by using
enzyme integrase.
Example: HIV

B. DOUBLE-STRANDED DNA VIRUSES WITH AN RNA INTERMEDIATE

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Their genome is DNA which forms RNA during its replication cycle.
That RNA is then used for reverse transcription to replicate their genome inside the capsid.
Example: Hepatitis B

MEANS OF DESCRIPTION
RESISTANCE
When a phage virus attacks a bacterium, its DNA synthesizes
1. Degrading host
endonuclease enzymes to degrade bacterial DNA and control the
cell genome
process of replication.

2. Deactivating the Complement system is part of innate immunity. Viruses mimic the
complement system complement proteins and block the complement response to evade
Condrocalein detection.

3. Viruses block the Viruses block interferons (proteins released from infected cells) that
interferon response signal immune response. Viruses interrupt metabolic activities to
protect against immune action.

4. Inactivating major Viruses inhibit MHC to delay the activation of helper T cells
histocompatibility and avoid immune response.
complex (MHC)

5. Viruses suppress Viruses can suppress B cell activation, reducing the production of
B cell activation antibodies and immune response.

6. Viruses can alter Viruses can mutate and frequently change their genome to
their genome evade immune detection and survive inside a host.

VIRUS SURVIVAL IN ENVIRONMENT

Virus Survival and Temperature
Viruses are influenced by temperature and moisture.
Temperature affects viral survival through protein denaturation and capsid dissociation.
DNA viruses endure more than RNA viruses, but extreme temperatures (60°C and above)
inactivate most viruses.
Viruses take shelter in organic material like blood and saliva.
Contagious airborne viruses like influenza and Corona use saliva and mucous as protection
during coughing and sneezing.
Airborne Virus Survival and Relative Humidity
Virus survival depends on the relative humidity.
Lipid-enveloped viruses are more vulnerable than non-lipid viruses due to differences in
water vapor at specific temperatures.
Virus Survival and Light
Aquatic viruses are affected by light, especially phytoplankton viruses. UV radiation is a
major cause of viral decay and impacts photosynthetic viral hosts.
pH Factor Affecting Viral Survival
Viruses survive in a pH environment around 6.5. Lipids in viruses are vulnerable to high pH,
damaging the structure. Non-enveloped viruses may survive, but their structural abilities are
affected.

STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES – BACTERIOPHAGE

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These viruses are grouped based on different shapes, such as T-phages (with developed tail
fibers) and lambda phages (with less developed tail fibers) and non-enveloped
bacteriophages. The Tailed bacteriophage virus (e.g., T4) has three major structures:
Head
The head is three-dimensional, called polyhedral, and consists of small protein units called
capsomeres.
These capsomeres are connected with each other in a geometrical manner called
icosahedral.
Phage Tail:
The Bacteriophage tail is formed by different proteins.
The uppermost part of the tail (called the collar) connects with the head.
The tail has a tube-like structure with two regions: an outer contractile sheath and an inner
non-contractile tube.
The contraction of the outer sheath drives the inner tail tube, creating a channel for DNA
delivery into the host cell.
Base Plate:
At the end of the phage tail, a discoidal base plate is located, usually with 6 tail fibers.
These fibers provide strong attachment with the host cell.
The base plate is surrounded by proteinaceous retractile pins, which help penetrate bacterial
coverings with the help of the enzyme lysozyme. The pins assist in injecting the phage genome
into the host cell.

TOBACCO MOSAIC VIRUS (TMV):

TMV is the virus of tobacco plants and causes Tobacco Mosaic Disease.
It consists of single-stranded RNA, surrounded by a protein coat made of capsomers.
The structure of TMV is made of 2,130 subunits, each arranged in a helical manner with about
158 amino acids in each capsomer, arranged in approximately 130 turns.

BACTERIOPHAGE AND GENETIC ENGINEERING

Bacteriophages are abundantly present on earth and used in genetic engineering to transfer
genes from one cell to another, benefiting the organism or producing valuable products.
Phages are also used to present antigens that help activate the immune system and destroy
pathogens.

HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS (HIV)

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) causes AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome).
First reported in 1981 in California, AIDS spread more in poorer developed countries.
According to UNAIDS in 2019, over 35 million people worldwide were infected with HIV, and
5% are children under 15 years.
HIV Size is about 60 times smaller than a red blood cell (RBC). It is spherical and contains two
RNA molecules with nine genes enveloped in a protein coat called capsid.
The genes in HIV help prepare structural proteins for the virus structure and develop the
ability to inject into the host cell.

HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS (HIV)

In the beginning, HIV infection symptoms appear for short durations like fever, flu, and
headache. Later, the virus can last for years without symptoms, but the person may have
swollen lymph glands.
As the immune system weakens, the person becomes vulnerable to other infections like
tuberculosis, pneumonia, and cancers. The person may also experience weight loss, night

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sweats, diarrhea, and sepsis.

TREATMENT OF AIDS
A test for HIV is needed to detect the virus through blood or saliva samples. Antiretroviral
therapy (ART) is used to treat HIV by combining drugs that inhibit viral enzyme activity.
The drugs Rukobia, Descovy, and Truvada are found to be remarkable against HIV.

PRIONS AND VIROIDS

Prions are infectious protein molecules composed of 29 amino acids with a single disulfide
bond and no nucleic acid. They are found in body tissues and the brain.
Prions may cause Trisomy 21, Alzheimer's disease, sleeplessness (insomnia), and mad cow
disease in cattle.
Viroids are non-enveloped single-stranded RNA molecules discovered by Theodor O. Diener
in 1971. They can be transmitted through pollen or seeds. The smallest known viroid is 220
nucleotides, while the smallest known virus is about 2000 bases in size.

VIRAL DISEASES
HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS
Symptoms: Fever blisters around the mouth and sexual organs. A person may experience
painful sores in the genital region and burning sensation in urination, flu, and fever.
Transmission: The virus can enter the body through a break in the skin via mouth,
reproductive organs, and anus. Unsanitary conditions may lead to the spread of this disease.
Treatment and Prevention: Use antiviral drugs on doctor's advice and avoid unsanitary
conditions.

POLIO VIRUS
Treatment and Prevention: The disease can only be handled prophylactically by vaccination
and proper sanitary conditions. This virus may lead to death if not treated properly.

BEGOMOVIRUS
Treatment and Prevention: Use spray at every seven days and practice proper crop
management. Burn infected plants to prevent the spread of disease.

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NAME OF VECTOR TYPE OF TRANS SYMPTOMSS

VIRUS /HOST NUCLEIC MISSION
ACID
Chikunguny Aedes RNA virus with Blood Headache, body
a Virus mosquito and a positive- and joint pain,
nonhuman sense single- Nausea, Vomiting,
primates stranded swollen glands,
genome painful eyes

Dengue Virus Aedes Positive-sense, Blood Rashes with

mosquito, single-stranded pain, Nausea,
human RNA pain typically
behind the
eyes, and in the
body

Ebola Virus Canid animals, Negative- Body fluid Hemorrhagic

Bats, dogs etc. sense, single- fever
stranded RNA
virus

Hepatitis C Human Positive-sense, Transmission Fever, yellow skin,

Virus infected blood single-stranded of Hepatitis C Fatigue, Muscle and
RNA virus, mainly joint pain, Nausea,
during blood loss of appetite,
transfusions Stomach pain

Measles Airborne Negative-sense Sneezing and Fever, cough,

Virus droplets from RNA genome coughing of and a runny
nose and infected nose, followed
throat mucus person by a body rash
in humans

Corona Virus Bats RNA viruses Airborne Laboured

droplets breathing,
Pressure inside
the chest with
pain, weakness,
difficulty in
speech, low
oxygen level

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07 BIOENERGETICS
Capturing and conversion of energy from one form to another in the living system and its
utilization in metabolic activities is called Bioenergetics.
Under cellular condition ATP formation requires 7.3 Kcal/mole energy.

ROLE OF LIGHT IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Light is a form of energy, has dual nature, described both as a wave and a particle nature.
It is composed of packet of energy called quanta and photon.
Absorption and Action Spectrum Relationship
By comparing the peaks in absorption spectrum and the peaks in action spectrum are
broader.
The valley is narrower, not as deep.
This difference occurs due to the accessory pigments, the carotenoids.
The light absorbed in this zone passes on to chlorophyll and then converts to chemical
energy.
Absorption Spectrum of Chlorophyll-a and Chlorophyll-b
The absorption spectra of chlorophyll-a and chlorophyll-b pigments in visible range is
measured in a solvent.
Chlorophyll-a absorbs violet and orange light (650 to 700 nm) while chlorophyll-b (450 to
500 nm) absorbs mostly blue and yellow light.

ROLE OF CO2
The final product of photosynthesis is carbohydrate which contain carbon atoms as basic
skeleton attached with Hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
The carbon form basic skeleton is provided by carbon dioxide during light independent
reaction i.e.C3 cycle.
Scientists had studied that CO2 with air enter in the intercellular spaces through stomata of
leaves.
This CO2 get dissolved in the water absorbed by the cell-wall of mesophyll cells.
This entry of CO₂ into leaves depends on the opening of stomata on leaves.

LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION: COMPONENTS OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT

CHAIN
In chloroplast, the light capturing chlorophyll molecules, membrane bounded proteins and
electron carriers together constitute the electron transport chain.
Four major groups of complexes are present in the membrane:
Photosystem-I (PSI)
Photosystem-II (PSII)
Cytochrome b/f complex
ATPase complex
Photosystem I and II both contain special chlorophyll-a molecules at their centers.
These chlorophyll molecules are identical to all other chlorophyll-a molecules.
The change in absorbing spectra is due to their association with chlorophyll-bound proteins.
Electron Transport Chain Events
The excited electron produced within P₆₈₀ is rapidly transferred to primary electron acceptor
phaeophytin, and then to plastoquinone (PQ) molecules.
Water Splitting and Electron Replacement also occur.

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The P₆₈₀⁺ produced by this primary charge separation is compensated (reduced) by electrons
from H₂O.
Water splitting complex produces 4e⁻, 4H⁺, and one molecule of O₂ into the lumen.
Electron Flow through Electron Carriers
The excited electrons are transferred from primary electron acceptor to plastoquinone (PQ).
PQ molecules accept two electrons and take up two protons from the stroma.
It carries electrons from PS-II complex to the Cytb/f complex.
This is considered the rate-limiting step of electron transport.
(b) Formation of ATP (Photophosphorylation)
Some of the electron carriers of the cytochrome system pump hydrogen ions (H⁺) from
stroma to thylakoid space (lumen).
The thylakoid space acts as a reservoir for hydrogen ions because H⁺ ions produced by
splitting of water during the process of photolysis accumulate here.
Chemiosmotic ATP Synthesis
This movement of H⁺ through ATPase complex due to concentration gradient is called
chemiosmosis or chemiosmotic ATP synthesis.
The chemical and osmotic events join to permit ATP synthesis.
The transport of three protons (H⁺) through ATPase complex is normally required for the
production of one ATP molecule.

CALVIN BENSON CYCLE

During this cycle CO2 is reduced to triose phosphate i.e. 3- Phosphoglycerose or dihydroxy
acetone phosphate and subsequently via other metabolic pathways to hexoses, sucrose and
starch.
RuBiSCO an enzyme which function as carboxylase as well as oxygenase.
If the supply of CO2 inside the leaf is inadequate most of RuBiSCO combines with O2, giving
one molecule of 3 PGA and one molecule of phosphoglycerate, where phosphoglycerate
rapidly breaks down to release CO2.
(RuBP)+O2 RuBiSCO 3 PGA + phosphoglycerate CO2this process is named as
photorespiration because in the presence of light (Photon) oxygen is taken up and CO2 is
evolved (respiration).
Only one molecule of three carbon sugar i.e. Triose phosphate is produced which can (a) re-
enter the cycle or to produce hexose or (b) be used for starch synthesis within chloroplast. (c)
be exported via phosphate translocator to cytosol for a total for sucrose synthesis.

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION OR FERMENTATION

Fermentation was originally defined by W. Pauster as respiration in the absence of air (O₂).
A small but significant minority of organisms obtain energy by anaerobic respiration.
Many micro-organisms including yeasts and some bacteria can respire anaerobically.
Only two molecules of ATP is net gain of this type of respiration (Lactic Acid Fermentation)
In case of Alcoholic Fermentation, a large amount of energy is produced in comparison to
lactic acid fermentation, i.e., net gain 2ATP and 2NADH₂.

GLYCOLYSIS
The Pyruvate produces at glycolysis have three metabolic pathways according to availability
of enzyme in organisms. It may be anaerobic or aerobic.

OXIDATION OF PYRUVATE IN AEROBIC RESPIRATION

During this phase, NAD is reduced to NADH₂.

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The 2 molecules of Pyruvate which produce as the end product of glycolysis now produce:
Two molecules of CO₂
Two molecules of Acetyl CoA
Two molecules of NADH₂

NET ATP GAIN FROM COMPLETE OXIDATION OF GLUCOSE

Complete oxidation of glucose molecule results in a net gain of 36 ATP molecules, which are
released in the cytoplasm available for different metabolic reactions.

CELLULAR RESPIRATION OF PROTEIN AND FATS

In the absence of enough sugar, living organisms use fats and during illness proteins are also
used to produce energy.
Fats hydrolyze and produce glycerol and three molecules of fatty acid.
The glycerol converts into 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde, which is one of the triose-sugar
molecules produced during glycolysis.

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08 NUTRITION
Nutrition is the process of acquiring energy and materials.
Nutrient cycle: Nutrients cycle from plants → decomposers → soil → back to plants.
Atmospheric nitrogen becomes available to plants via nitrates and ammonium by nitrogen-
fixing bacteria.
Plants synthesize organic compounds as secondary products for growth.
Mineral nutrients include nitrates, sulphates, and phosphates which help in protein, lipid
synthesis.
14 inorganic elements are essential, including nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and
magnesium (Mg).
Sulphur: Helps in amino acid formation and nitrogen fixation.
Magnesium: Helps in conversion of starch to sugar and works in cold temperature tolerance.
Some New micronutrient functional details:
Manganese (Mn): Involved in enzyme phosphatase activity (transfers PO₄⁻ groups).
Iron (Fe): Exists as Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺, involved in cytochromes and electron transport chain.
Zinc (Zn): Involved in anaerobic respiration (e.g., alcohol fermentation).

ESSENTIAL ELEMENT CLASSIFICATION

NON-METALLIC Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulphur

METALLIC Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Iron

CARNIVOROUS (INSECTIVOROUS) PLANTS

In addition to bright colors, some carnivorous plants attract insects using scent or sweet
secretions, which serve as lures to bring prey closer to the trap structures.
After capturing insects, these plants perform extra-cellular digestion, breaking down
nitrogenous compounds such as proteins outside the plant cells before absorption.
The primary products of insect digestion, especially amino acids, are absorbed and
assimilated by the plant as a nitrogen source for growth and metabolism.
The plant Aldrovanda, also known as the water fly trap, is another example of a carnivorous
plant. It is adapted to aquatic environments and traps insects underwater.
In Venus flytrap, key anatomical structures involved in trapping include the lobed blade
(insect trap), trigger hairs (which sense movement), and the petiole (leaf stalk).

HOLOZOIC NUTRITION
Food of an organism consists of different substances, the nutrients which are required by the
protoplasm for various biological functions.
In heterotrophic nutrition, organisms depend on ready-made food like carbohydrates,
proteins etc., from other organisms.
Holozoic nutrition = one type of heterotrophic nutrition, common in animals.
Characterized by: ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation, egestion.

PROCESS DEFINITION KEY DETAILS

Ingestion Taking in of food into the cell Entry through cell surface or mouth
(unicellular) or body (multicellular)

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Digestion Breaking down of complex/non- Happens chemically (via enzymes)

diffusible food into and mechanically
simple/diffusible molecules

Absorption Uptake of soluble food molecules Absorbed through structures like

by digestive membranes intestinal lining for metabolism

Assimilation Utilization of absorbed food Used during metabolic reactions to

molecules in the cell’s metabolic provide energy or build materials
processes

Assimilation Removal of undigested food from Expelled from the body

the body or cell (multicellular) or cell (unicellular)

INTRACELLULAR & EXTRACELLULAR DIGESTION

Intracellular digestion: In protozoa/single-celled organisms; digestion occurs inside cell.
Extracellular digestion: In multicellular animals; food is digested outside cell in alimentary
canal.
In extracellular digestion, enzymes are released from secretory cells into gut → convert food
to simple substances.

CHEMICAL & MECHANICAL DIGESTION

Both types involve:
Enzymatic conversion of food = chemical digestion.
Physical breakdown = mechanical digestion.
Chemical digestion: Water is essential for enzymatic hydrolysis.
Mechanical digestion: Involves mastication, churning, grinding, peristalsis, etc., to break food
into smaller pieces.
Facilitates chemical digestion by increasing surface area for digestive enzymes.

HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive tract of humans is complete — tube-like, begins with mouth and ends at anus.
Like other animals with complete gut, it starts at mouth and terminates at anus.
Various regions are specifically designed for different processes of holozoic nutrition.

CHEMICAL & MECHANICAL DIGESTION

Has a muscular tongue on the floor.
Hard palate is dome-shaped bony
Upper jaw is fixed, lower is movable.
Both jaws lined with teeth for cutting and grinding – responsible for mechanical digestion.

TEETH
The teeth are embedded in sockets along the length of lower and upper jaws. This condition is
termed as thecodont.
We have two sets of teeth during lifetime. The condition is termed as diphydont. Initially, we
have deciduous or milk teeth which are latter replaced by permanent teeth.

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Our teeth are different in shape and size, so the condition is termed as heterodont.
This is correlated with different functions and different diet.
Among the 32 permanent teeth there are 8 Incisors, 4 Canines, 8 Premolars and 12 Molars.
The molars have no deciduous predecessors.

TONGUE AND SALIVARY GLANDS

It’s a muscular organ attached through hyoid bone with the floor of the oral cavity from its
posterior and middle while free anteriorly at its tip.
Its upper surface has numerous projections or papillae containing nerve endings for the sense
of taste.
The under surface of the tongue have a fold of mucous membrane called frenulum.
The tongue helps in mastication, swallowing, taste and speech.
When you think about taking some spicy food, your mouth instantly gets watered. This is a
watery secretion, the saliva, secreted from the salivary glands present in your oral cavity.
The saliva helps in lubrication of food through its mucin (mucous) which makes its swallowing
easy. Its enzyme, salivary amylase also partially digests starch into maltose. It also helps in
killing bacteria through its enzyme, lysozyme.
Parotid glands are present at the base of the pinna.
The salivary glands are controlled by autonomic nervous system. It is reported that a normal
person secretes 1 to 1.5 liters of saliva in 24 hours.

PHARYNX
The pharynx is connected anteriorly to oral cavity and nasal cavity simultaneously, while
posteriorly connected to the esophagus and larynx.
The pharynx permits the passage of swallowed solids and liquids food into the esophagus, or
gullet, and conducts air to and from the trachea, windpipe, during respiration.
The pharynx also connects on either side with the cavity of the middle ear by way of the
Eustachian tube and provides for equalization of air pressure on the eardrum membrane,
which separates the cavity of the middle ear from the external ear canal.
The principal muscles of the pharynx, involved in the mechanics of swallowing, are the three
pharyngeal constrictors, which overlap with each other slightly and form the primary
musculature of the side and rear pharyngeal walls.

SWALLOWING (DEGLUTITION)
In it mastication is ceased, air passageway is temporary blocked.
Epiglottis is a lid-like covering.

PERISTALSIS
It begins from the pharynx and then esophagus and continues propelling the food till the end
of the digestive tract.
The muscular layer of the gut consists of inner layer of circular muscles while an outer layer of
longitudinal muscles.
The circular muscles behind the bolus contract while the longitudinal muscles are relaxed
simultaneously. This produces a propulsive force on the bolus.

ANTIPERISTALSIS
This feeling is termed as nausea.
It could be due to over distension or excessive GIT irritation, a consequence of some
poisonous food or toxic chemicals.

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During the process, the stomach is squeezed. The gastro-esophageal sphincter is relaxed
which causes the contents of the stomach to move upward through the esophagus in the form
of vomiting.

ESOPHAGUS
It is located between trachea and spinal cord. Internally, it is lubricated by mucous which
makes the passage of food through the esophagus easier.
There is no process of mechanical as well as chemical digestions in esophagus.

STOMACH
The top of stomach lies against the diaphragm.
The fundus is the upper curved part which adapts to the varying volume of ingested food by
relaxing its muscular wall.
The largest part of it usually contains a gas bubble, especially after a meal. The largest part of
the stomach is the central, corpus (body) which primarily serves as the main reservoir of the
ingested food.
The wall of the stomach consists of the usual four layers as present in other parts of the
gastrointestinal tract.
The innermost layer, mucosa, is relatively thicker and contains numerous tubular glands.
Below, sub-mucosa containing blood vessels, nerves, etc.
Below sub-mucosa lies muscularis externa. It is also thick and, in some areas, it consists of 3
layers of smooth muscle, although this layering is not always visible.
The three layers of smooth muscles are:
Innermost oblique
Middle circular
Outer longitudinal
The fourth and outermost layer is the serosa. It secretes a lubricating fluid that reduces
friction from muscle movement.
In the empty contracted stomach, the mucosa is thrown into longitudinal folds or rugae
because of the contraction of the muscularis mucosae and the loose consistency of the
submucosa.
The gastric pits – These funnel-shaped invaginations of the epithelium are continuous at
their base with the tubular glands.
The mucosa has mucous-secreting mucoid cells throughout. It secretes mucous and
bicarbonate ions.
The gastric mucosa is a glycoprotein which acts as a means of lubrication of food as well as
protection to the stomach against the action of HCl and its own proteolytic enzyme.
Three histological regions can be distinguished in the stomach.
The first region around the cardiac contains the cardiac glands. They secrete mucous only.
The second region, which includes the fundus and corpus, contains the gastric glands proper
or fundic glands.
Here the main mucoid cells are lying.
Intrinsic factor is also important for nervous system health.
The distal region of the stomach (pylorus) contains pyloric glands which secrete mucous and
gastrin hormone.
Gastrin is released in response to distention of the stomach and proteins (that raise pH).
An important secretion is serotonin, which inhibits gastric acid secretion.

DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH (MECHANICAL & CHEMICAL)

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As food enters the stomach, both mechanical and chemical digestion begin simultaneously.
Food anticipation (smell, taste, etc.) and stomach distention stimulate the vagus nerve, a key
part of the parasympathetic nervous system, triggering the release of gastrin (especially in
response to proteins).
Gastrin stimulates gastric glands to secrete gastric juice, which contains HCl (kills germs,
softens food, activates enzymes) and pepsinogen (converted to pepsin → digests proteins into
peptones).
The stomach is protected by mucous and bicarbonate ions (raise mucosal pH to ~7, while
lumen pH remains 1.5–2.5).
Secretion is regulated by neuronal, mechanical, and hormonal factors.
In infants, rennin (chymosin) converts caseinogen → casein, digested by pepsin.
Mechanical digestion is driven by 3 muscle layers: inner oblique, middle circular, outer
longitudinal.
These produce peristalsis for churning, mixing, and propelling food to the duodenum.
After digestion, food becomes chyme and is released slowly into the duodenum. Breaking
food into smaller parts increases surface area for enzymatic action.

ABSORPTIVE ROLE OF THE STOMACH:

Besides playing a major role in digestion of food, the stomach contributes a minor role in the
absorption process also.
It absorbs few of the digestive products, water, glucose, some other simple sugars, amino
acids, and some fat-soluble substances.

SMALL INTESTINE
Stomach is followed by a long, coiled tube, the small intestine. It is about 6 meters long and 3
to 4 cm wide.
The small intestine is overall involved in completing the process of digestion and also the
process of absorption.

DUODENUM
The duodenum forms a “C” shaped curve. Its initial part forms a bulb like dilation, the
duodenal bulb.
The duodenum receives a common bile duct and a pancreatic duct opening by a common
aperture through which the secretions from liver and pancreas, respectively, bile and
pancreatic juice are received.
The bile is formed by the liver and stored in the gall bladder.
The stimulation of gall bladder to release bile takes place by a peptide hormone of duodenum,
the cholecystokinin which also plays role in pancreatic stimulation to secrete its pancreatic
juice.
Upon stimulation of gall bladder, bile is released into the cystic duct which is connected with
the common bile duct before finally reaching the duodenum.
The partly digested proteins of acidic chyme that entered the duodenum serve as major
stimulus for cholecystokinin secretion.
On the other hand, cholecystokinin also stimulates acinar cells of the pancreas to secrete
large amount of pancreatic juice.
Besides cholecystokinin, the cells of duodenum also secrete another hormone, secretin which
acts upon pancreas to secrete water and bicarbonate ions.
Juice is flushed out into the duodenum. The bicarbonate ions neutralize and turn the acidic
chyme into alkaline.

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BILE COMPOSITION
Bile is yellowish green in color and it contains water, salts, and bile pigments (brownish yellow
bilirubin and greenish biliverdin).
Its salts- sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate are involved in the emulsification of
fats.
They are formed as excretory products of worn out RBCs.

PANCREATIC JUICE
Proteolytic enzyme chymotrypsin in the pancreatic juice converts casein into short chain
amino acids.
The other enzyme, the pancreatic acts upon starch and glycogen to break them into maltose
(a disaccharide).
The duodenum contains specific Brunner’s glands, which produce a mucus-rich alkaline
secretion containing bicarbonate ions.
These secretions, in combination with bicarbonate from the pancreas, neutralize the stomach
acids contained in gastric chyme.

JEJUNUM
It is the middle region of the small intestine and about 2.5 meter long.
The region is specialized for digestion and absorption of the digested food.
Nucleotides are broken down into nucleosides by its nucleotidase. The cellulose remains
undigested here.

ILEUM
Internally, the walls of small intestine has wrinkle or folds called plicae circulares.
From each of these folds arise numerous microscopic finger-like projections, villi.
The plicae circulares, villi and microvilli increase the surface-area of the small intestine
several folds for the absorption of soluble food.
Each villus has a dense network of blood capillaries, blind lymph vessels called lacteals, and
smooth muscles.

LARGE INTESTINE
Shorter in length (about 1.5 meters) but greater in diameter (about 6.5 cm).

CAECUM
Located in the lower right side of the abdominal cavity.
Water and salt absorption takes place here.
The caecum, from its lower side, gives out a blind tube of about 18 cm long called vermiform
appendix.

COLON
It is involved in the reabsorption of water, salts and vitamins.
The colon also contains large numbers of symbiotic bacteria (e.g., Lactobacillus, etc.) that
synthesize niacin (nicotinic acid), thiamin (vitamin B1) and vitamin K, vitamins that are
essential to several metabolic activities as well as to the function of the central nervous
system.

RECTUM

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 MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)
13 cm long, ends at dilated portion, the rectal ampulla.
The process of removal of undigested food is egestion or defecation.

ROLE OF ACCESSORY GLANDS

STRUCTURE OF LIVER
The liver is enclosed in a thin inelastic capsule and incompletely covered by a layer of
peritoneum.
The liver has four lobes. The two most obvious are the large right lobe and the smaller, wedge-
shaped, left lobe. The other two, the caudate and quadrate lobes, are areas on the posterior
surface.
The lobes of the liver are made up of tiny lobules just visible to the naked eye.
These lobules are hexagonal in outline and are formed by cubical-shaped cells, the
hepatocytes, arranged in pairs of columns radiating from a central vein.

BLOOD SUPPLY TO LIVER

The liver receives blood supply from two sources, one is hepatic artery which supplies
oxygenated blood while the other one is hepatic portal vein which brings nutrient rich blood
from various regions of the alimentary canal.

FUNCTIONS
METABOLISM & HOMEOSTASIS
It is involved in deamination of amino acids thereby removing the nitrogenous portion from
the amino acids not required for the formation of new protein; urea is formed from this
nitrogenous portion which is excreted in the urine.
It also breaks down the genetic material of worn-out cells of the body to form uric acid which
is excreted in the urine.
It removes the nitrogenous portion of amino acids and attaches it to other carbohydrate
molecules forming new non-essential amino acids.

SYNTHESIS
It synthesizes plasma proteins and most of the blood clotting factors from the available amino
acids occur in the liver. It synthesizes vitamin A from carotene.

DETOXIFICATION
It performs detoxification of drugs and noxious substances. These include ethanol (alcohol)
and toxins produced by microbes.

INACTIVATION OF HORMONES
These include insulin, glucagon, cortisol, aldosterone, thyroid, and sex hormones.

PRODUCTION OF HEAT
It uses a considerable amount of energy, has a high metabolic rate, and produces a great deal
of heat. It is the main heat-producing organ of the body.

STORAGE
It stores fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, K; iron, copper; some water-soluble vitamins, e.g.
riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, folic acid and vitamin B12.

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FUNCTIONS
HEPATITIS
There could be several factors responsible for hepatitis such as: Autoimmune disorder, Viral
infection, some toxins, drugs, or drinking alcohol
Hepatitis is commonly characterized by: Fatigue, Flu-like symptoms, Pale skin, Abdominal
pain, Dark urine, Pale stool
Infectious hepatitis is accompanied by high fever.

JAUNDICE
It is a yellowish discoloration of: Skin, Mucous membranes, White of the eyes
Caused by elevated levels of bilirubin in the blood (hyperbilirubinemia).
Bilirubin is a yellow pigment created by the breakdown of dead red blood cells in the liver.
Normally, the liver gets rid of bilirubin along with old red blood cells.
Jaundice may indicate serious problems in: Red blood cells, Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas
Jaundice itself is not a disease, but a symptom of several possible conditions.

PANCREAS
Lies behind the stomach in horizontal line along the curve of duodenum.
It is 12 cm to 15 cm long.
Though it serves as both exocrine and endocrine gland, only exocrine role is discussed here.
Consists of a large number of lobules, whose walls have secretory cells.
Each lobule is drained by a tiny duct, which unite to form the pancreatic duct.
Pancreatic duct runs the whole length of gland and opens into the duodenum.
Before entering duodenum, pancreatic duct joins common bile duct to form the
hepatopancreatic ampulla.
Duodenal opening of ampulla is controlled by the hepatopancreatic sphincter (of Oddi).

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CHAPTER MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)

09 GASEOUS EXCHANGE
RESPIRATION
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
During aerobic respiration, glucose in our cells oxidized with the help of oxygen.
The energy is released along with by-products carbon dioxide and water.

VENTILATION AND GASEOUS EXCHANGE

PURPOSE OF VENTILATION
In order to supply oxygen to our cells, we have to bring air into our lungs through the air
passage ways.
The movement of air from the atmosphere into the lungs and back into the atmosphere is
called ventilation.
The energy is released along with by-products carbon dioxide and water.

MAIN FUNCTION OF LUNGS

The main function of the lungs in human being is to manage the gaseous (air) exchange
between the body internal circulatory system of an organism and its external environment.

RESPIRATORY SURFACE MOIST & PERMEABLE

It must be moist as to allow to pass dissolved gases through them and it must be permeable
to gases.

LARGE SURFACE AREA

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In our lungs we have millions of alveoli whose collective surface area is several folds larger in
relation to our total volume.
In case of higher animal like human, the respiratory surface is facilitated by following:

SIGNIFICANT BLOOD SUPPLY

Significant blood supply is another character of respiratory surface.
It initiates the transport of highly concentrated oxygenated blood is taken away from the
lungs and carbon dioxide rich blood is taken to the lungs.

DIFFUSION GRADIENT
For the purpose of continuous breathing, oxygen concentration in the alveoli should be higher
than in the capillaries.
Oxygen moves from the alveoli to the blood.
Carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction.

HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

EXTERNAL ANATOMY
The nose is the only external part of our respiratory system.

NASAL FUNCTION
The hairs of nasal cavity and its ciliated cells trap the dust particle and decontaminate the gas
(air).
The nasal chambers run forward through internal nares into a tube-like cavity at behind of
mouth called pharynx which is a muscular tube of 13cm.
Air move from pharynx to the upper portion nasopharynx and larynx from laryngopharynx.
Normally air enters the pharynx through nose, but it may also enter by mouth if the nasal
sections are blocked.

TRACHEA
Trachea is the main airway to the lungs.
It is a fibro-cartilaginous tube about 10–11 cm long.
Trachea has about 16–20 C-shaped cartilaginous rings.

BRONCHI
A singular right bronchus is broader, shorter and straighter than the left one bronchus.

THORACIC CAVITY AND PLEURA

The wall of thoracic cavity is attached with inter-costal muscles which are associated with rib
cage, vertebral column and sternum (chest bone).
Thoracic and abdominal regions are separated by diaphragm.
The pleural membrane in thoracic region called visceral pleura wraps around each lung and
separates from the thoracic wall.
The other membrane is parietal pleura, lies the inside of the chest wall.
The small space between the visceral and parietal pleurae is the pleural cavity, filled with
serous fluid which serves as a lubricant to the lungs and allows optimal expansion and
contraction during breathing.

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LUNGS
The left lung is smaller than the right lung, because left lung is slightly displaced by the heart
which occupies more space on the left side in thorax.
Each lung consists of some units, called lobes.
The major Functions of the respiratory system:
The respiratory system performs the following major functions:
Oxygen supplier:
It provides a continuous supply of oxygen to all tissues.
Withdrawal:
Removal of by-product, conversion
carbon dioxide (CO₂).
Conversation of Gas:
The mechanism of gas exchange between the internal and external environment of the body is
regulate through respiratory surfaces.
Humidifier:
The respiratory system performs as a humidifier. It has the capability to humidify and keep
the air warm which inhale from the external environment.

PHASES OF VENTILATION
INHALATION
Inhalation is the taking in of air from the atmosphere up to the alveoli.

EXHALATION
Exhalation is the giving out of air from alveoli to the atmosphere.

BREATHING RATE
The person breathes how much every minute it’s called breathing rate.
Breathing rate varies upon a person’s activity.
Normal is about 12-20 times per minutes.

MECHANISM OF VENTILATION (BREATHING)

In inspiration, there is a fall in gaseous tension of the alveolar sac which falls when the air
launches into the lungs and in case of expiration pressure of alveoli is exceed than
atmospheric one.
This type of breathing mechanism is called negative pressure breathing.
It is the decrease pressure in the region of thoracic cavity in relation to external atmospheric
pressure.

INSPIRATION
Contraction of external inter-costal muscles moves the ribs outward and as well as sternum
also progressively move in upward direction while shrinkage of the diaphragm makes it
levelled.
So negative pressure is developed inside the thoracic cavity and eventually in the lungs.

EXPIRATION
Sternum moves downward; volume of the thoracic cavity is reduced.
Lungs are pressed so the air along with water vapours is expire outside through respiratory

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 MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)

pathway.

LUNG VOLUME AND CAPACITY

Respiratory volumes are also known as lung volumes.
In human adult, lung capacity is six liters of air.
These volumes vary due to some factors: race, gender, age, body composition and respiratory
diseases.

In normal breath the air generally enters in the lungs during breathing. In normal breath about
450 to 500 milliliters.
Vital volume is the amount of air which is inspired and expired during deep breath. This
volume is regarding 5000 milliliters (ml).
Expiratory reserve volume is the valuable quantity of air 1200–1500 milliliters.
Inspiratory reserve volume is the extra air which is 2000 milliliters and cannot allow the chest
to expand more than 1000 milliliters and can be changed due to thorax to collapse.

CONTROL OF BREATHING
It is observed that high concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and H⁺ in blood are stimuli to
increase the rate of breathing.
The accumulation of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and H⁺ are monitored by specific chemoreceptors
called aortic and carotid bodies.
These bodies are found in aorta and carotid arteries respectively.
The lower part of brain medulla oblongata is responsible to detect any change in carbon
dioxide and H⁺ concentration in cerebro-spinal fluid.
So, this impulse (messages) sent to inter-costal muscles and diaphragm to increase the
breathing rate, accordingly.

TRANSPORTATION OF GASES
OXYGEN
Around 97 percent oxygen is dispersed by red blood cells and the remaining 3 percent oxygen
gets dissolved and transported through blood plasma.
Oxyhaemoglobin delivers oxygen molecule to all body cells for cellular respiration.
At the level of cells, oxygen molecules detached from haemoglobin and diffuse into cells.
The diffused oxygen breaks down the glucose molecules to release CO₂, water and energy.
The body utilizes the energy while tissues diffuse the CO2.

CARBON DIOXIDE
Due to the high concentration of CO₂ is diffuses out from the tissues into the blood as a by-
product.
The color of deoxygenated blood is dark maroon.
Bicarbonate ions combine with sodium and potassium ions to form sodium bicarbonate and
potassium bicarbonate.

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Carbaminohemoglobin is dissociated into CO₂ and Hb and CO₂ move into alveoli which is later
brought in the lungs where its concentration is lower but partial pressure of oxygen is high in
alveoli.
So, dissociated CO2 is exhaled.

RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS
HAEMOGLOBIN
Haemoglobin is the respiratory pigment present in RBCs of all vertebrates including human
beings

Hemoglobin is constituted
of Polypeptide chains.

of polypeptide chains are constituted Haemoglobin.

Each chain bears an iron-containing heme group.
Each haemoglobin molecule is able to transport four oxygen molecules by forming a loose
temporary compound called oxyhaemoglobin.
Haemoglobin brings back carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs.
Fig. Shows Formation and dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin
Myoglobin
Myoglobin is a single-chain globular protein and smaller than haemoglobin.
It is found in muscles and binds with oxygen more tightly than haemoglobin.
It also consists of a heme group.
One heme binds one molecule of O₂.

SINUSES
Sinuses are hollow air-filled cavities. These hollow cavities found in skull and linked to the
nasal air passage. Human has four pairs of nasal cavities
Frontal sinus, in the forehead region
Maxillary sinus, in the behind cheeks
Ethmoid sinus, between the eyes
Sphenoid sinus, located in deep behind the ethmoids

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UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS

(I)SINUSITIS
In the sinusitis condition these sinuses are filled with fluid; due to this, it may harbor
pathogens.
Reasons that can cause sinus blockage include:
Allergic rhinitis, swelling in the lining of the nose.
Nasal polyps, nose lining shows small growths.
Nasal septum physical deviation of nose, involving a dislocation of the nasal septum.
Symptoms: congestion (nasal stuffiness), cough, tooth pain, ear pain, eye pain.
Treatment: Use steam and saline nasal spray to wash nasal passage.

(II) OTITIS MEDIA

Sore throat, or upper respiratory infection can cause this disease.
Eustachian tube: This tube bridges the middle ear with the throat area and balances the
pressure between the outer and the middle ear.
Symptom: unbalancing (along with fever, ear pain, etc.)
Treatment of otitis media is dependent on its type. Commonly, antibiotic medicines by ear
drops can be suggested by consultant.

LOWER RESPIRATORY INFECTIONS

(I) PNEUMONIA
Causes: virus, bacteria, and fungi.
Lobar pneumonia occurs in the lobes of lungs.
Bronchial pneumonia (bronchopneumonia): patches appear on both lungs.
Symptoms of bacterial pneumonia: headache, lips and fingernails become bluish in color,
fever with cough and yellowish-green or bloody mucus, confused mental state.Other
symptoms: loss of appetite, rapid breathing, and shortness of breath.
Viral and bacterial pneumonia have same symptoms in early stages.
These may cause shortness of breath, headache, muscle pain, and weakness.
Mycoplasma pneumonia: acute cough with mucus.
Treatment: In most cases of bacterial pneumonia, oral antibiotics can be used. Antibiotic
medications don't work on viruses. Patient should take hot drinks.
Humidification and steamy baths are very helpful to open airway blockage and ease breathing.

(II) PULMONARY TUBERCULOSIS (TB)

The treatment of Pulmonary TB is possible but late treatment or untreated patient may get
life-threatening situation.

(III) EMPHYSEMA
Emphysema is one of the diseases which belongs to group of chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD) in which wall of the air sacs becomes damaged. So, the alveoli cannot support
the bronchial tubes.
Due to the blockage of tubes, too much air traps inside the lungs.
There are fewer alveoli, less oxygen transport into bloodstream.
It is an irreversible condition.

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 MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)
Symptoms include: during physical activity, tightness in chest, frequent coughing or wheezing,
and mucus production with cough. Infections like cold and flu may worsen the condition.
Treatment: Bronchodilators and medicinal treatment recover the patient and relieve from
coughing and short breathing. Antibiotics may be used for the remedy.
Aerosol sprays may reduce swelling and help in easier breathing.

(IV) LUNG CANCER

About 80% of lung cancer is caused by smoking.
Symptoms: coughing with blood, chest infections that keep coming back, pain when breathing
or coughing, persistent breathlessness, and continuous tiredness.

(V) SMOKING AND RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The effect of tobacco smoking on respiratory system is the larynx and tracheal passage
irritations.
Tobacco smoke may cause swelling in air sacs that produce mucus which can block airways.
This causes lung infection and may damage the alveoli.

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CHAPTER MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)

10 TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
Every living cell, whether it exists alone as a single cell organism or as a component of a
multicellular one, must perform its own metabolic activities.
It must synthesize its own ATP by cellular respiration.
Every cell must obtain the necessary raw materials to support its metabolism for the
synthesis of ATP.
Plants are in contact with both soil and atmosphere.
Various materials from atmosphere and soil are transported in and out of the plant body by
various processes such as diffusion, osmosis, imbibition, and active transport.

CELL TO CELL AND LONG-DISTANCE TRANSPORT

In plants, cell to cell movement of water and solutes occur via apoplast and/or symplast
pathways.
Long distance transport occurs in xylem and phloem.
Transport mechanisms include passive processes such as diffusion, mass flow, osmosis, and
active processes, which require energy from cell metabolism.

PATHWAYS OF TRANSPORT (NON-GASEOUS SUBSTANCES)

Non-gaseous substances that are transported into and within plants are water and solutes
such as ions, amino acids, and sucrose.
There are a number of pathways:
Between solutions in the external environment and plant roots
Between cells either along the apoplastic pathway or the symplastic pathway via
plasmodesmata
Between compartments within a cell, e.g., between vacuole and cytoplasm (separated by
tonoplast)
Long distance transport in xylem and phloem.

XYLEM
Xylem is a complex tissue consisting of four types of cells in angiosperms; out of them two are
water conducting cells.
These are open-ended cells called vessels and porous cells called tracheids.

VESSELS
Vessels are thick-walled tube-like structures extending through several feet of xylem tissues.
They range in diameter from 0.2 mm to 0.7 mm.
Their walls are lignified and perforated by pits.
At the pit, lignin is not deposited, and cell wall is thin made up of cellulose.
Pits match with adjacent cells, so cavities are connected.
Vessels arise from cylindrical cells, placed end to end.
At maturity, the end walls dissolve, contents die, forming a continuous duct.
This offers a better route for long distance transport of water from roots to leaves.
The rate of flow in vessels is 10 times faster than tracheids

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One-way only

Water and
Minerals

thick walls
stiffend
with lignin

Xylem and phloem are the two types of vascular tissues in vascular plants.

TRACHEIDS
Tracheids are unusual cells about 0.3 mm in diameter and several mm in length.
They taper at each end, and ends overlap with others.
Like xylem vessels, they are dead with thick lignified walls.
Walls are perforated by pits, of two types: simple and bordered.
Pits connect upper and lower tracheids.
Through pits, water and minerals flow freely from one tracheid to another.
In all tracheophytes except angiosperms, tracheids are the only water conducting ducts.

PHLOEM
Phloem consists of four types of cells:
1.Sieve tube elements
2.Companion cells
3.Phloem fiber
4.Phloem parenchyma

SIEVE TUBE ELEMENTS

Have thin primary cell walls that connect adjacent cells by their ends.
Perforation in transverse wall (like sieve) allows flow.
Sieve cells are elongated and form a continuous conducting pathway.
Sieve plates are a conspicuous feature, derived from end walls of neighboring sieve elements.

COMPANION CELLS
Each sieve cell is associated with a specialized parenchyma cell (companion).
Together, they form a functional unit.
Companion cells retain cytoplasm and nucleus.
Function of companion cell: control activity of sieve cell.

WATER TRANSPORT
Water moves from soil into roots and then up to aerial parts of the plant through processes
like diffusion, osmosis, bulk flow, or combinations of these.

TYPES OF WATER RELATIONS

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The movement of water in or out of the cell exhibits three types of water relations: Water
potential, Osmotic pressure, Solute potential

WATER POTENTIAL
The chemical potential of water is a quantitative expression of the free energy associated with
the water. Thermodynamically, free energy represents a potential for performing work.
All living things including plants, require a continuous input of free energy. In the case of
water movements this free energy is involved in water flow.
The unit of chemical potential is energy per mole of a substance (joules per mole).
For practical reason, it turns out that the unit of chemical potential is inconvenient for most
work in plant physiology.
Therefore, plant physiologist has defined another parameter called water potential as the
difference between the free energy of water molecules in pure water and energy of water in
any other system (e.g. water in solution or in cell sap of plant).
Now, the free energy of water is expressed in pressure unit such as megapascals and
symbolized by Greek letter ψ (MPa: MPa = 9.87 atmosphere).
Addition of solute particles lowers the mole fraction (number of moles of substance divided
by total number of all substances in the system / solution of water).
Hence, there is a decrease in water potential. Therefore, values of water potential remain less
than zero or in negative value.

OSMOTIC POTENTIAL OR SOLUTE POTENTIAL (ΨS):

Osmotic potential is the tendency of a solution to attract water molecules when the solutions
of two different concentrations are separated by a differentially permeable membrane.
Since the osmotic potential decreases as the osmotic concentration (the no: of osmotically
active particles per unit volume) increases, all solutions have value of less than zero.
Under constant temperature and pressure, water moves from the solution of lower osmotic
potential to the solution of higher osmotic potential when the two solutions are separated by
a differentially permeable membrane.
It is represented by ψs or solute potential.
Another term used in relation to water potential is pressure potential, which is defined as the
hydrostatic

WATER RELATIONS OF PLANT CELL:

For practical purposes a plant cell can be divided into three parts:
1.Cell Wall: This is non-living, permeable, outer most boundary of cell made up of cellulose.
2.Cytoplasm along with nucleus forms protoplasm
3.In the centre, there is a vacuole enclosed by tonoplast; central vacuole is filled with cell
sap—an aqueous solution of salts, organic acids and sugar.
Greater the number of solute particles, the more negative will be the water potential of cell
sap.
The concentration of solute particles in a solution is known as solute potential (ψs).
When a cell is placed in pure water or in an aqueous solution with higher water potential (less
negative) than the cell sap, water flows into the vacuole by osmosis through plasma
membrane and tonoplast.
As more water flows into the vacuole, the tension developed by cell wall causes an internal
hydrostatic pressure to develop.
This is called pressure potential (ψp), and it opposes the continued uptake of water into the
cell by osmosis.

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 MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)
The relationship between water potential (ψ), solute potential (ψs), and pressure potential
(ψp) is represented by following equation:
ψ = ψs + ψp”
In a turgid cell ψp is equal and opposite to ψs, so ψ = 0.

WATER AND MINERAL UPTAKE BY ROOT:

Absorption of water and mineral salts takes place through root system. Roots are provided by
enormous number of tiny root hairs which are outgrowths of epidermal cells and found at the
root tip.
The root hairs greatly increase the surface area of root. Because of large root surface area,
plants absorb enough quantities of water and inorganic ions for their survival and growth.
Root hairs possess sticky walls and adhere tightly to soil particles which are usually coated
with water and dissolved mineral salts.
Most of the absorption takes place near the root tip where epidermis is permeable to water
and root hairs.
From root hairs and epidermal cells, water flows through cortex into endodermis, pericycle
and enters xylem.
Since transport of water takes place in radial direction, it is also termed as lateral transport.

THREE PATHWAYS OF WATER ENTRY:

The first route is from cell to cell. Water enters the root hairs or epidermal cell down a
gradient of water potential.
It flows out of one cell across the cell wall, cell membrane, vacuole and enters the adjacent
cell which may again pass the substance along the next cell in the pathway.
This is known as cellular pathway.
Symplast pathway requires only crossing of plasma membrane at root hair.
Third pathway is apoplast. The cell walls of epidermal cells and that of cortical cells form a
continuous matrix.
These walls are hydrophilic.
Soil solution flows freely through hydrophilic walls of epidermal and cortical cells. This
movement of soil solution through extracellular pathway provided by continuous matrix of
cell walls is known as apoplastic pathway.
As solutes move along extracellular pathway some of the water and solutes are taken up by
the cells of cortex thus changing the route from apoplast to symplast.
Symplast is the only way to cross the barrier (inner limiting line of cortex i.e., endodermis.
Endodermal cells actively transport salts to pericycle resulting in high concentration of salts.
This causes a low water potential and water move into them by osmosis.
From pericycle water flows into Xylem both via symplast and apoplast.

THREE PATHWAYS OF WATER ENTRY:

Only 1–2% of the absorbed water used in photosynthesis, in other metabolic activities and in
the maintenance of turgidity of the cells.
The remainder is lost from the leaves and other aerial parts in the form of vapours.
The upward movement of water from roots upto leaves takes place through xylem depend
upon two factors.
These are transpiration pull and physical properties of water i.e., adhesion and cohesion.
Transpiration pull results chain of events that starts when leaves begin to absorb solar
radiation in the morning.
Sunlight raises temperature of leaves, so the water begins to evaporate from moist walls of

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 MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)
mesophyll cells.
The evaporated water is immediately replaced with water inside the cell which is replaced
with water from neighboring cell deeper in the leaf.
Ultimately, water is pulled from xylem to meet the loss of water. Thus, water in xylem is
placed under tension which is transmitted to root through vessels.
This downward transmission of tension is transmitted to root through property of water
columns in vessels and tracheids is because of cohesive flow by mass flow due to
transpiration pull.
Force like adhesion, cohesion and evaporating effect of sunlight are mainly responsible for
upward conduction of water.

Companion

Translocation

TRANSLOCATION OF ORGANIC SOLUTES (PHLOEM

TRANSLOCATION)
The direction of transport is determined by the relative locations of the sources and sinks of
photosynthates.
This movement of photoassimilates and other organic materials take place via the Phloem,
and is therefore called Phloem Translocation.
Transport occurs through specialized tissues called Sieve elements.
Source–sink movement
Source are those tissues which produce photoassimilate more than their needs and sink are
those tissues which produce photoassimilates less than they need or do not produce
photoassimilates, like the mesophyll cells of middle part of leaves are source and the fruits,
seeds or roots are sink.

MECHANISM OF PHLOEM TRANSLOCATION:

A number of steps involved in the movement of photosynthates from mesophyll chloroplast
to the Sieve elements in the Phloem of mature leaves.
Sucrose is synthesized in the cytosol of mesophyll cells.
The sucrose is translocated from the mesophyll cells to the vicinity of the sieve elements in
the smallest veins of the leaf.
This generally termed as the short distance transport pathway because the solutes cover only
a distance of two or three cell diameters
The sucrose is then actively transported into sieve elements in the steps commonly called
Phloem loading.
The pathway of Phloem loading may be either symplastic or apoplastic depending upon the
species.

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The sucrose in sieve elements is exported away from source tissues.
The photoassimilates can be moved a long distance, hence this is termed as long-distance
transport.
Finally, the photoassimilates or sucrose is unloaded at the sink in a process referred to as
Phloem unloading.

TRANSPORT IN MAN
HUMAN HEART
The human heart has somewhat conical form.
It is located between the lungs with one third situated on the right and two thirds on the left
of the midline, just behind sternum.
Pericardium also encloses the roots of the major heart vessels, consisting of an outer fibrous
layer (fibrous pericardium) and an inner double serous membrane layer (serous pericardium).
The fibrous pericardium consists of thick fibrous connective tissues and it defines the borders
of the middle mediastinum.
On the other hand, the serous pericardium is physically in a much closer relation with the
heart.
Between its two layers is a small amount of serous pericardial fluid that lubricates the layers
and prevents friction during heart contractions, which is along with mechanical protection,
the basic function of the pericardium.

LAYERS OF THE HEART WALL:

Epicardium. The outer layer of the wall of the heart and is formed by the visceral layer of the
serous pericardium.
Myocardium. The muscular middle layer of the wall of the heart and has excitable tissue and
the conducting system.
Endocardium. A middle concentric layer, a subendocardial layer.
The rest of the heart is composed mainly of the subepicardial and subendocardial layers.

STRUCTURE OF HEART
Two large arteries emerge out, one from the right ventricle (the pulmonary aorta) and other
from the left ventricle (the systemic aorta).
The right and left atria are separated by a vertical membranous inter-atrial septum.
The right atrium and left ventricles are also separated by thick muscular interventricular
septum.

HEART VALVES AND BLOOD FLOW

The AV valves are anchored by strong fibers that prevent them from turning inside out.
Semilunar valves are located at the two exits of the heart, where the systemic aorta leaves
the left ventricle and the pulmonary aorta leaves the right ventricle.
The blood is pumped out into the arteries through the semilunar valves, which are forced
open by pressure created by ventricular contraction.
When the ventricles relax, blood starts to flow back towards the heart, closing the semilunar
valves, which prevents blood from flowing back into the ventricles.
The cavity of the left ventricle is narrower than the right ventricle because of more muscular
walls.
The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs only (pulmonary circulation) while the left
ventricle pumps blood to the entire body (systemic circulation).

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PHASES OF HEART BEAT (CARDIAC CYCLE)

The alternating contraction and relaxation of the heart chambers is called the cardiac cycle.
The two atria contract synchrony, emptying their contents into the ventricles.
A fraction of a second later, the two ventricles contract simultaneously, forcing blood into
aorta and leaving the heart.

HEART SOUNDS
LUB is caused by vibrations of heart when the atrioventricular valves close.
DUB is heard when vibration occurs due to the closing of the semilunar valves.

SA NODE AND AV NODE

The impulses are delayed for about 0.1 second, which ensures that the atria will contract first
and empty completely before the ventricles contract.
Excitation travels all parts of the ventricles through two bundles of specialized muscle fibers:
Atrioventricular bundle or bundle of His
Then into the wall of the ventricle through a network of fibers called Purkinje fibers

ARTERIES
After leaving the heart, blood first enters large vessels called arteries.
The tunica externa is composed of fibrous connective tissue having collagen fibers.
The tunica media also has smooth muscles.
Arteries expand slightly, like thick-walled balloons. Between heart beats, they recoil, helping
to pump the blood and maintain a steady flow.
Arteries branch into arterioles which play a major role in determining blood distribution.

CAPILLARIES
The entire circulatory system is a complex device for exchange.
Exchange is accomplished at capillaries, the tiniest vessels.
Wastes, nutrients, gases, hormones are exchanged between blood and body cells.
Capillary walls have a single layer of endothelium, offering very little resistance.
Capillaries are extremely narrow (7–9 μm in diameter).
Pressure within capillaries causes continuous leakage of fluid into surrounding tissues.
This fluid is known as interstitial fluid, mainly water with nutrients, hormones, gases, wastes,
and small proteins.
Large plasma proteins, RBCs, and platelets can't leave due to their size.

VEINS
Blood from capillaries drains into venules, then into veins.
Veins provide a low-resistance pathway for blood to return to the heart.
Vein walls are thinner and more expandable than arteries.
Both have smooth muscles, but pressure in veins is low.
Skeletal muscle contractions during exercise and breathing help return blood.
Muscular movement squeezes veins, forcing blood through them.
Veins have one-way valves to ensure blood flow only toward the heart.

ROLE OF ARTERIOLES IN VASODILATION AND VASOCONSTRICTION

Muscular walls of arterioles are influenced by nerves, hormones, and chemicals.
They contract and relax based on the needs of tissues/organs.

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In hot weather, arterioles in skin expand (vasodilation), increasing blood to skin to dissipate
heat.
In extreme cold, arterioles constrict, and fingers/toes may frostbite due to reduced blood
flow.

ROLE OF PRE-CAPILLARY SPHINCTER IN REGULATING CAPILLARY BLOOD

FLOW
These surround the junctions between arterioles and capillaries.
These sphincters open and close in response to local changes that signal the needs of nearby
tissues.
For example, accumulation of carbon dioxide, lactic acid or other cellular wastes signals the
need for increased blood flow.
These signals cause capillary sphincters and nearby arterioles to relax, thus increasing blood
flow through the capillaries.

SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
In systemic circulation, arteries carry oxygenated blood and have a bright red colour.
Veins carry deoxygenated blood, appearing dull red or blue when seen through the skin.

CORONARY CIRCULATION
The coronary arteries arise from the aorta just above the aortic semilunar valve.
They lie on the exterior surface of the heart, branching into arterioles and capillaries.
The capillary beds enter venules, which join to form cardiac veins that empty into the right
atrium.

RENAL CIRCULATION
The renal arteries are short and spring directly from the abdominal aorta.
Each enters the kidney and gives branches which pass through the medulla.

USES OF ECG
The P–R interval is the period of time start of the P wave to the beginning of the QRS
complex.
This interval indicates the amount of time required for the SA depolarization to reach the
ventricles.
The QRS complex begins as a short downward deflection (Q), continues as a sharp upward
spike (R), and ends as a downward deflection (S).

AV node , causes
the p wave.
R R

S QS

node.

P
S
QS

Atrial repolarization occurs.

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QRS complex indicates the depolarization of the ventricles.
During this interval, the ventricles are in systole and blood is being ejected from the heart.
The S–T segment represents the period between the completion of ventricular depolarization
and initiation of repolarization.
The T wave is produced by ventricular repolarization.

BARORECEPTORS
Baroreceptors are a type of mechanoreceptors that allow for the relay of information
derived from blood pressure within the autonomic nervous system.
There are two types of baroreceptors:

HIGH-PRESSURE ARTERIAL BARORECEPTORS

Sense blood pressure
Relay information to the nervous system
Help maintain proper blood pressure

LOW-PRESSURE VOLUME BARORECEPTORS

Found in the large veins and in the walls of the atria of the heart
Involved in the regulation of blood volume

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
COMPOSITION AND FORMATION OF INTERCELLULAR FLUID
All the body tissues are bathed in a watery fluid derived from the blood stream.
This intercellular or tissue fluid is formed when blood passes through the capillaries.
The capillary walls are permeable to all components of blood except RBCs and blood
proteins.

COMPARISON OF INTERCELLULAR FLUID AND LYMPH

About 85% of the tissue fluid returns to the blood at the venous end of the capillary.
The remaining 15% drains into blindly ending lymphatic capillaries as lymph.
Lymph contains WBCs, cell debris, and microorganisms and is transported back to the heart
through the lymphatic system.
LYMPHATIC VESSELS
Lymph capillaries form a complex network of microscopically narrow, thin-walled vessels.
These allow relatively large particles along with fluid to enter the lymph capillaries.
Large vessels have somewhat muscular walls, but most lymph flow is due to contraction of
nearby muscles, like those used in breathing and walking.
Efferent lymph vessels merge before entering one of the two ducts.

ROLE OF LYMPH VESSELS IN VILLI

After absorbing digested fats, intestinal cells release fat globules into the interstitial fluid.
These fat globules are too large to diffuse into blood capillaries, but move through lymph
capillary openings.

LYMPHOID TISSUE
Large lymph vessels are interrupted by kidney bean shaped structures about one inch long
called lymph nodes.

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Lymph is forced through channels within these nodes, lined with masses of macrophages.
The spleen is located in the left side of the abdominal cavity, between the stomach and
diaphragm.

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CHAPTER MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)

11 IMMUNITY
IMMUNE SYSTEM
It is a collection of cells and proteins that work in an integrated fashion to protect the body
from potentially harmful, infectious microorganisms.
It is very important in the control of cancer, allergy, hypersensitivity, and rejection problems
when tissues and organs are transplanted.
Innate Immune System is a non-specific type, as it acts against any pathogenic organism
which tries to enter our body.
Table summarizing our three lines of defenses

INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM

FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE THIRD LINE OF DEFENSE

(NON-SPECIFIC) (NON-SPECIFIC) (SPECIFIC)

Physical Biochemical
Barriers: Phagocytes, Cell Mediated
Barriers:
Saliva, Mucus, Natural Killer Immunity;
Intact Skin,
HCl, Gastric Cells, Antibody
Mucous
Juice, Inflammation, Mediated
Membrane,
Tears, Antimicrobial Immunity;
Ciliated
Spermine (in Proteins, B & T Cells
Epithelium
semen) Fever

FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE

SKIN – STRUCTURE AND ROLE IN IMMUNE SYSTEM
The skin is one of the largest organs of the body (~1.8 m²).
It is a multitasking organ, involved in protection, regulation, and sensation.
The primary function of the skin is to act as a barrier.
It provides protection from: Mechanical impacts, Pressure, Variations in temperature,
Microorganisms, Radiation, Chemicals
Acts as a reservoir for the synthesis of Vitamin D.
As a sensory organ, it contains an extensive network of nerve cells for detecting changes in
the environment.
Structure : Composed of three main layers of closely packed cells:

(I) EPIDERMIS
Lacks blood supply → depends on dermis for nutrients and waste disposal.
Made of closely packed dead cells with keratin: Makes the skin surface mechanically tough
and resistant to bacterial enzyme degradation.
Fatty acids in the skin: Make the surface dry, salty, and acidic and inhibit microbial growth
and resist breakdown by enzymes.
Dead cells of epidermis are frequently shed along with any microbes that may be clinging to
them.
Shed Skin cells are continually replaced with new cells from below, providing a new barrier

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(II) DERMIS
Contains living cells, blood vessels, and nerves.
Has sweat glands and sebaceous glands that secrete sebum.
Sebum forms a thin film with acids on the skin surface → act as chemical barrier for
microorganisms to penetrate through it.
Sweat glands secrete variety of polypeptides → inhibit microbial growth on skin surface.

(III) HYPODERMIS (BELOW DERMIS)

Contains mainly fat-storing adipose tissue and connective tissue.
Connects skin to underlying muscles and bones and functions as an insulating layer.

DIGESTIVE TRACT: ROLE IN IMMUNE SYSTEM

The internal lining of mouth, nose, digestive tract, respiratory passage and lungs, urinary tract,
etc., contains mucous secreting cells hence is also known as mucous membranes or mucosa.
The mucosa not only serves as non-specific physical barrier due to its compact nature but
also provides a biochemical barrier through its mucous which contains many antimicrobial
peptides.
Moreover, the mechanical action of the peristalsis of the gut also moves out the sloughed
mucous along with the undigested food (feces).

Our digestive tract is also equipped with substantial amount of lymphoid tissue being located
into three sectors, viz. Tonsils in pharyngeal region: Peyer’s patches in small intestines and the
Appendix.
The lymphoid tissue is rich in macrophages and lymphocytes for the protection against
pathogenic microorganisms which they encounter.
Another sector of the lymphoid tissue is the W.B.Cs (e.g., Plasma Cells and Lymphocytes)
wandering in the basement membrane of the small intestine.

AIR PASSAGEWAY: ROLE IN FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE

Mucous membrane of the respiratory system is composed of secreting mucous glands.
It contains numerous mucous which is removed by the synchronized upward movement of
cilia towards the pharynx.
It is either pushed into the esophagus or removed through the mouth.

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SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE

KILLING CELLS OF BLOOD
Among the WBCs, neutrophils, macrophages (monocytes) and dendritic cells perform such
phagocytosis.

NEUTROPHILS:
These are the most abundant WBCs (50%-70% of all leukocytes) and are specially adapted to
phagocytize bacteria.
The mature neutrophils have multi-lobed (3-5 lobed), non-spherical nucleus.
Through specific receptors on their surface, the neutrophils (figure 13.5) can recognize various
bacterial molecules such as peptidoglycans, flagellin protein of flagella, lipopolysaccharides,
lipopeptides, etc.

Upon recognition as foreign, the intruder is internalized by neutrophils and digested to

destroy through its lysosomal hydrolytic enzymes.
The below figure shows phagocytosis of bacteria.

MONOCYTES:
They have a single bean shaped nucleus. The cytoplasm is non-granulated. They constitute
about 2-8% of our total W.B.CS. like granulocytes, they originate from the myeloid stem cells.
The average life span is about 2 to 5 days in blood circulation, they can migrate from the
blood into the tissue where they grow in size and become either macrophages dendritic cells
and can live for months to years.
Monocytes are involved in our innate immunity.

MACROPHAGES:
They are the largest among all leukocytes.
Unlike granulocytes, they have a large indented, horseshoe shaped, nucleus.
Circulating Monocytes, after sometimes leave blood and enter into lymphoid as well as non-
lymphoid tissues where they grow in size and turn into macrophage dendritic cells.
Alveolar macrophages in alveoli of lungs, Kupffer cells in liver, Microglia in Central Nervous
System, etc. accordingly.

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Macrophages not only phagocytize pathogenic microorganisms but also remove and present
their antigens to T-cells (a type of lymphocyte).
Due to this role, they are also termed as Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs).
They release specific signaling molecules called cytokines to activate other immune cells.
They also initiate the process of inflammation.
In addition to the above-mentioned activities, macrophages secrete nitric oxide, which kills
phagocytized pathogenic organisms.

DENDRITIC CELLS
Dendritic cells, another type of white blood cell (WBC), are involved in presenting antigens of
the phagocytized pathogen to T-cells.
They are named for their long cytoplasmic projections or dendrites.
Upon activation by specific inflammatory cytokines secreted by macrophages, dendritic cells
migrate to secondary lymphoid tissues (e.g., tonsils, Peyer’s patches, spleen).
Once T-cell activation is achieved, dendritic cells die, unlike macrophages.

(II) CYTOTOXICITY
Cytotoxicity refers to the ability of a substance or certain cell to damage or cause death of a
target cell.
It is a key protective mechanism against virally infected cells, cancer/tumor cells, and cells
infected by pathogens.
This process may result from the action of either: Natural Killer (NK) cells, or Cytotoxic T (Tc)
cells.
Both NK cells and Tc cells:
Belong to lymphoid cell lineage,
Originate in the bone marrow,
But differ in their activation mechanisms against target cells.

NATURAL KILLER CELLS (NK CELLS)

Named Natural Killer Cells due to their innate ability to destroy target cells.
Their action resembles a policeman verifying identity—they check for the presence of MHC-I
(Major Histocompatibility Complex-I) molecules, which act as an identity card for cells.
If MHC-I is intact, NK cells remain inactive.
If MHC-I is absent or altered, NK cells get activated and destroy the cell.
The destruction (lysis) of target cells is executed by:
Releasing cytotoxic granules containing:
Perforin – forms pores in the plasma membrane.
Granzyme – enters through the pores and induces lysis of the target cell.
Fig. Response of NK Cell against a normal vs infected cell. In case of infected cell, it is
activated to cause lysis of the target cell.

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CYTOTOXIC T CELLS (TC CELLS)

Cytotoxic T Cells are another group of immune cells which belong to lymphocyte family of our
W.B.Cs.
As the name suggests, they recognize virally infected cells as well as tumor cells.
Though they are produced in the bone marrow, but they migrate to thymus where they
mature and then released into the blood.
During their maturation process, the naïve T Cells which develop CD8 type of co-receptor
along with their T Cell Receptor (TCR) on their surface, turn into Cytotoxic T Cells.
Through their CD8 co-receptor and TCR, the Cytotoxic T Cells bind with Major
Histocompatibility Complex-I (MHC-I) present on all of their own nucleated cells of our body
except macrophages because they have another Major Histocompatibility Complex-II (MHC-
II).
For the activation of Tc cells, several chemical signals are required from other cells like
dendritic and T helper cells.
Whenever the T cells encounter virally infected cells, they recognize them immediately
through the viral antigens expressed on the MHC-I of the infected cells.
Their programming, in such case, is to release some protective proteins or cytokines such as:
Tumor Necrosis Factor – alpha (TNF-α)
Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ)
These act on other immune cells such as macrophage and dendritic cells to enhance immune
responses.
Like NK Cells, they release:
Perforin proteins
Granzyme
to cause lysis of the infected target cell. Unlike NK Cells, the T cells then proceed towards
other infected cells to cause their lysis. In this way, they serve the role as “serial killer”.

INFLAMMATION
Inflammation is triggered by tissue damage, irritants, or autoimmune disorders.
It is of two types:
Acute: short-term; marked by redness, heat, pain, swelling, and loss of function.
Chronic: long-term; often linked to diseases like CVD and allergies.
Prostaglandins dilate vessels and attract neutrophils/macrophages for defense.
It resembles a war in tissue—own cells may die, leading to pus formation (thick,
white/yellow/orange/greenish, foul-smelling fluid).

ARTHRITIS AS A MISDIRECTED IMMUNE RESPONSE

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Normally, immune cells target foreign particles (bacteria, viruses, etc.).
In autoimmune diseases like Rheumatoid Arthritis, immune cells attack self-cells/antigens.
This leads to inflammation of synovial membranes, causing painful, swollen joints and
possible joint deformity.
The condition may also affect other body parts.
The exact reason for this immune misdirection is unclear.

FEVER (PYREXIA) – KEY POINTS

Fever is a symptom of infection; it may also result from heat-stroke, brain tumors, toxins, or
medicines.
Fever-inducing substances are called pyrogens, which can be:
Endogenous (from body’s own immune cells), or Exogenous (from external sources like
bacteria).
Key pyrogens: Interleukin-1 (IL-1), Interleukin-6 (IL-6), Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF),
Interferons (IFN-α)
These act on the hypothalamus, increasing thermogenesis and reducing heat loss.
Prostaglandins play a key role in raising body temperature.
Fever helps by: Inhibiting growth of pathogens and aiding immune cells in killing them
(facilitates phagocytosis).

HARMFUL EFFECTS OF FEVER

Energy loss due to increased heat.
Causes fatigue, dehydration, body ache, seizures.
>105°F can denature enzymes and proteins.
Can even damage or kill our own cells.
Why Antipyretics Are Prescribed Despite Fever Being a Defense
Fever helps defend against infections, but excessive fever can be harmful.
Antipyretic drugs lower fever by inhibiting prostaglandin secretion in the hypothalamus.
They are categorized into:
Salicylates (e.g., Aspirin)
Acetaminophen (e.g., Paracetamol)
NSAIDs (e.g., Ibuprofen)
Most act by blocking cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme, reducing prostaglandin levels in the
brain.

THIRD LINE OF DEFENSE

RECOGNITION OF SELF VS NON-SELF
Adaptive immunity begins by recognizing “non-self” via antigen identification.
B-lymphocytes produce small, soluble proteins (antibodies) that bind to specific antigens.
The immune system can make billions of antibodies and also remembers pathogens for future
defense.
The self vs non-self distinction is central to immune system function.

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MHC (MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX)

MHC proteins are cell surface markers encoded by genes.
MHC-I: Found on all nucleated cells and platelets, interacts with T cells and NK cells.
If MHC-I is normal, cells are tagged as self.
If altered, the immune system identifies them as non-self and destroys them.
MHC-II: Present on APCs (macrophages, dendritic cells, B cells).
Binds to CD4+ T helper cells to activate the adaptive immune response.

T HELPER CELL ACTIVATION

If no antigen is presented on MHC-II of a macrophage, T helper (TH) cell remains inactive.
If antigen is present, naive TH cell activates, releasing lymphokines to stimulate other
immune cells.
Fig. Shows interaction of APC with T helper cells

INNATE AND ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY

ACTIVE IMMUNITY PASSIVE IMMUNITY

Natural
Clinical, sub-clinical infection via breast milk, through placenta

Vaccination: Live attenuated, killed Inoculation of immune serum, immune

Artificial
pathogens; purified antigen vaccine cells from other individual or other
organisms

Acquired or Adaptive immunity is long lasting due to existence of memory, and in few cases
life long against particular pathogens.
In this case the resistance offered by individual varies from person to person

VACCINE
A vaccine is either a pathogen (live attenuated, or killed) or its product that is introduced in
our body to induce a state of immunity for protection against natural infection with the same
pathogen.
Vaccines are of following four types:
Live Attenuated Vaccines,
Inactivated Vaccines,
Toxoid Vaccines, and
Sub-unit, Recombinants, polysaccharide and Conjugate Vaccines.

PASSIVE IMMUNITY
In this kind of immunity, antibodies or immune cells produced by one individual (donor) are
transferred to another individual (recipient) to develop immunity.

CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY (CMI)

The CMI is particularly important against viruses, parasites that hide within the host cells,
tumor cells, and fungi.

ANTIBODY-MEDIATED (HUMORAL) IMMUNITY

It was once called “humoral” because the antibodies are secreted in the blood stream or

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or humours.

LYMPHOCYTES
In order to learn about CMI & Antibody mediated Immunity, we will study some structural,
biochemical and functional details about lymphocytes.
They constitute 20–40% of the circulating W.B.Cs and play a crucial role in adaptive immune
system.
There are two types of lymphocytes: T Cells and B Cells.
Both are antigen-specific and possess special receptors: T Cell Receptors (TCR) and B Cell
Receptors (BCR), respectively.
Their average lifespan ranges from about a week to a few months, but some may live for years.
The long-lived lymphocytes are the ones that confer immunological memory for particular
infectious pathogens.

T- LYMPHOCYTES
A naive T cells (inactive), in order to become an effector T cell, requires interaction with
antigen presenting cell.
They require essentially three signal : i.e., TCR, BCR and cytokines.

T CYTOTOXIC CELLS (TC):

They are programmed to kill the target cells (apoptosis) that bear specific antigens.
Their specific targets are virally infected cells, bacteria and tumor cells.

T HELPER CELLS (TH):

Ultimately activating B cells, Tc cells and other macrophages to destroy the specific antigen
carrying pathogen.
The TH cells bear CD4 type (co-receptor) cell surface markers on their plasma membranes.

Co-stimulatory
ligand:87 8

Upon activation of T cells, it further differentiates into its sub-types which release different
cytokines like Interleukins, INF, etc. for activation signals to other WBCs.

T SUPPRESSOR OR REGULATORY CELLS (TS)

Ts cells have CD4, CD8 and TCR receptors on their surface.
Fig. Shows Activation of macrophage or B cell by T helper cell

T MEMORY CELLS (TM)

As soon as they are re-exposed to the same antigen bearing organism, the T memory cells
rapidly proliferate and become effector T cells.
In this way, they play extremely important role in controlling the reinfection.
The process of vaccination is greatly benefitted by the presence of TM cells.

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B LYMPHOCYTES AND MEMORY FORMATION:

Effector cells called Plasma cell occurs either T-dependent mechanism or through T-
independent mechanisms.
When an activated TH cell displays peptide antigen along with its MHC-II. Thus an activated
TH cell releases the alert signals to naïve B-cell which then grows in size and starts producing
and releasing antibodies actively.
Such antibody secreting B-cells are termed as Plasma cells.
Some of the B-cells meanwhile turn into B Memory cells or (BM).
They act for the recall of the antigen for controlling future reinfection.

MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES (MAB)

Monoclonal antibodies are being used to treat some types of cancer.
They can be used alone or to carry drugs, toxins, or radioactive substances directly to cancer
cells.
In 2018, James P. Allison and Tasuko Honjo succeeded in using mAb in treating cancer and
awarded Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine.
The simplest protocol for mAb is as follows: The mice are immunized with the desired antigen
and after few days their blood is screened for the presence of antigen-specific antibodies. In
case of positive results, the splenocytes are isolated and then fused with myeloma cells to
make hybridoma. The myeloma cells are capable of unlimited replication. The hybridoma are
screened for the specific-type and class of antibodies they produce. The desired antibody
producing clones are selected for further propagation.
Thus, the mAb are produced from cell culture techniques.

USES OF MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES

In addition to the treatment of cancer, mAb are not only used for diagnosing infectious
diseases (e.g. hepatitis, etc.) as they can identify particular antigens but also for therapeutic
purposes as they can block the targeted substances inside the target cells.
They can also be used to prevent autoimmune diseases including apoptosis of rheumatoid
arthritis.

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CHAPTER MASTER BOOK BIOLOGY ( 2ND EDITION)

12 STRUCTURE OF BONE
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The major proportion of the bone is formed by collagen fibers and different types of cells
while other components include minerals and 10 to 20% water.
Collagen is the fibrous protein strengthening bone with calcium upon calcification or
ossification.
A long bone has three distinct regions.
The terminal regions are called epiphysis, middle region is called diaphysis and between
middle and terminal region is metaphysis at both ends.
Epiphysis is filled with red bone marrow, which produces 20 % blood cells that form about 20
% of the total mass of the skeleton.
Cortical bone forms almost 80 percent of the skeletal structure.
Lamellae are the concentric layers made of an organic part collagen and an inorganic part
called hydroxyapatite, which is mostly calcium phosphate
In the center of the bone is the medullary canal, a hollow space lined by a honeycomb-like
structure called the spongy or cancellous bone.
The medullary canals contain the bone marrow which is the site of blood cell production.
Periosteum allows for attachment of muscle connective tissue (tendons) to the bone and
provides pathways for blood and lymphatic vessels.
Endosteum has progenitor stem cells. These osteogenic progenitor cells develop into
osteoblast which secretes the bone matrix, and chondroblast which secretes cartilage.
It plays a key role in the healing of fractures by creating new cells necessary for the bone to
fuse.
STRUCTURE OF CARTILAGE
Formation of cartilage is initiated by chondroblast cells located in outer covering of
developing bone and divide to form chondrocyte cells.
They are concentrated in lacunae in the cartilage and produce firm matrix that contains
collagen protein, proteoglycan (formed by chondroitin sulphate and protein) and some other
non-collagenous proteins to develop cartilage
Hyaline cartilage is present in between ribs and sternum. It has a smooth surface that allows
tissues to slide easily.
Fibrocartilage is the hardest among other cartilages.
Elastic cartilage is the most flexible and strong cartilage. It is located in external and internal
auditory tubes and larynx etc.

CHARACTERISTIC BONE CARTILAGE

Calcification Bones are calcified i.e.; calcium Not Calcified
and minerals are deposited

Water 10-20% water is present in bone 80% water is present in

cells cartilage cells

Blood Cells Forms blood cells Do not form blood cells

DIVISION OF HUMAN SKELETON

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THE AXIAL SKELETON

It has eighty (80) bones, including twenty-eight bones in the skull, one hyoid bone, twenty-six
bones in the vertebral column, twenty-four ribs and one sternum.
The cranial bones protect the brain and provide attachment for the essential receptor organs.
The facial bones protect soft tissues of the face, help in breathing, eating, facial expressions,
speech, and structure.
The auditory ossicles help in transmission of sound waves from the external environment to
the inner ear.
A bone lies in between a skull, and a postcranial skeleton called the hyoid bone. It is ‘U''
shaped and provides attachment for the tongue and muscles of the oral cavity.
The vertebral column protects spinalcord and serves as the site for blood cells production.
The rib cage is formed by ribs and sternum. Each rib is flat and curved, supports the thorax
wall and provides space for thoracic visceral organs.
It has eighty (80) bones, including twenty-eight bones in the skull, one hyoid bone, twenty-six
bones in the vertebral column, twenty-four ribs and one sternum.
The cranial bones protect the brain and provide attachment for the essential receptor organs.
The facial bones protect soft tissues of the face, help in breathing, eating, facial expressions,
speech, and structure.
The auditory ossicles help in transmission of sound waves from the external environment to
the inner ear.
A bone lies in between a skull, and a postcranial skeleton called the hyoid bone. It is ‘U''
shaped and provides attachment for the tongue and muscles of the oral cavity.
The vertebral column protects spinalcord and serves as the site for blood cells production.
The rib cage is formed by ribs and sternum. Each rib is flat and curved, supports the thorax
wall and provides space for thoracic visceral organs.

THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON

It consists of 126 bones.
Pectoral Girdle provides structural support to the upper region of the body. It consists of
total 64 bones (both sides).
Pelvic girdle supports the body weight, helps in movement, and protects pelvic viscera
including parts of urinary system and reproductive organs.
It consists of a total of 62 bones (both sides).
The two coxal bones form bowel shape pelvises that keep the female reproductive organs. The
ring-like shape of the girdle is due to the joining of coxal bone with the sacrum of vertebral
column at anterior side and below by a joint in between pubic part called pubic symphysis.

SYNOVIAL JOINTS
They consist of a joint capsule and synovial membrane.
The joint capsule holds together the bones and encloses the outer part of a joint. The inner
capsule is a few thick cells covering the surface within the joint capsule called the synovial
membrane.
There are different types of synovial joints present in our body.
Hinge joint present in between the humerus and the ulna bones allowing flexion and
extension in just one plane.
Pivot joint present in proximal and distal radio-ulnar joint allows twisting movement.
Ball and socket joint of shoulder and hips moves the organ in all direction.
Condyloid joint is the modified but structurally different ball and socket joint that also allow
the movement in all direction for example wrist joint (radio-carpal joint).

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Gliding joint is also called the plane join. It only permits limited movement like bending and
slipping one bone over to another, for example, wrist and vertebral column.

ARTHRITIS
Osteoarthritis develops when joint cartilage breaks down from repeated stress.
Ankylosing spondylitis, or arthritis of the spine (usually your lower back).

MUSCLES
They also facilitate the movement of the body fluid, particularly lymph.
The cardiac muscles are arranged in a branching network where cells are joined together and
make a syncytium.
The cardiac syncytium is a network of cardiomyocytes connected by intercalated discs that
enable the rapid transmission of electrical impulses through the network.
The cardiac muscles are the strongest among all.
They work continuously throughout life and amazingly do not get fatigued. This is because
they have numerous mitochondria and continuous supply of oxygenated blood.

SMOOTH MUSCLES CARDIAC MUSCLES SKELETAL MUSCLES

Do not make cross Cross Bridges are formed Cross Bridges are formed
bridges during movement

Instead of troponin, they They have troponin in actin They have troponin in actin
contain calmodulin in actin filament filament
filaments

ULTRA STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLES

The sarcolemma is extensively folded as motor end plate.
The sarcolemma permits calcium ions to enter or leave the myofibril from their specific
proteinic gateways.

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SLIDING FILAMENT MODEL

The sliding filament model of muscle contraction, put forward by Hugh Huxley and Jean
Hanson in 1954.
According to this theory when sarcomere shortens, the thick and thin filaments do not
themselves change their length.
They just slide past one another, with the thin filaments moving toward the center of the
sarcomere from both ends.
The sub-stages of sliding filament model are as follows:

THE CROSS BRIDGE CYCLE

This cycle begins when muscle fibers receive a nerve impulse at the motor end plate.
Motor neurons release acetylcholine that opens the proteinic gateway in T-tubules and
sarcoplasmic reticulum, releasing stored calcium ions that bind with troponin on the thin
filament to initiate contraction.
This binding depolarizes tropomyosin along the actin filament, twisting it to expose the
myosin binding sites on actin monomers.
Next, the myosin head rises by obtaining energy from ATP hydrolyzed into ADP and
phosphate by ATPase.
This causes the myosin head to extend and attach to an actin binding site, cross linking both
actin and myosin filaments to form a cross bridge.
The power stroke is triggered as myosin pulls the actin filament toward the M line, shortening
the sarcomere and releasing ADP and phosphate.
Myosin remains attached until a new ATP molecule binds, freeing it.
Once unbound, the myosin heads resume their starting positions, ready to begin a new actin
binding sequence, and further calcium ions trigger another contraction cycle.

When nerve impulse ceases, two events relax the muscle fiber. During the first event the
acetylcholine that remains in the synapse is rapidly decomposed by an enzyme called
acetylcholine-esterase.
This enzyme is present in synapse and on the membranes of the motor end plate.
The action of acetylcholine-esterase prevents a single nerve impulse from continuously
stimulating muscle fiber.
During the second event when acetylcholine is broken down, the stimulus to the sarcolemma
and the membranes within the muscle fiber ceases.
The calcium pump (which requires ATP) quickly moves calcium ions back into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum, decreasing the calcium ion concentration of the cytosol.

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Consequently, the muscle fiber relaxes.

MOVEMENT IN KNEE JOINT

KNEE JOINT SPECIFICS

It is stated to be “the largest and most complex of the synovial joints.”
The patella (kneecap) is specifically mentioned as articulating anteriorly at the junction of the
femur and tibia.

HAMSTRING MUSCLE
The hamstring group are made of three individual muscles.
They originate from the hip/pelvis and insert around the knee (in the back of the thigh).
Their functions include bending the knee, as well as extending or rotating the hip.

QUADRICEPS MUSCLE
The quadriceps is “made up of four different muscles.”
They are described as both a hip flexor and a knee extensor.
They form the main bulk of the thigh and are called “one of the most powerful muscles in the
body.”
They are “primarily active in kicking, jumping, cycling, and running.”

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13 NERVOUS COORDINATION
Coordination is the working together of all parts of the body or system. All animals except
sponges use a network of nerve cells to gather information about the body’s condition and
the external environment.
Chemoreceptors
Chemoreceptors These receptors transmit information about the total solute
concentration in a solution and specific receptors that respond to individual kinds of
molecules.
Osmoreceptors in human brain (hypothalamus) detect changes in total solute
concentration of the blood and stimulate thirst when osmolarity increases.
Chemoreceptors found in nasal epithelium are olfactory receptors (smell) chemoreceptor
found in tongue for tastes are gustatory receptors.
Structure of Neuron
It is covered with membrane called neurolemma, one of the main functions of the cell
body is to manufacture neurotransmitters, which are chemicals stored in secretory
vesicles at the ends of axon.
Dendrites (Gr: Dendron = Tree)
Branched tendrils that extend outward from the cell body are specialized to respond to
signals from other neurons or from the external environment, branching provides larger
surface area.
Axon (Gr: Axon = Axis)
A long fiber extends outward from the cell body, making neurons the longest cell in the
body.
Neuroglia (Glial Cells)
They serve a variety of functions, including supplying the neurons with nutrients,
removing wastes from neurons, guiding axon migration and providing immune functions.
Neuroglia are of two types Schwann cells and Oligodendrocytes.
Schwann cells produce myelin in peripheral nervous system (PNS) and oligodendrocytes
produce myelin in central nervous system (CNS).

DOMINANCE

A non-myelinated part of axon between two Schwann cells is called Node of Ranvier or
Neurofibril Nodes.

TYPES OF NEURONS

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a. Sensory Neuron (Afferent neuron)
These neurons are generally found in the sensory organs, such as the eyes, nose, skin, tongue
and ear.
These nerve cells are triggered by the chemical and physical inputs of our environment, such
as sound, heat, and light.
b. Motor Neuron (Efferent neuron)
These types of neurons play a major role in the voluntary and involuntary movement of the
body.
c. Interneuron (Association neuron)
It helps in the smooth transmission of signals.

REFLEX ACTION
Pathway along which impulses are transmitted from a receptor to an effector called reflex
arc.
Examples of human reflexes include the familiar knee jerk and pain withdrawal reflexes.
The pain withdrawal reflex uses one neuron of each type.
Reflexes of this sort do not require the interneurons (Brain), although we know, other
pathways inform the brain of pricked fingers.

NERVE IMPULSE
It travels through dendrites or axon due to the voltage proteinic gated channels in
neurolemma. These channels open and close in response to the electrical voltage.

DISTRIBUTION OF IONS
The negative ions inside the neurolemma are chloride (Cl⁻), PO₄⁻², SO₄⁻² and some proteins that
are produced inside and cannot diffuse outside the cell.

RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

Neurons are excitable means they respond to changes in their surroundings.
If the membrane potential becomes more negative than the resting potential the membrane
becomes hyperpolarized and if the membrane becomes less negative than the resting
potential, the membrane depolarized. Sufficient depolarization results in an action potential.

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The neurons have far more potassium leakage channels than sodium leakage channels.
Chlorine (Cl⁻) tends to accumulate outside of the cell because they are repelled by negatively
charged proteins within the cytoplasm.

ACTION MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

When a neuron receives a stimulus, sodium channels open and Na⁺ ions rush in, causing
depolarization and a rise in membrane potential up to +50 mV.
This is followed by the opening of potassium channels, allowing K⁺ to diffuse out.
As potassium goes out the membrane potential becomes negatively charged once again and
repolarize. This return to the resting state usually takes from 10 to 30 milliseconds.

DEPOLARIZATION
Threshold stimulus (~ -55 mV) triggers depolarization.

Stimulus causes influx of Na⁺ ions (10× more than resting).

Sodium voltStrong stimulus changes resting potential to action potential.
age-gated channels open in response.
Follows the "All or None" rule.
Two outcomes:
Below threshold → No action potential.
Above threshold → Nerve impulse travels across the neurolemma.

REPOLARIZATION
Begins after depolarization to restore the original resting potential.
Due to high Na⁺ concentration inside, the K⁺ channels open.
K⁺ ions efflux (move out), making the inside more negative again.
Sodium channels close, stopping Na⁺ from entering.
This shift helps re-establish the resting membrane potential.
If too many K⁺ ions exit, the membrane becomes hyperpolarized (~ -90 mV).
Final ionic balance is restored by the sodium-potassium pump (Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase).
Repolarization ensures the neuron is ready for the next impulse.

REFRACTORY PERIOD

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The refractory phase is a brief period after the successful transmission of a nerve impulse. It
persists for only 2 milliseconds.

HYPERPOLARIZATION
Happens after repolarization, as an overshoot in membrane potential.
Caused by continued K⁺ efflux or Cl⁻ influx through ion channels.
The membrane potential becomes more negative than the resting level (-70 mV to -75 mV).
Eventually, the resting potential is restored by closing voltage-gated channels and the action
of the Na⁺/K⁺ pump.

VELOCITY OF NERVE IMPULSE

Larger diameter axons have less resistance to nerve impulse (current flow).
Transmission speed varies from several centimeters per second in very thin axons to about
100 m/sec in the giant axons.
Saltatory conduction results in faster impulse transmission up to 150m/sec in some neurons.

SYNAPSE
Synapse is found between two neurons, between sensory receptor and sensory neuron,
between motor neuron and the muscle cells, they control and between neuron and glands
cells.
An electrical synapse involves direct cytoplasmic connections formed by gap junctions
between the presynaptic neuron and post synaptic neurons. These make it possible for
impulses to transmit from neuron to neuron without delay and with no loss of signal strength.
Electrical synapses are common in invertebrate nervous systems, but less so in vertebrates.
The vast majority of synapses in vertebrates are chemical synapse.

EXCITATORY NEUROTRANSMITTERS

The electrical change caused by neurotransmitter binding at an excitatory synapse is called

Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential (EPSP).
At excitatory synapses, Na⁺ enters and K⁺ exits, leading to depolarization.
Acetylcholine can act as both an excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter depending on the
type of receptor it binds to.

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Biogenic amines (e.g., epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin) are derived from
amino acids and serve as neurotransmitters within the CNS.
Neurotransmitter imbalance is linked to neurological disorders:
Parkinson’s disease: due to low dopamine levels
Schizophrenia: due to high dopamine level.

INHIBITORY NEUROTRANSMITTERS
The electrical change due to inhibitory neurotransmitter binding is called Inhibitory Post-
Synaptic Potential (IPSP).
Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause hyperpolarization by:
Opening K⁺ channels (K⁺ moves out)
Opening Cl⁻ channels (Cl⁻ moves in)
This makes the membrane more negative than the resting potential, making it harder to
generate an action potential.
Additional examples: Glutamate, Aspartate, GABA (Gamma Amino Butyric Acid), and Glycine.

BASIC ORGANIZATION OF HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

CNS is an integrating portion of the nervous system.
It primarily consists of associated neurons between 10-100 billion.

Brain
Brain is housed in skull and shielded by cranium.
The structure and general design of the human brain are similar to those of other animal
brains, but the cerebral cortex is more developed in humans.
The human brain is incredibly large and complicated, approximately 1.4 kg (3 pounds) in
weight, depending on the body weight and sex of everyone.
Cerebral Cortex
Cerebral cortex is the most sophisticated information processing center of the brain. It
contains over 10–50 billion neurons are packed into this thin surface layer.
The surface of the cerebral cortex is highly convoluted which increases the surface area of
the cortex threefold.
Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus contains many different clusters of neurons. Some of these are
neurosecretory cells that release hormones through its hormone production and neural
conduction.”

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Amygdala
Amygdala is believed to be responsible for the production of appropriate behavioral
responses to environmental stimuli.
Hippocampus
Hippocampus name from its shape, it resembles that of a seahorse.
Cerebellum
Cerebellum receives sensory information about the position of the joints and the length of
the muscles, as well as information from the auditory and visual systems.
Brainstem
Brainstem is a region at the base of the brain that is located between the cervical spinal
cord and the deep cerebral hemispheres.
It plays a crucial role in controlling some involuntary bodily functions like breathing and
heartbeat. Humans have three distinct parts to their brainstem: the medulla oblongata
(myelencephalon), the pons (metencephalon), and the midbrain (mesencephalon).

Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a neural cable extending from the brain down the backbone.
It is enclosed by the vertebral column and protected by meninges (also cover the brain).
Internally, it has two zones:
Inner Zone – Grey Matter: Contains cell bodies of interneurons, motor neurons, and
neuroglia.
Outer Zone – White Matter : Contains axons of
Sensory neurons (in the dorsal column)
Motor neurons (in the ventral column)
May also contain dendrites of nerve cells.
Acts as the body’s information highway — transmitting messages to and from the brain.

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CRANIAL AND SPINAL NERVES

Cranial nerves: Originate from the brain, innervate head & upper body (12 pairs).
Spinal nerves: Originate from the spinal cord, innervate the entire body (31 pairs).
Most cranial nerves are mixed (sensory + motor); a few (e.g., olfactory, optic) are sensory only.
Dorsal root: Carries sensory axons into spinal cord.
Ventral root: Carries motor axons out of spinal cord.
Sensory neuron cell bodies: Located in dorsal root ganglia (outside spinal cord).
Motor neuron cell bodies: Located within spinal cord, not in ganglia.

SENSORY RECEPTORS AND THEIR WORKING

SMELL RECEPTORS (OLFACTORY RECEPTORS)
The human olfactory epithelium is small compared with that of many other mammals (dogs)
whose sense of smell is far more active.
Olfactory neurons dendrites end in tassels of cilia, project into the nasal mucosa, and their
axons project directly into the cerebral cortex.
When odorous substance diffuses into this region it binds to specific receptor molecules on
the plasma membrane of the olfactory cilia.
Each receptor protein is specialized to bind a particular type of molecule and stimulate the
olfactory neuron to send a message to the brain.

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TASTE RECEPTORS (GUSTATION)

Human tongue bears about 10,000 taste buds.
Although we cannot distinguish different types of taste receptors from this structure, we
recognize five basic taste perceptions, sweet, sour, salty, bitter and umami (perception of
glutamate and other amino acids that give a hearty taste to many proteins rich foods such as
meat, cheese and butter).”

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SENSORY RECEPTORS IN HUMAN SKIN

The phasic receptors include hair follicle receptors and Meissner’s corpuscles, which are
present on surfaces that do not contain hair, such as the fingers, palms and nipples.
The tonic receptors consist of Ruffini’s corpuscles in the dermis and touch, dome endings
(Merkel’s disks) located near the surface of the skin.
These receptors monitor the duration of touch and the extent to which it is applied.
Some in the dermis and others in the underlying subcutaneous tissues, these receptors
contain sensory cells which detect various forms of physical contact, known as the sense of
touch.
In humans, a class of naked dendrites in the epidermis of the skin called nociceptors, so
named because they can be sensation to noxious substances as well as tissue damage.

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15 REPRODUCTION
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
It is a primitive method of reproduction. It involves sex cells, the gametes.

A new organism is formed from a single Requires the fusion of male and female
parent. gametes.

No participation of a mate, gamete, or A male gamete (sperm) fuses with a female

fertilization. gamete (ovum) to form a zygote.

Offspring are exact copies and genetically The zygote undergoes development to form a
identical to their parents. new individual.

No genetic variations occur. Leads to genetic diversity and adaptability.

Human beings are unisexual or dioecious or hermaphrodite , they are either male or female
having testes and ovaries respectively in body.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Scrotum maintains the testes at around 34℃, slightly lower than the body temperature (37℃).
Sertoli cells in the seminiferous tubules are responsible for the production of sperm.
Epididymis and rete testis are connected by a network of tubes known as efferent ducts.
Vas deferens (ductus deferens) is a thick-walled tube. Each of it has an ampulla, which is an
expanded part that serves as a reservoir.
Ejaculatory duct is one of two hollow tubes created by joining the excretory duct of a seminal
vesicle and ampulla of ductus deferens.
The ducts serve to combine the sperm deposited in the ampulla with the fluids generated by
the seminal vesicles and transfer these substances to the prostate.
The male external genitalia and copulatory organ consists of Glans or head or tip of penis, the
glans is very sensitive and contains the opening of the urethra.
In some men, that is called the foreskin may cover the glans.
Shaft contains layers of erectile tissues.
Root is where the penis attaches to the pelvic area.
A pair of seminal vesicles contribute about 60% of total volume of semen.
The prostate gland is the largest of the semen producing glands while Bulbourethral are small
glands.
Each ejaculation of human male averages between 2 and 5 ml. Normally it contains 200 to
300 million sperms.

ORGAN FUNCTION
Testes Produce sperm and sex hormones

Epididymides Sites of maturation and some storage of sperm

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Vasa deferentia Conduct and store sperm

Seminal vesicles Add fluid to semen

Prostate gland Add fluid to semen

Urethra Conducts sperm (and urine)

Bulbourethral glands Add fluid to semen

Table: Male Reproductive System and its Physiology

SPERMATOGENESIS
The journey begins with undifferentiated germ cells called spermatogonia (2n).
Spermatogonia, triggered by hormonal signals, transform into primary spermatocytes (2n).
Each primary spermatocyte undergoes DNA replication, resulting in two identical sets of
chromosomes.
Meiosis I: This critical phase involves the division of primary spermatocytes into secondary
spermatocytes (n). Meiosis I reduce the chromosome number by half, ensuring genetic
diversity in the resulting sperm cells.
Meiosis II: Secondary spermatocytes undergo further division in meiosis II, yielding four
haploid cells known as spermatids (n). Each spermatid contains half the number of
chromosomes as the original primary spermatocyte.

Spermiogenesis involves the reshaping of the nucleus, the formation of the acrosome
(containing enzymes crucial for fertilization), and the development of the flagellum, which
enables sperm motility.

HORMONAL REGULATION IN MALES

Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone produced by the testes.
Secondary sexual characteristics include facial and body hair growth, deepening of the voice.
It also stimulates the production of sperm.
FSH produced by the pituitary acts on testes and also stimulates the production of proteins
necessary for sperm production.
Inhibin is a peptide hormone released from Sertoli cells of testes, which inhibits the secretion
of FSH.
GnRH secretion is regulated by a negative feedback loop, where low levels of testosterone
stimulate the release of GnRH, leading to increased production of FSH and LH, which in turn
stimulates testosterone production. As testosterone levels rise, they inhibit the release of
GnRH, resulting in a decrease in FSH and LH production.

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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Ovaries are attached to the uterus with a mesentery and is enclosed in a tough protective
capsule.
Each female ovary potentially contains 200,000 follicles.
Formed before her birth, of these, only several hundred will release egg cells during the
female reproductive years.
The cells of follicle produce female sex hormone called estrogen.
The open end of the oviduct is fringed with ciliated ‘finger’ called fimbriae that nearly
surrounds the ovary.
The Body the main portion of the uterus, starts below the level of the fallopian tubes and
continues downward until the uterine walls and cavity start to narrow. The lowest section, the
cervix, extends downward from the isthmus until it opens into the vagina.
The vagina is muscular tube used for the reception of sperms and delivery of fetus so called
birth canal.

ORGAN FUNCTION
Ovaries Produce egg and sex hormones

Oviducts (fallopian tubes) Conduct egg; location of fertilization

Uterus (womb) Houses developing embryo & fetus

Vagina Receives sperm & serves as birth canal

Ovaries
Produce egg and sex hormones

Uterus (womb) Conduct egg; location of fertilization

Table: Female Reproductive system and its physiology

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE

Menstrual Cycle involves a series of hormonal changes and physiological events.
The menstrual cycle is primarily regulated by four key hormones: follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), estrogen, and progesterone.
Menstruation takes place when the body becomes aware chemically that no fertilization or
pregnancy has occurred following the last ovulation. The progesterone secretion is stopped
by Corpus Luteum.

THE OVARIAN & UTERINE CYCLE EVENTS

OVARIAN EVENTS UTERINE EVENTS

CYCLE CYCLE
Follicular phase— FSH, Follicle Menstruation—Days 1–5 Endometrium
Days 1–13 maturation, breaks down
Estrogen
Ovulation—Day 14* LH spike Proliferative phase— Endometrium rebuilds
Days 6–13

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Luteal phase—Days LH, Corpus Secretory phase—Days Endometrium

15–28 luteum, 15–28 thickens and glands
Progesterone are secretory

ESTROGEN AND PROGESTERONE

The hormones estrogen and progesterone play a crucial role in the proper development and
functioning of the female reproductive system, as well as in the manifestation of secondary
sexual characteristics.
Estrogen is a vital hormone that plays a pivotal role in the development of female
reproductive organs and is accountable for the manifestation of female body characteristics,
including the distribution of body hair and fat, as well as breast development.
The female body typically exhibits a curvaceous physique in comparison to the male body,
primarily due to the increased deposition of subcutaneous adipose tissue and a wider pelvic
girdle.
Hormone progesterone is a requisite factor in the process of breast development.

INFERTILITY
Infertility is the inability to conceive a child after one year of regular, unprotected sexual
intercourse. It can affect both males and females.

CAUSES OF MALE INFERTILITY

Abnormal Sperm Production or Function:
A microscopic examination of the semen is typically used to determine the sperm's
quantity, concentration, motility, and morphology (form).
The total amount of sperm in the ejaculate is known as the sperm count; counts can vary
greatly, but numbers below 20 million are typically regarded as low.
Oligospermia is the common name for low sperm count.
A disease known as azoospermia, which results in a complete lack of spermatozoa in the
ejaculate, can sometimes be the cause of male infertility.
Ejaculation Disorders:
Problems with ejaculation, such as retrograde ejaculation (semen entering the bladder
instead of being expelled), or erectile dysfunction can result in infertility.
Obstruction:
Blockages in the male reproductive tract, such as congenital absence of the vas deferens
or scarring from previous infections or surgeries, can prevent the transport of sperm.
Lifestyle Factors:
Certain lifestyle choices can contribute to male infertility, including excessive alcohol
consumption, smoking, drug use, obesity, exposure to environmental toxins, or prolonged

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, or prolonged exposure to high temperatures (e.g., saunas or hot tubs).

CAUSES OF FEMALE INFERTILITY

Ovulation Disorders:
Irregular or absent ovulation can prevent the release of eggs necessary for fertilization.
This can be caused by hormonal imbalances, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), thyroid
disorders, or premature ovarian failure.
Fallopian Tube Blockage:
Blockages or damage to the fallopian tubes can hinder the transport of eggs and sperm,
making fertilization difficult or impossible.
Common causes include pelvic inflammatory disease, endometriosis, or previous pelvic
surgeries.
Uterine or Cervical Issues:
Abnormalities in the uterus or cervix can interfere with implantation of a fertilized egg or
affect the passage of sperm.
Conditions such as uterine fibroids, polyps, or cervical stenosis can contribute to
infertility.
Endometriosis:
This condition occurs when the tissue lining the uterus grows outside of the uterus, often
affecting the ovaries, fallopian tubes, and other pelvic organs.
Endometriosis can cause inflammation, scarring, and structural abnormalities, leading to
fertility problems.
Age-related Factors:
As women age, the quality and quantity of their eggs decline, making it more challenging to
conceive. Advanced maternal age is associated with a higher risk of infertility and pregnancy
complications.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

GONORRHEA
Gonorrhea is primarily transmitted through sexual contact, usually through genital and
oral contact, with an infected person.
The bacteria can infect the genital tract, mouth, throat, and rectum.
Symptoms of Gonorrhea:
Painful or burning sensation during urination.
Increased vaginal discharge in females and discharge
Pain or swelling in the testicles (in males).
Painful bowel movements or rectal itching.
Sore throat or difficulty swallowing.
SYPHILIS
Syphilis is primarily transmitted through sexual contact, usually through genital and oral
contact.

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16 GENETICS
Mendel used Pisum Sativum for his experiment because it is a self-pollinated plant. It also
contains big sized flowers where cross pollination can be done artificially.
Contrasting Characters in Pea Plant

S. NO CROSS BETWEEN RESULTS OF 1ST RESULTS OF RATIO IN F2

CONTRASTING 1ST GENERATION (F1) 2ND GENERATION
CHARACTERS (F2)
1 Tall × dwarf All Tall 787 Tall, 277 dwarf 2.84:1

2 Round seed × wrinkled All Round seed 5474 Round, 1850 2.96:1
seed wrinkled

Yellow cotyledon × All Yellow cotyledon 6022 Yellow, 3.01:1

3
green cotyledon 2001 green
4 All Purple flower 705 Purple, 224 3.15:1
Purple flowers × white
flowers white

5 Smooth pods × All Smooth pods 882 Smooth, 299 3.15:1

constricted pods constricted

6 Green pods × yellow All Green pods 428 Green, 152 2.82:1
pods yellow

7 Axial flower × terminal All Axial flowers 651 Axial, 207 3.14:1
flower terminal

Mendel concluded that when pea plants with two contrasting expressions of same character
were crossed, one of the two expressed completely in the offspring while the other did not
expressed at all.
He said that in hybrid (impure) conditions only one-character expresses.
Law of segregation is also known as law of purity of gametes.
In the case of Inheritance of two traits Mendel chose a pure tall pea plant which produces
round seed and a pure dwarf pea plant produces wrinkled seed cross together by artificial
means.
He infers perhaps these two assorted traits of a plant are dependent on each other during
inheritance because only one of the parental combinations is produced in F1 generation.
He stated in his Law of Independent Assortment that ‘The factors of assorted traits are
independent in their inheritance.’

DOMINANCE
In co-dominance, both contrasting alleles of the same locus express independently and
clearly in heterozygous individuals.
These products show their expression clearly and independently without any blending.
It is a phenomenon where inheritance occurs in such a way that both contrasting alleles
are dominant and express themselves in the heterozygous individual, neither masking nor
blending the effect of one another.

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Example: Roan Coat Colour in Cattle
In a cross between true breeding short horn red cattle and true breeding short horn white
cattle, the offspring have roan colour.
A close examination of the skin of roan-coloured animals shows that:
The animal does not possess an intermediate shade of skin colour.
It appears roan because of the presence of red and white hairs evenly present at the skin.
It is clear that none of the two genes is dominant over the other.
Difference between Incomplete and Co-dominance

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE CO-DOMINANCE

Phenomenon of inheritance where expression Phenomenon of inheritance where expression

of both contrasting alleles blend in of both contrasting alleles does not blend in
heterozygous condition. heterozygous condition.

New phenotype produced as a result of New phenotype does not produce as a result
incomplete dominance. of co-dominance.

Quantitatively both express equally. Quantitatively both express unequally.

Example: Flower colour in 4 o’clock plants. Example: Hair colour in cow or MN blood
group.

HUMAN BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM

Blood Group Systems
The main types of blood group systems are the MN blood group system, ABO blood group
system, and Rh system.
Among these three, two are widely used, i.e., the ABO and Rh systems.
Incompatibility and Importance
It is due to the reason that the incompatibility between donor and recipient leads to the
death of recipient.
The MN blood group system is considered as the rare blood group.

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Erythroblastosis Foetalis
If this Rh⁺ve man has genotype DD, all of their children will have Dd genotype and
phenotypically they are Rh⁺ve.
The breakdown product of RBC’s produces large amount of bilirubin pigment which
accumulate in the foetus and damage the neuron.
If a baby is born with this defect, the blood with high level of bilirubin of baby should be
immediately replaced by Rh⁻ negative blood free from anti-Rh antibodies.

EPISTASIS
Examples of Epistasis in Plants and Animals
Colour Pigments Trait in Foxgloves Petals
In foxgloves plant, petal colour is determined by three genes:
Gene M:
M expresses to synthesize an enzyme that develops anthocyanin (a purple pigment).
mm produces no pigment, resulting in albino petals with yellowish spots.
Gene D (Enhancer of Anthocyanin):
D (either DD or Dd) enhances purple colour by producing more anthocyanin, making the
petal darker.
dd does not enhance (light colour).
Gene W (Controls Spot Formation):
W (either WW or Ww) allows spot formation.
ww results in uniform colour (no spot formation).
The third gene (W) prevents pigment deposition except in the spots. As a result, white spotted
petals are produced whenever ww is absent and pigment deposition is allowed.
Gene Effects Summary

GENE COMBINATION RESULT

M (MM, Mm) Purple colour

mm White (no pigment)

D (DD, Dd) Enhancer of purple (darker petals)

dd No enhancer (light colour)

W (WW, Ww) Spots present

ww Uniform colour (no spots)

Genetic Cross Result

According to Mendel’s di-hybrid cross, if two traits are heterozygous in both parents, they
produce offspring with the phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1.
However, in the case of foxgloves plant (where epistasis is involved), a di-hybrid cross
between heterozygous individuals produces offspring with the phenotypic ratio of 12:3:1.

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Dominant Epistasis in Foxgloves

The phenotypic ratio observed is:
White spotted : Dark red : Light red = 12 : 3 : 1
Mechanism of Interference
The W allele prevents deposition of pigment in the flower, allowing deposition only in
spots.
The w allele allows pigment deposition in all cells of petals.
The D allele enables the synthesis of large amounts of anthocyanin (producing red
pigment).
The d allele synthesizes little amount of anthocyanin.

GENE LINKAGE AND CROSSING OVER

A chromosome may contain maximally 4000 genes.
Linked Traits in Drosophila
Gene V for normal wings and recessive allele v for vestigial wings.
Another trait where a dominant gene B for gray body colour is dominant over black body
colour gene (b).
Both genes (V and B) are located on the same chromosome.
Inheritance of Linked Genes
As they are linked, they tend to be inherited together:
V with B
v with b
It implies that when a homozygous VVBB fly is crossed with a homozygous vvbb fly, all
offspring will have VvBb genotype, showing:
Normal wings and Gray body colour.
When the heterozygous VvBb fly is crossed with a homozygous recessive vvbb fly, and the
genes remain completely linked (no crossing over occurs), then:
Only two parental types appear equally in offspring:
Gray body with normal wings
Black body with vestigial wings

CROSSING OVER
Linkage is not absolute, and it is not necessary that the genes of a chromosome remain
attached with each other and transmit together.
If linkage remains continuous, the inheritance of a trait will also continue, and the offspring
will resemble one of the parents only.
The gametes in animals and spore mother cells (S.M.Cs) divide by meiosis to produce
gametes and spores respectively.
During meiosis, the homologous chromosomes pair up.

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CROSSING OVER
Linkage is not absolute, and it is not necessary that the genes of a chromosome remain
attached with each other and transmit together.
If linkage remains continuous, the inheritance of a trait will also continue, and the offspring
will resemble one of the parents only.
The gametes in animals and spore mother cells (S.M.Cs) divide by meiosis to produce
gametes and spores respectively.
During meiosis, the homologous chromosomes pair up.
This pairing of homologous chromosomes is called Synapsis.
Soon after meiosis:
Homologous chromosomes attach.
They form cross bridges between their non-sister chromatids.
They sometimes exchange their segments.
This exchange of chromosomal segments between non-sister chromatids is called
crossing over.

SEX DETERMINATION
It was found in the early years of the last century that in animals and plants, most of the
chromosomes are found in the form of homologous pairs.
However, a pair of chromosomes may or may not be homologous in members of the same
species.
W. Sutton found the simplest case of chromosomal difference in grasshoppers:
He found that males have one chromosome less than females.
Females have 24 chromosomes while males have only 23 chromosomes.
It means:

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Female has 12 pairs of chromosomes in their somatic cells (2n).
Each egg carries 12 chromosomes (n).
Male Chromosome Composition
Male grasshoppers have 11 pairs plus a single chromosome in somatic cells (2n).
During spermatogenesis, two types of sperms are produced:
One type with 11 chromosomes (n).
Other type with 12 chromosomes (n).
Fertilization and Sex Determination
Fertilization of an egg (12 chromosomes) has two possibilities:
If fertilized by a sperm having 11 chromosomes, a male baby will develop.
If fertilized by a sperm having 12 chromosomes, a female baby will develop.
Thus, the odd chromosome determines the sex of the individual and is called the sex-
chromosome.
The other chromosomes, similar in males and females, are called autosomes.

XX AND XY SEX-DETERMINATION IN DROSOPHILA AND MAMMALS

Sex-Determination in Drosophila
T.H. Morgan, a Nobel Prize winner (1933), selected Drosophila melanogaster (black-
bellied dew lover) for his experiments.
He observed that male and female Drosophila differ in one pair of chromosomes.
Key points:
There are three pairs of chromosomes (autosomes) that are the same in male and female.
The difference lies in the 4th pair:
In females, both chromosomes of 4th pair are similar and rod-shaped (homologous).
In males, the two chromosomes are different: One is rod-shaped and the other is hook-
shaped.
This 4th pair is called the sex-chromosomes.
Rod-shaped chromosomes are called X-chromosomes.
Hook-shaped chromosome is called the Y-chromosome.
Conclusion: In Drosophila: XX = Female XY = Male.
Sex-Determination in Human
In human beings and majority of animals, the difference in male and female is not of one
whole chromosome (as seen in Grasshopper), but of the shape of one chromosome in one
sex.
In humans, the 23rd pair differ in shape in males, where:
One of the two chromosomes is like sex-chromosomes of female,
But the second is much smaller than the other.
Regarding chromosome numbers:
The human female possesses 44 + XX chromosomes,
Whereas the male possesses 44 + XY chromosomes in their karyotype.

SEX-LIMITED AND SEX-INFLUENCED TRAITS

Sex-Limited Traits
e.g Horn controlling gene is present in both males and females but ➔ only expressed in male
sheep.
Sex-Influenced Traits
It is an autosomal trait but influenced by sex.
If a male has one recessive allele, he will express that character.
In females, two recessive alleles are required to show the same result.
Example: Soft facial hairs in females vs coarse facial hairs in males.
It is an autosomal dominant trait in males but autosomal recessive in females.

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GENETIC DISORDERS
Genetic Inheritance of Haemophilia
Haemophilia is X-linked recessive.
In males, haemophilia occurs because it is hemizygous, i.e., controlled by a single allele.
In females, two doses of alleles are required to develop haemophilia (homozygous
recessive condition).
Inheritance of Colour Blindness
Basic Structure of the Retina
Human eye has two types of neurons:
Rods ➔ Responsible for vision in low light.
Cones ➔ Responsible for colour distinction.
Role of Proteins
Opsins are the light-absorbing proteins and produced by expressing specific genes.
Types of Colour Blindness
Dichromacy
Condition: Cannot perceive one of the three basic colours (Red, Green, Blue).
There are three types:
Protanopia ➔ Red blindness
Deuteranopia ➔ Green blindness
Tritanopia ➔ Blue blindness
Monochromacy
In blue monochromacy, only blue colour can be recognized by the person.
Caused by absence of both red and green cone opsins.

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17 EVOLUTION
(Latin ēvolūtiōn-, “unfolding” or “emergence from an enclosing structure, historical
development,”)
Broadly speaking, evolution is a process of gradual changes and development of something
such as earth, solar system, living things and living organisms.

THEORY OF SPECIAL CREATION

The species do not have any inter-relationship with each other from the origin point of view.
Father Suárez (1548–1613) was one of the advocates of Creationism.
Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778), a Swedish Botanist, who wrote number of books describing
nature.
Initially, he was also believer of the fixity of species.

THEORY OF EVOLUTION
Plants and animals have developed in continuous orderly way, under the guidance of natural
laws.
George Buffon (1749–1788) was the first to implement the geological time scale and
developed the idea that living beings evolved constantly.
This concept of evolution of living organisms contradicts clearly with the concept of Divine
Creation.

EVOLUTION OF EUKARYOTES FROM PROKARYOTES

Scientists agree on the fact that our planet earth was once covered with water (marine).
Gradually, during the course of billions of years, the water receded and the land beneath
appeared. So the life forms originated in water, especially in hot springs called hydrothermal
vents.
“And We made every form of life (on earth) appear from water, so do they not believe (even
after being aware of these facts mention in the Quran)” (sura Al-Anbiya, 21:30).
Some of the heterotrophic bacteria transformed into autotrophic ones. Initially, the
autotrophs had to depend upon simple inorganic substances which gave rise to sulphur-
bacteria and iron-bacteria.

ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY
Some early eukaryotic cells also engulfed autotrophic, photosynthetic bacteria (such as
cyanobacteria), and instead of digesting them, formed a symbiotic relationship. These
internalized bacteria eventually evolved into chloroplasts, giving rise to ancestral autotrophic,
plant-like eukaryotic cells.
The endosymbiotic theory seems more powerful in dealing with the evolution of eukaryotes
since both mitochondria and chloroplast have following similar features like prokaryotes.
Circular DNA molecules
Ribosomes
Metabolism
Binary fission way of reproduction

LAMARCKISM

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In view of Lamarck, the process of evolution is like a ladder of life proceeding from simple to
the complex level of organisms with view of modification of characters of organism during its
life time.
Lamarck’s theory of inheritance of acquired characters was criticized especially by August
Weismann and Cuvier on its genetic basis while on the other hand Charles Lyell and August
strongly supported and promoted the ideology of Lamarck. Although Lamarck’s ideas were
rejected, interest in his ideas has recently resurfaced.
He may not have been correct with his long-necked giraffe example, but on a fundamental
level, he was describing “epigenetics” which deals with the study of behaviours,
environmental exposures on other external factors may alter how DNA is read and used to
express certain proteins.

DRAWBACKS OF LAMARCKISM
The idea of development of acquired characters has no genetic basis and it seems that they
influence on the somatic cells rather than the germ cells involved in inheritance.
So how could be the acquired characters are inherited to the next generation without
affecting the germ cells.
It is also noted that organs are not modified by the wish of the organism.
Lamarckism fails to account for the genetic variability found in the species.

DARWINISM
Charles Darwin (1809–1882), an English biologist, a geologist and a naturalist is well known
for his contribution on evolution.
His proposal of origin of species from a common ancestor is generally a widely accepted fact.
Though he got education in medicine and surgery, he was never interested in the field of
medical. He was much interested in studying nature as got admitted to the Christ College,
Cambridge in 1928.
In 1831, he decided to go on a five year trip on a ship H.M.S. Beagle heading towards South
America.
His voyage on HMS Beagle started in December 1931.
The trip was sailing around South America, then proceeding ahead and crossing the Pacific
Ocean, they crossed Australia. The journey continued back through the Indian Ocean up to
the Cape Town, South Africa and then heading back to South America, finally back to
Plymouth, England.

OBSERVATIONS
He observed that the finches of the Galapagos Island were similar to the finches on mainland
but each had adaptations in beak in terms of size and shapes to obtain easily and effectively
the locally available food.
He thought that new species could have originated as a consequence of gradual accumulation
of such adaptations due to existing geographical or other types of barriers.

THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION

Darwin considered “Natural Selection” is the mechanism of evolution through which heritable
traits that help organisms survive and reproduce become more common in a population over
time.
The point of junction of twigs is symbolically representing actually the common ancestors of
these branches.
IDEAS OF CHARLES LYELL, JAMES HUTTON, AND THOMAS MALTHUS IN THE EARLY
DEVELOPMENT OF DARWINISM

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Contribution of Charles Lyell
Lyell believed that geological processes in the past were the same as those at present and
operated in the same manner.
Darwin adopted this analogy for life—believing that small, gradual adaptations over time
caused evolutionary change.
Lyell’s ideas inspired Darwin during his voyage with Captain FitzRoy, particularly in the
Galapagos Islands and South America.
Contribution of James Hutton
Hutton first proposed that the Earth’s current geological features were shaped by ancient
but consistent processes.
Although Darwin read about these ideas in Lyell’s book, it was Hutton’s concepts that
indirectly inspired him.
Darwin linked gradual change within species to natural selection, suggesting it was the
driving mechanism of evolution since the origin of life.
Contribution of Thomas Malthus
Malthus noted that human populations grow faster than food production, leading to
competition and survival struggles.
Darwin applied this idea to all species, formulating “survival of the fittest.”
He observed that only individuals with favorable adaptations survive and pass traits on,
which forms the core of natural selection.

NEO-DARWINISM
Darwin's study lacked a concrete genetic basis.
Accumulation of fit phylogenetic variations in individuals is the main driver of speciation,
making survival of the fittest a key mechanism.
Neo-Darwinism is a modified theory of Darwinism that explains the origin of species on a
genetic basis, driven by genetic variation.
Population Genetics:
Branch of biology studying origin and inheritance of variations
Links evolution and genetics
Explains evolution from individual level to population level
Main driving force of speciation is the gathering of genotypic variations in a gene pool.
Reproductive isolation enables amplification of the fittest genes, leading to new species.

EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
Evidence from Biogeography
The distribution of different species on earth provides evidence of evolution and it
correlates the variations of a species and the movement of continents across the globe via
plate tectonics.
Let’s take the example of pouched mammals (marsupials) such as kangaroos and koalas
found in America, Australia, and New Guinea.
Currently, the said geographical locations are separated from each other by the Pacific
Ocean. This makes it impossible for said mammals to swim through such large distance.
So how could they end up in these locations and nowhere in between? It may be answered by
the past continental positions and the fossil record of these mammals.
The scientists believe that the existing continents were once a single piece of land termed as
Pangaea. Slowly and gradually, it broke into different large pieces of land masses which
started separating from each other.

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Thus, marsupials did not need a migration route, rather they rode through the continent to
their current positions and diversified themselves.
Evidence from Paleontology
Archaeopteryx, a fossil of a bird discovered in 1861 in Bavaria, Germany.
It is being estimated that Archaeopteryx lived around 150 million years ago.
A careful study of this fossil revealed that it showed mixed features of birds as well as
reptiles.
Just like birds, it has a beak, wings, a tail, and body covered with feathers.
However, like reptiles, it showed teeth, fingers and claws in fore limbs, vertebrae in tail,
and keel-less sternum.
The presence of mixed features suggests that some ancestral reptiles were turned into
early birds, which later lost the reptilian features and transformed into modern birds.
Evidence from Comparative Anatomy (Homology)
Different species may show internal or external organs similar in structure but different in
function, called homologous organs.
For example, the arm of man, flippers of dolphin, fore-limb of horse, and wings of bat are
all homologous to each other.
All of these mammalian organs show internally that the skeletal plans are the same—
same number and arrangement of bones, pentadactyl hand, etc., suggesting a common
origin.
If species descended from common ancestors, homologies make sense—but if all species
originated separately, it is difficult to understand why they should share homologous
similarities.
Without evolution, nothing forces tetrapods to all have pentadactyl limbs.
Evidence from Molecular Biology
The translation between base triplets in the DNA and amino acids in proteins is universal
in all living organisms.
This can be confirmed by isolating mRNA for hemoglobin from a mammal and injecting it
into bacterium E. coli, which normally does not produce hemoglobin.
But when injected proper mRNA, it starts producing mammalian hemoglobin.
Thus, it is evident that the machinery for decoding the message must therefore be
common to mammals and E. coli.
A very good example in favour of evolution is antibiotic resistance developed by
pathogenic bacteria.
If they do not adapt the lethal effect of the antibiotics, they would have been extinct.
So, as a protection, pathogenic bacteria have to develop resistance through the process
of natural selection.
They undergo appropriate mutations in their genes to cope with the effects of antibiotics.
This, on the other hand, has put pharmaceutical companies into a constant challenge to
develop and improve the new and much more effective, wide-spectrum as well as specific
antibiotics.

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GENETIC DRIFT (NEUTRAL SELECTION)

It refers to the changes in allelic frequency in a population from generation to generation.

It occurs when allele frequencies grow higher or lower by chance and typically takes place in
small populations.
Although genetic drift occurs in populations of all sizes, its effects tend to be stronger in small
populations.
This is also named as neutral selection because most of the variations within and between
species are due to random genetic drift of mutant alleles that are selectively neutral.

TYPES OF GENETIC DRIFT

after

after

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Bottleneck Effect
In this kind of genetic drift, the size of the population is decreased due to natural
catastrophes like:
Volcano eruption, Earthquake, Flood, Fire, etc.
As a consequence, a number of individuals would be eliminated, leaving behind few live
individuals to reproduce.
Founder Effect
In this kind of genetic drift, a new small population separates from the larger one due to
some geographical or physical barriers.
This new isolated group starts reproducing within itself, and as a consequence, the allelic
frequencies will be different from their original stock.

SPECIATION AND ITS MECHANISM

It is the biological process of formation of new species of living organisms.
It occurs when a group of individuals within a population develops distinct characteristics and
becomes reproductively isolated from the rest.

There are different ways for the speciation process, viz.,

Sympatric Speciation
In this case, one of the populations of a species occupying the same geographical area
becomes distinctly different so that it is unable to mate with its original stock.
There could be different reasons for sympatric speciation such as:
Polyploidy
Habitat differentiation
Sexual selection
It is more commonly observed among plants than animals.
Allopatric Speciation
In this kind of speciation, the populations become geographically separated from each
other so that they become reproductively isolated from the rest of their populations.
As a consequence, the gene flow stops among them and depending upon their
environmental factors during the course of time, they genetically differ from the original
group.
It is one of the very common ways of speciation.
Peripatric Speciation
When small groups of individuals break off from the larger group and form a new species,
this is called peripatric speciation.

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Peripatric Speciation
When small groups of individuals break off from the larger group and form a new species,
this is called peripatric speciation.
Like allopatric speciation, although there is geographical isolation, the separated group is
much smaller than the original one.
Parapatric Speciation
In this speciation, the populations are not geographically separated from each other, but
they enter a quite different habitat within the same area of the parent species.
In such cases, the populations may interbreed but develop distinct features and habits.
The reproductive isolation in this case is behavioral rather than geographical.
For instance, it is observed in plants living on boundaries between distinct climates that
may flower at different times in response to their environments.
Thus, they cannot interbreed with the parental types.

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