Gharyan University, Faculty of engineering Eng.

Asma Abdurahman
Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

Lecture 2:

CONCEPT OF MULTIPLEXING

MULTIPLEXING:

Simultaneous transmission of several signals over a single channel is called

multiplexing. Suitable for transmission over a communication channel such as coaxial cable
or optical fiber. Multiplexing is done by using a device called Multiplexer or MUX. The
multiplexer combines n input lines to generate one output line. All multiplex systems work
on a four-wire basis. The transmit and receive paths are separate.

Carrier is a word that has become associated with FDM systems, probably owing to
the fact that FDM employs "carrier" waves. Unfortunately its use has spread to TDM systems
as well. however, carrier refers exclusively to FDM systems.

Multiplexing Techniques:

• The multiplexing techniques can be broadly classified into two categories i.e, analog
and digital. Analog multiplexing can be either FDM or WDM and digital multiplexing
is TDM.

• In FDM many signals are transmitted simultaneously where each signal

occupies a different frequency slot within a common bandwidth.

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Gharyan University, Faculty of engineering Eng. Asma Abdurahman
Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

• WDM is a technology which multiplexes a number of optical carrier signals

onto a single optical fiber by using different wavelengths of laser light.
• In TDM, the signals are not transmitted at a time, instead they are transmitted
in different time slots.

FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING:

• In frequency division multiplexing (FDM), the available channel bandwidth is divided

into a number of nonoverlaping “slots” and each message signal is assigned a slot of
frequencies within the passband of the channel.
• Individual signals can be extracted from the FDM signal by approperiate filtering.
• The modulation can be AM, SSB, FM or PM. The modulated signals are then added
together to form a composite signal which is transmitted over a single channel.
• FDM multiplexing is used in long distance telephone, FM steroe and TV broadcasting,
space probe telemetry, and other applications.

FDM systems involves 3 steps regardless of the number of channels to be combined, they
are as follows:

a) Mixing Process:

(A modulation process), where linear modulation as AM or SSB-SC are used, with

most of the applications utilizing the latter. Other modulation techniques as angle
modulation can be used. Fo example, FDM telegraph signals to be in the 0.3-3.4 KHz
voice channel band are accomplished by FM. In SSB-SC, the carrier suppression is
accomplished by a balanced modulator (BM).

b) Filtering:

• Filtering is the process that follows the mixing, through filters, the desired
band is selected, and since all band (frequency spectrum), e.g. voice channel
band has both a lower and upper frequencies, then band pass filters (BPF) are
the types that are commonly used.
• These filters are LC-type where the principle of response of LC section is
utilized in designing the filter to pass the desired frequency. LC filters have
two disadvantages: one is low QF value (QF=fo/W) and second, narrow pass
band resulting from the sloping sides of its attenuation characteristics. The
latter was overcome by introducing attenuation equalizers to flatten the pass
band, they solve the problem but add bulk and expenses to the filter.
• Other filters used are crystal filters, they have the advantages of beeing with
high QF value and their passband is with steep sides and almost square
corners. The polylithic crystal filters are designed from crystal of quartz and
their crystals are cut to the appropriate dimension need to have crystal
resonance at the required frequency to pass. Crystal filters are found to be best
properly used in the 8 MHz range.

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Gharyan University, Faculty of engineering Eng. Asma Abdurahman
Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

c) Combining:

Combining of the channels to a common bus after filtering, to be one group of

combining 5-groups to be one supergroup and so on, that is the combining shelf of
the channels is part of the FDM equipment. At the reciving side the reverse process
will take place by separating levels and channels by filters, at last demodulation to
bring back each channel to its baseband frequency spectrum.

Princibale of FDM:

Figure below shows the princible of FDM for three message signals that are assumed
to be bandlimited. In general, if the message signals are not strictily bandlimited, then
lowpass filtering will be necessary. The bandlimited signals individually modulate the
subcarriers at frequencies 𝑓!! , 𝑓!" , 𝑓!# .

The subcarrier modulation shown in the example is SSB, but any CW modulation
technique can be employed. The modulated signals are assumed to produce a composite
multiplexed signal x(t) whose spectrum is shown in the figure c.

If the subcarrier frequencies are properly chosen, then each message signal occupies a
frequency slot without any overlap. While the individual messages are clearly indentified in
the frequency domain, the multiplexed signal will bear no resemblance to the message
signals in the time domain. The multiplexed signal x(t) may be transmitted directly, or used
to modulate another carrier at frequency 𝑓! before transmission.

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Gharyan University, Faculty of engineering Eng. Asma Abdurahman
Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

Figure: Frequency division multeplexing (FDM). (a) message spectra. (b) FDM transmitter.
(c) spectrum of the multiplexed signal

Recovery of individual message signals is shown in the figure below.

FDM Receiver

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

The first step in the recovery is the demodulation to extract x(t) from 𝑥! (𝑡). Bandpass
filtering of 𝑥! (𝑡) separates 𝑥!! (𝑡), 𝑥!" (𝑡), and 𝑥!# (𝑡). Finally , the messages are recovered by
individually demodulating 𝑥!! (𝑡), 𝑥!" (𝑡), and 𝑥!# (𝑡). The multiplexing and demultiplexing
equipment are often referred to by the abbreviation “MUX”.

FDM Challenges:
• One of the major problems with FDM is cross talk, the unwanted cross coupling of one
message to another.
• Cross talk (intermodulation) arises mainly because of nonlinearities in the system
and considerable care must be taken to reduce nonlinearities in devices that process
FDM signals.
• A second source of cross talk is imperfect spectral separation of signals due to
imperfect filtering and due to subcarrier frequency drifts. To reduce the possibility of
spectral overlap, the modulated spectra are spaced out in frequency by guard bands
into witch the filter transition regions can be fitted.
• The minimum bandwidth of an FDM signal is equal to the sum of the bandwidths of
all the message signals. If a modulation scheme other than SSB is used for
multiplexing, the FDM signal bandwidth will be higher. The presence of guard bands
increases the bandwidth further.
• FDM is widely used in telephone systems for transmitting a large number of voice
signals over a single channel. The Bell system (the Bell system refers to the
telecommunications network that was originally established by Alexander Graham Bell
and developed by AT&T “American Telephone and Telegraph Company” in the United
States) uses a modular FDM structure where up to 3600 voice channels are
multiplexed for transmission via coaxial cable. The multiplexing is done using SSB
modulation with subcarriers that are derived from a common oscillator and a 512
kHz pilot carrier is transmitted along with the multiplexed signal for synchronization.
• Grouping of channels as it will be discussed latter, makes it possible to avoid excessive
guard band requirements. Furthermore, grouping facilitates easy switching and
routing of the signal and allows modular design for the equipment.

Example of Mixing:

Let us now look at the boundaries of the nominal 4-kHz voice channel. These are 300
and 3400 Hz. Let us further consider these frequencies as simple tones of 300 and 3400 Hz.
Now consider the mixer below and examine the possibilities at its output.

First, the output may be the sum or

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

20,000 Hz + 300 Hz = 20,300 Hz

20,000 Hz + 3,400 Hz = 23,400 Hz

A simple low-pass filter could filter out all frequencies below 20,300 Hz. Now imagine that
instead of two frequencies, we have a continuous spectrum of frequencies between 300 and
3400 Hz (i.e., we have the voice channel). We represent the spectrum as atriangle:

As a result of the mixing process (translation) we have another triangle as follows:

When we take the sum, as we did above, and filter out all other frequencies, we say
we have selected the upper sideband. Thus we have a triangle facing to the right, and we call
this an upright or erect sideband.

We can also take the difference, such that

20,000 Hz - 300 Hz = 19,700 Hz

20,000 Hz - 3,400 Hz = 16,600 Hz

And we see that in the translation (mixing process) we have had an inversion of frequencies.
The higher frequencies of the voice channel become the lower frequencies of the translated
spectrum, and the lower frequencies of the voice channel become the higher when the
difference is taken. We represent this by a right triangle facing the other direction:

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

This is called an inverted sideband. To review, when we take the sum, we get an
erect sideband. When we take the difference, frequencies invert and we have an inverted
sideband represented by a triangle facing left.

Now let us complicate the process a little by translating three voice channels into the
radio electric spectrum for simultaneous transmission on a specific medium, a pair of wire
lines, for example. Let the local oscillator (mixing) frequency in each case be 20, 16, and 12
kHz. The mixing process is shown in Figure below.

From Figure shown, the difference frequencies are selected in each case as follows:

For channel 1 :

20,000 Hz - 300 Hz = 19,700 Hz

20,000 Hz - 3400 Hz = 16,600 Hz

For channel 2:

16,000 Hz - 300 Hz = 15,700 Hz

16,000 Hz - 3400 Hz = 12,600 Hz

For channel 3

12,000 Hz - 300 Hz = 11,700 Hz

12,000 Hz - 3,400 Hz = 8,600 Hz

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Gharyan University, Faculty of engineering Eng. Asma Abdurahman
Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

Figure: Simple FDM (transmit portion only shown)

In each case the lower sidebands have been selected as mentioned above, and all
frequencies above 19,700 Hz have been filtered from the output as well as the local oscillator
carriers themselves. The outputs from the modulators terminate on a common bus. The
common output appearing on this bus is a band of frequencies between 8.6 and 19.7 kHz
containing the three voice channels which have been translated in frequency. They now
appear on one two-wire circuit ready for transmission. They may be represented by asingle
inverted triangle as shown:

The CCITT FDM Modulation Plan:

A modulation plan sets forth the development of a band of frequencies called the line
frequency (i.e., ready for transmission on the line or transmission medium). The modulation
plan usually is a diagram showing the necessary mixing, local oscillator mixing frequencies,

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

and the sidebands selected by means of the triangles described previously in a step-by-step
process from voice channel input to line frequency output. The CCITT (Institue for
Telegraph and Telephone Concultive Committee, a division from an international
organization called ITU (International Telecommunication Union) sets a plan called
frequency plan consists of different levels in terms of the number of channels and their
frequencies. This allows large telephone networks, on both national and multinational
systems, to interconnect. The paln is for voice channels and can be explained as follows:

1. Formation of the Standard CCITT Group:

The standard group as defined by the CCITT occupies the frequency band of 60-108
kHz and contains 12 voice channels. Each voice channel is the nominal 4-kHz channel
occupying the 300-3400-Hz spectrum. The group is formed by mixing each of the 12 voice
channels with a particular carrier frequency associated with the channel. Lower sidebands
are then selected. Figure below shows the preferred approach to the formation of the
standard CCITT group.

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

Figure: Formation of the standard CCITT group.

It should be noted that in the 60-108 kHz band voice channel 1 occupies the highest
frequency segment by convention, between 104 and 108 kHz. The layout of the standard
group is shown in Figure shown. The applicable CCITT recommendation is G.232.

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

SSB-SC modulation techniques are recommended except under special circumstances

discussed later. CCITT recommends that carrier leak be down to at least -26 dBm0 referred
to a 0 relative level point.

Excercie: What is meant by carrier leak? And how we can solve it or reduce it?

Figure: Standard CCITT group.

2. Alternative Method of Formation of the Standard CCITT Group

The economy of filter design has caused some manufacturers to use an alternate method
to form agroup. This is done by an intermediate modulation step forming four pregroups.
Each pregroup translates three voice channels in the intermediate modulation step. The
translation process for this alternative method is shown in Figure below. For each pregroup
the first voice channel modulates a 12-kHz carrier, the second a 16-kHz carrier, and the third
a 20-kHz carrier. The upper sidebands are selected in this case and carriers are suppressed.

The result is a subgroup occupying a band of frequencies from 12 to 24 kHz. The second
modulation step is to take four of these pregroups so formed and translate them, each to
their own frequency segment, in the band of 60-108 kHz. To achieve this the pregroups are
modulated by carrier frequencies of 84, 96, 108, and 120 kHz, and the lower sidebands are
selected, properly inverting the voice channels. This dual modulation process is shown in the
Figure.

The choice of the one-step or two-step modulation is an economic trade-off. Adding a

modulation stage adds noise to the system.

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

Figure: Formation of standard CCITT group by two steps of modulation (mixing).

3. Formation of the Standard CCITT Supergroup

A supergroup contains five standard CCITT groups, equivalent to 60 voice channels. The
standard supergroup before translation occupies the frequency band of 312- 552 kHz. Each
of the five groups making up the supergroup is translated in frequency to the supergroup
band by mixing with the proper carrier frequencies. The carrier frequencies are 420 kHz for
group 1, 468 kHz for group 2, 516 kHz for group 3, 564 kHz for group 4, and 612 kHz for
group 5. In the mixing process the difference is taken (lower sidebands are selected). This
translation process is shown in Figure.

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

Figuer: Formation of the standard CCITT supergroup (CCITTRec.G.233).Note.Vertical

arrows show group level regulating pilot tones. (Courtesy ITU-CCITT.)

4. Formation of the Standard CCITT Basic Master group and Super master group

The basic master group contains five supergroups, 300 voice channels, and occupies the
spectrum of 812-2044 kHz. It is formed by translating the five standard super-groups, each
occupying the 312-552 kHz band, by a process similar to that used to form the super group
from five standard CCITT groups. This process is shown in Figure (a).

The basic super master group contains three mastergroups and occupies the band of
8516-12,388 kHz. The formation of the super mastergroup is shown in Figure (b).

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

Figure (a): Formation of the standard CCITT supergroup (CCITT Rec. G.233); Courtesy ITU-
CCITT.)

Figure (b): Formation of the standard CCITT super mastergroup (CCITT Rec. G.233;
Courtesy ITU—CCITT.)

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

The following figure shows a whole diagram as modulation and frequency plan
starting from a group down to super master group in order to have the whole picture of
these 900 voice channels and the way they are grouped.

A summary of FDM system is given in table below. Which gives No. of channels,
frequencies and bandwidths.

Table. Summary of FDM systems, all frequencies in kHz.

Formation No. of Carrier Frequency BW Sidband Guard Pilot

V.C. frequencies band selected band
Pre-group 3 12, 16, 20 12-24 12 USB - -
Group 12 84, 96, 108, 60-108 48 LSB - 84.8
120
Super- 60 420, 468, 312-552 240 LSB - 411.92
group 516,
564,612
Master- 300 1264, 1612, 812-2044 1232 LSB 8 1552
group 1680, 2108,
2356
Super- 900 10560, 8516- 3872 LSB 88 11096
master 11880, 12388
group 13200

As mentioned earlier starting from basic group and super group different
modulation plans can be formed. Forming a basic 15 super group for 900 voice channels
without going to master and super master formations, or forming 10 supergroups, (600 ch)
is also a standard in North America.

The "Line" Frequency:

The band of frequencies that the multiplex applies to the line, whether the line is a
radiolink, coaxial cable, wire pair or open-wire line, is called the line frequency. Another
expression often used is HF (or high frequency), not to be confused with high frequency radio.

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

The line frequency in this case may be the direct application of a group or super-group
to the line. However, more commonly a fuial translation stage occurs, particularly on high
density systems. Several of these line configurations are shown below. Figure 2.9 shows the
makeup of the basic 15-supergroup assembly. Figure 2.10 shows the makeup of the standard
15-supergroup assembly No. 3 as derived from the basic 15-supergroup assembly shown in
Figure 2.9. Figure 2.11 shows the development of a 600-channel standard CCITT line
frequency.

Figure 2.9 Make up of basic CCITT 15-supergroup assembly. (Courtesy ITU-CCITT.)

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

Figure 2.10 Makeup of standard 15-supergroup assembly 3 as derived from basic 15-
supergroup assembly. (Courtesy ITU—CCITT.)

Figure 2.11 Development of a 600-channel line frequency.

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

Figure 2.11 (Continued)

FDM Specification:

What is meant by pilot Carrier?

In Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) systems, a ‘pilot carrier’ refers to a specific
carrier signal that is transmitted alongside the actual data signals. The pilot carrier serves
several important functions:

Key Functions of a Pilot Carrier:

1. Synchronization: The pilot carrier helps synchronize the demodulation process at

the receiver. By providing a known reference frequency, the receiver can align its
demodulation circuits to accurately extract the information from the other carriers.

2. Frequency Offset Correction: It assists in correcting any frequency offsets that may
occur due to variations in the transmission medium or the oscillator at the receiver.
This ensures that the received signals are accurately interpreted.

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

3. Signal Quality Monitoring: The pilot carrier can be used to monitor the quality of
the transmission channel. By analyzing the pilot signal, the system can assess the
overall performance and make adjustments if necessary.

4. Compensation for Distortion: In cases where the transmission medium introduces

distortion, the pilot carrier can help compensate for these effects, allowing for a
clearer reception of the actual data signals.

5. Facilitating Demodulation: It provides a reference for demodulating the other

signals in the FDM system, making it easier to distinguish between the various
frequency channels.

So, a pilot carrier in FDM systems acts as a reference signal that aids in
synchronization, frequency correction, quality monitoring, and demodulation of the actual
data signals. Its presence enhances the reliability and accuracy of the communication
process.

Pilot tones:

Separate tones are used for each application. However, it should be noted that on a
number of systems frequency synchronizing pilots are not standard design features, owing
to the improved stabilities now available in master oscillators. Secondarily, pilots are used
for alarms.

So, pilot frequencies are auxiary signals employed in multiplex systems for function as:

• Level regulation
• Frequency synchronization.
• Alarm systems.
• Maintenance Monitoring.

When separate tones are used?

The level of the pilot should be different from the signal. If the pilot level is too low,
noise and cross talk from adjacent systems make pilot detection difficult. On the other hand
if the level is too high, over-loading occurs which results in intermodulation and cross talk.
So the level is chosen to be about 20-25 dB below signal level. The number of the pilots and
their frequencies depend on particular frequency allocation and modulation plan.

Level Regulating Pilots

The nature of speech, particularly its varying amplitude, makes it a poor prospect as
a reference for level control. Ideally simple single-sinusoid constant-amplitude signals with
100% duty cycles provide simple control information for level regulating equipment.

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

Multiplex level regulators operate in the same manner as automatic gain control circuits on
radio systems, except that their dynamic range is considerably smaller.

Modern carrier systems initiate a level regulating pilot tone on each group at the
transmit end. Individual level regulating pilots are also initiated on all supergroups and
mastergroups. The intent is to regulate the system level within ±0.5 dB.

Pilots are assigned frequencies that are part of the transmitted spectrum yet do not
interfere with voice channel operation. They usually are assigned a frequency appearing in
the guard band between voice channels or are residual carriers (i.e., partially suppressed
carriers). CCITT has assigned the following as group regulation pilots:

• 84.080 kHz (at a level of -20 dBm0)

• 84.140 kHz (at a level of -25 dBm0)
• 104.080 KHz (at a level of -20dBm0)

Where dBm0 is relative to 0 dBm. Stands for 1 mW pilots are selected at receiver by
narrow band filters where 3 dB bandwidths are recommended to be 50 Hz and their
operating range is ±4 𝑜𝑟 5 𝑑𝐵, i. e. if the recived pilot at receiver drops outside level
regulating range, alarm will be indicated.

The Defense Communications Agency of the U.S. Department of Defense recommends

104.08 kHz ± 1Hz for group regulation and alarm.

For CCITT group pilots, the maximum level of interference permissible in the voice
channel is -73 dBm0 p. CCITT pilot filters have essentially a bandwidth at the 3-dB points of
50 Hz (refer to CCITT Rec. G.232).

Table below presents other CCITT pilot tone frequencies as well as those standard for
group regulation. Respective levels are also shown. This table was taken from CCITT Rec.
G.241. The operating range of level control equipment activated by pilot tones is usually
about ±4 or 5 dB. If the incoming level of a pilot tone in the multiplex receive equipment
drops outside the level-regulating range, then an alarm will be indicated (if such an alarm is
included in the system design). CCITT recommends such an alarm when the incoming level
varies 4dB up or down from the nominal (CCITT Rec. G.241).

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

Table: frequency and Level of CCITT Recommended Pilots

Pilot for Frequency (kHz) Absolute Power Level at a

Zero Relative Level Point
(dB) (Np)
Basic group B 80.080 -20 (-2.3)

84.140 -25(-2.9)

104.080 -20 (-2.3)

Basic supergroup 411.860 -25(-2.9)

411.920 -20 (-2.3)

547.920 -20 (-2.3)

Basic master group 1552 -20 (-2.3)
Basic super master group 11096 -20 (-2.3)
Basic 15-super group 1552 -20 (-2.3)
assmbly (No. 1)

Frequency Synchronizing Pilots

End-to-end frequency tolerance on international circuits should be better than 2 Hz.

To maintain this accuracy, carrier frequencies used in FDM equipment must be very accurate
or afrequency synchronizing pilot must be used.

The basis of all carrier frequency generation for modern FDM equipment is a master
frequency source. On the transmit side, called the master station, the fre- quency
synchronizing pilot is derived from this source. It is thence transmitted to the receive side,
called aslave station. The receive master oscillator is phase locked to the incoming pilot tone.
Thus for any variation in the transmit master frequency source, the receive master frequency
source at the other end of the link is also varied. The Defense Communication Agency
recommends 96 kHz as a frequency synchronizing pilot on group 5of supergroup 1(DCA
Circular 330-175-1); other systems use 60 kHz. The transmit level is at -16 dBm0.

CCITT Rec. G.225 does not recommend a frequency synchronizing pilot. Indi- vidual
master frequency sources should have sufficient stability and accuracy to meet the following:

•
Virtual channel carrier frequency, ±10-6
•
Group and supergroup carrier frequencies, ±10-7
•
Master group and super master group carrier frequencies, for 12 MHz (line
frequency), ±5 X 10-8
for 60 MHz (above 12 MHz), ±10-8

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

FREQUENCY GENERATION

In modern FDM carrier equipment, a redundant master frequency generator serves

as the prime frequency source from which all carriers are derived or to which they are phase
locked. Providing redundant oscillators with fail-safe circuitry gives markedly improved
reliability figures.

One equipment on the market has amaster frequency generator with three outputs:
4, 12, and 124 kHz. Automatic frequency synchronization is available as an option. This
enables the slave terminal to stay in exact frequency synchronization with the master
terminal providing drop-to-drop frequency stability.

The 4-kHz output of the master supply drives aharmonic generator in the channel-
group carrier supply. Harmonics of the 4-kHz signal falling between 64 and 108 kHz are
selected for use as channel carrier frequencies. The 12-kHz output is used in a similar
manner to derive translation frequencies to form the basic CCITT super- group (420, 468,
516, 564, and 612 kHz). The 124-kHz output drives asimilar harmonic generator providing
the necessary carriers to translate standard super- groups to the line frequency.

These same carrier frequencies are also used on demultiplex at aslave terminal, or at
the demultiplex at amaster terminal if that demultiplex is not slaved to a distant terminal.

The figure below shows a simplified block diagram of frequency generation. In the
demultiplex at a slave terminal or a de-multiplex at a master station some carrier are used.
At the slave station the synchronizing pilot is used as a refrence frequency.

Figure: Block diagram of frequency generator

Other FDM Systems:

Another FDM system is formed utilizing crystal filters which operates at the 8 MHz range.
The basis is to form a group (12 channels, 48 KHz BW) in the range 8140 to 8188 KHz by

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

selecting carriers in the range 8140 to 8184 KHz selecting USB. This group can then be
translated to the standard range 60 to 108 KHz by a carrier of 8296 KHz. The use of this
system results in two modulation plans, they are: DTL (Direct to line) and DFSG (Directly
Formed Super Group).

a) DTL

132 voice channels (2 SG + 1 G) can be formed using DTL plan the modulation and
frequency plan are given in Fig. 5.10 and Fig. 5.11 a. Use of the DTL technique allows the
formation of a maximum of 132 voice channels that can be placed directly on a high
frequency line in the band 12 to 552 KHz without any other modulation required. DTL
eliminates group and super group equipment.
Frequencies source is 8192 KHz driving a harmonic generator which can give harmonics of
(8192±n.4) KHz where n is an integer.
A block diagram of DTL terminal is given in Fig. 5.11 b.

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

b) DFSG:
Can take similar steps where a direct formation of a number of supergroups can be obtained
in the 8 KHz. The DFSG also eliminates group equipments and can offer the user:
-Reduction in cost 7% to 13%
- Less equipment to install and maintain
- Increased reliability by reducing the amount of equipment.
Both DTL and DFSG can fit the requirement of low-density system, (Using DTL) and
higher density system (using DFSG). The DFSG terminal is similar to DTL terminal except

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

instead of two supergroups, many super groups are combined, e.g. 600 channels (10
super-groups) is an example based on DFSG.

Commercisl Broadcasting:
Commertial broadcasting using electromagnetic radiation over the airways began in
the early part of the 20th century with the invention of the AM radio. The history of
commercial broadcasting in the United States began with the first regular radio broadcasts
by WWJ in Detroit and KDKA in Pittsburgh in 1920. This marked the inception of a vast
industry that has evolved to include thousands of AM, FM, and TV stations. The CBS network
further expanded commercial radio broadcasting in 1927 by establishing a 16-station
network. Today, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulates frequency
allocation and licensing for airway transmissions, ensuring that the broadcast spectrum is
used efficiently and in the public interest.

Important Aspects of Commercial Broadcasting

1. Types of Broadcasting:

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Communication Systems I, Spring 2025

• AM (Amplitude Modulation): AM broadcasting is characterized by varying the

amplitude of the carrier wave. It is primarily used for talk radio, news, and sports
broadcasts. AM signals can travel long distances, especially at night, but are more
susceptible to interference.
• FM (Frequency Modulation): FM broadcasting uses frequency modulation to provide
higher fidelity sound and is less prone to interference compared to AM. It is widely
used for music and general audio broadcasting due to its superior sound quality
• TV Broadcasting: Television broadcasting combines audio and visual signals. The
FCC allocates specific frequencies for TV channels, which are also subject to
regulations to prevent interference and ensure quality service

2. Spectra of Signals:
The broadcast spectrum for AM typically ranges from 530 to 1700 kHz, while FM
operates within the VHF range of 87.5 to 108.0 MHz. Television broadcasting occupies
a range of frequencies that varies by channel and technology (analog vs. digital)

3. Receivers:
• AM Receivers: These devices are designed to detect amplitude variations in the radio
waves. They are generally simpler and less expensive than FM receivers.
• FM Receivers: FM receivers are more complex due to the need to demodulate
frequency variations. They provide better sound quality and are equipped with
features like stereo sound and RDS (Radio Data System) for additional information
• TV Receivers: These devices decode both audio and video signals, allowing viewers
to watch broadcasts. Modern TV receivers often include digital tuners to receive
digital signals, which provide better picture and sound quality compared to analog
broadcasts.

Regulatory Framework
The FCC plays a crucial role in regulating the broadcasting industry. It ensures that
stations operate within their allocated frequencies, maintains standards for signal quality,
and enforces rules regarding content and advertising. The FCC's regulations are designed to
promote competition, protect consumers, and ensure that broadcasters serve the public
interest.

However, commercial broadcasting encompasses a diverse range of services,

including AM, FM, and TV, each with its unique characteristics and regulatory requirements.
The FCC's oversight ensures that these services remain accessible and of high quality for the
public. AM and FM will be discussed, but TV will be latter after TDM.

A. AM Radio Broadcasting and Reception

AM radio broadcasting in the United States operates within a specific frequency

allocation and technical framework designed to minimize interference and ensure quality
reception. Here are the key aspects of AM radio broadcasting and reception:

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Frequency Allocation
• Carrier Frequency Range: The allocated carrier frequencies for commercial AM radio
broadcasting range from 540 to 1600 kHz.
• Spacing: Frequencies are assigned with a 10 kHz spacing. For stations located in close
proximity, a separation of 30 kHz or more is typically maintained to reduce
interference.

Bandwidth and Modulation

• Transmission Bandwidth: The transmission bandwidth for AM stations is limited to
10 kHz.
• Message Bandwidth: The effective message bandwidth, which carries the audio signal,
is typically between 4 to 5 kHz.
• Power Levels: The permissible average power for an unmodulated carrier varies:
o Local Stations: Up to 1 kW.
o Regional Stations: Up to 50 kW.
o Modulation Levels: All AM stations are required to maintain a modulation level
of 85 to 95% to ensure signal clarity and quality.

Interference Control
Interference between AM transmissions is managed through several mechanisms:
• Frequency Allocation: Careful assignment of frequencies to minimize overlap.
• Transmitter Power: Regulating the power output of transmitters.
• Antenna Patterns: Designing transmitting antenna patterns to direct signals
effectively.
• Carrier Stability: Maintaining carrier frequency stability within ±20 Hz.

Receiver Design
The typical AM receiver used for broadcasting is of the superheterodyne type. Its
main components include:
• RF Amplifier: This component is tuned to the desired carrier frequency to amplify the
incoming signal.
• Local Oscillator-Mixer Arrangement: This setup translates the radio frequency signal
to an intermediate frequency for easier processing and demodulation.

This technical framework ensures that AM radio broadcasting remains effective and reliable
for listeners across the United States.

The block diagram shown below, of an AM superheterodyne receiver consists of several key
components that work together to process radio signals. Here’s a summary of its main
features and functions:

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Figure show the Superheterodyne Receiver

1. RF Amplifier:
• Tuned to the desired carrier frequency, typically within the range of 540 to 1600
kHz.
• Its bandwidth must match the transmission bandwidth (BT) to avoid interference
from multiple stations.

2. Local Oscillator-Mixer:
• Converts the incoming RF signal to an intermediate frequency (IF) signal, usually
set at 455 kHz.
• The local oscillator must tune over a range of frequencies (995 to 2055 kHz for
𝑓"# = 𝑓! + 𝑓$% and 85 to 1145 kHz for 𝑓"# = 𝑓! − 𝑓$%

3. IF Amplifier:
• Provides the majority of gain and frequency selectivity in the system.
• Tuned to the fixed IF frequency of 455 kHz.

4. Detector:
• Demodulates the IF signal to recover the audio component.

5. Audio Amplifier:
• Amplifies the audio signal to a power level suitable for driving a loudspeaker,
which typically requires power ranging from a fraction of a watt to several watts.

6. Automatic Volume Control (AVC):

• Manages variations in RF signal levels due to fading, which can affect audio output
levels.
• Utilizes the DC offset from the detector output to adjust the gain of the IF amplifier,
ensuring consistent audio levels despite changes in signal strength.

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7. Image Frequency Rejection:

• The RF filter must have a bandwidth less than 2𝑓$% to reject unwanted image
frequencies that can interfere with the desired signal.

8. Spurious Frequency Response:

• Receivers may also respond to spurious frequencies, such as second harmonics
produced by nonlinearities in the IF amplifier, which can lead to interference.

The design of superheterodyne receivers often incorporates multiple mixers and IF

amplifiers to enhance selectivity and reduce interference from unwanted signals, ensuring
clearer audio output.

B. FM Radio Broadcasting and Reception

In 1936, Edwin Howard Armstrong published a pivotal paper titled "A Method of
Reducing Disturbance in Radio Signaling by a System of Frequency Modulation," which laid
the groundwork for FM radio broadcasting. Following this, FM broadcasting began to
develop rapidly, and today, there are thousands of AM-FM and FM stations operating across
the United States.

Key Developments in FM Broadcasting

1. Stereo Broadcasting: The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) authorized

two-channel stereo broadcasting in 1961, followed by quadraphonic FM broadcasting
in 1975.
2. Frequency Allocation: The FCC assigns carrier frequencies for commercial FM
broadcasting in the U.S. at 200 kHz intervals within the 88 to 108 MHz range. Each
station is allowed a peak frequency deviation of 75 kHz.
3. Power Outputs: FM stations can operate at various power outputs, including 0.25, 1,
3, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 kW. This allocation allows for the transmission of high-quality
audio signals.

FM Stereo Transmission Process

The block diagram of a commercial stereo FM transmitter is shown below. The
process id done as follow:

Stereo FM Transmitter

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1. Audio Signal Processing: A commercial stereo FM transmitter processes two audio

signals (left and right) through a matrix to create sum and difference signals. The sum
signal is sent directly to the FM transmitter, while the difference signal modulates a
38 kHz carrier.
2. Pilot Tone: A 19 kHz pilot tone is added for synchronization at the receiver, ensuring
accurate demodulation of the audio signals.
3. SCA Transmissions: FM stations are also permitted to transmit SCA (Subsidiary
Communications Authorization) signals, which carry non-commercial messages
intended for private subscribers, such as background music in businesses.
The composite spectrum of the baseband stereo signal is shown in Figure below.
(Observe that FDM is used for multiplexing stereo signals.)

Figure: Baseband spectrum of multiplexed stereo FM signal

The various signals shown in Figure above modulate the FM carrier (88 to
108 MHz) to varying extents as shown in Table below.

Table: Maximum deviation allowed for various signals. Entries in the table denote
percent deviation allowed for each signal acting alone. Peak deviation of the
composite signal is limited to 75 kHz
Broadcast Mode
Signals Mono + SCA Stereo Stereo + SCA

L+R 70% 90% 80%

L-R 0 90% 80%
Pilot 0 10% 10%
SCS 30% 0 10%

FM Stereo Reception Process

The block diagram of an FM stereo multiplex receiver is shown in Figure below. Here
we show how the pilot tone is used for synchronously demodulating the difference signal. It
is possible to use envelope demodulation if the pilot carrier is added to the difference signal
before envelope detection.

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Figure shows the FM stereo multiplex receiver

Noise Reduction Techniques

To minimize noise effects, preemphasis filters are used at the transmitter, while
deemphasis filters are applied at the receiver.

Quadraphonic Audio

While quadraphonic (four-channel) audio transmission exists, it is not widely

adopted due to the higher costs associated with the necessary complex receivers and
additional speakers.

However, FM radio broadcasting has evolved significantly since its inception, incorporating
advanced techniques for stereo transmission and noise reduction, while also expanding its
service offerings.

Parameters of AM & FM Radios:

The following table illustrate the parameters of both AM and FM radios.
AM FM
Carrier Frequency 540-1600 kHz 88.1-107.9 MHz
Carrier Spacing 10 kHz 200 kHz
Intermediate Frequency (IF) 455 kHz 10.7 MHz
IF bandwidth 6-10 kHz 200-250 kHz
Audio bandwidth 3-5 kHz 15 kHz

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Superheterodyne Receivers: Concept, Architecture, and the Image Frequency

Problem

1. Introduction to Radio Reception and the Superheterodyne Principle:

The reception of radio waves presents several inherent challenges. Firstly, signals
broadcast from distant transmitters often arrive at the receiver with very low power levels,
necessitating amplification to be usable. Secondly, the radio frequency spectrum is a shared
resource, densely populated with signals from various sources. A receiver must possess the
ability to selectively isolate a single desired signal from this multitude of electromagnetic
waves, a property known as selectivity. Furthermore, radio signals are transmitted across a
wide range of frequencies, and ideally, a receiver should be capable of efficiently amplifying
and processing signals across this entire spectrum with consistent performance. Early
approaches to radio reception encountered difficulties in simultaneously achieving these
objectives.
Early radio receivers, most notably the Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) receiver,
attempted to address these challenges by employing multiple stages of amplification, each
tuned to the desired reception frequency. However, these designs suffered from significant
drawbacks. Maintaining consistent selectivity and sensitivity across a broad frequency range
proved difficult, as the performance of the tuned circuits varied with frequency. Achieving
high selectivity required multiple stages, which in turn could lead to instability and complex
tuning mechanisms. The need to simultaneously adjust several tuned circuits to the same
frequency, often mechanically linked, introduced tracking errors and made the receiver
cumbersome to operate, especially at higher frequencies. These limitations underscored the
need for a more robust and efficient receiver architecture that could overcome these
inherent challenges.
The superheterodyne receiver, invented by Edwin Howard Armstrong during World
War I, provided a revolutionary solution to these problems. Armstrong's key innovation was
the introduction of frequency mixing to convert the received radio frequency (RF) signal to
a fixed, lower frequency known as the intermediate frequency (IF). This IF signal could then
be amplified and filtered more effectively than the original RF signal. The superheterodyne
principle fundamentally altered the landscape of radio receiver design and forms the basis
of virtually all modern radio receivers. This architecture elegantly separates the function of
tuning to a specific frequency from the processes of amplification and filtering, allowing each
to be optimized independently.
The core of the superheterodyne receiver lies in the process of frequency conversion.
This is achieved using a circuit called a local oscillator (LO) which generates a stable sine
wave at a specific, tunable frequency (fLO ). The received RF signal (fRF ) from the antenna is
then mixed with the signal from the LO in a non-linear device known as a mixer. The mixer
combines these two frequencies, producing a spectrum of signals that includes the original
frequencies, their sum (fRF + fLO), and their difference (fRF - fLO). This process of combining
two frequencies to generate others is termed heterodyning. A band-pass filter at the output
of the mixer then selects the intermediate frequency (fIF), which is typically the absolute
difference between the RF and LO frequencies: fIF = | fRF - fLO |. The other frequency
components generated by the mixing process are filtered out. The fundamental idea is to
translate any desired RF signal to the same fixed IF, allowing the receiver's main processing
stages to operate at a constant, optimized frequency. Tuning to different radio stations is

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accomplished by adjusting the frequency of the local oscillator, ensuring that its frequency
differs from the desired RF signal by the constant intermediate frequency.

Upconversion at Tx Side
The starting point is the spectrum of a real sinusoid cos2πfct at a carrier frequency fc .
This spectrum consists of two impulses, one at + fc and the other at − fc . At the Tx, this
sinusoid is mixed (i.e., multiplied) with the modulated signal v(t) as s(t)=v(t)⋅cos2π fc t
The spectrum of the modulated signal v(t) is denoted as V(F). Now time domain
multiplication is frequency domain convolution. Therefore, in frequency domain, a
convolution takes place between those two spectral impulses (arising from the cosine) and
the spectrum V(f) of the modulated signal. This convolution results in V(f) shifted to two
frequencies, namely ± fc, thus producing the passband signal S(f).
S(f)=1/2[S(f+ fc)+S(f− fc)]
This resulting signal is drawn in the first row of the figure below.

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Downconversion at Rx Side
At the Rx side, S(f) is mixed with a tunable LO with a sinusoid cos2πfLOt at frequency fLO.
x(t)=s(t)⋅cos2πfLOt=v(t)⋅cos2π fc t⋅cos2π fLO t
Using the identity 2cosAcosB = cos(A+B) + cos(A−B), these two resulting real sinusoids at
the Rx in time domain imply four impulses in frequency domain. The convolution occurs
again, this time generating the copies of V(f) at the following four frequencies.

+ fc + fLO, − fc − fLO, + fc − fLO, − fc + fLO

This principle of spectral translations through convolution with fLO is plotted in the
figure above. Since the bandpass filter at the Rx is located at the Intermediate Frequency (IF),
one of the above spectral replicas must fall at the same frequency. Assuming that this copy
is fc − fLO out of the four shown in this figure, the signal is downconverted to an IF equal to

fIF =+ fc – fLO
For a fixed fIF and variable fLO, we can capture any channel by tuning fLO according to the
above relation.

fLO = fc - fIF

Since fLO < fc, this kind of mixing is known as low side injection. The other option is
high side injection in which fLO > fc. Next, we investigate the image frequency problem in a
heterodyne Rx.

2. The Architecture of a Superheterodyne Receiver: Component by Component:

The superheterodyne receiver employs a specific set of components working in concert to
receive and process radio signals.
• The first stage is the antenna, which acts as the receiver's ear to the electromagnetic
spectrum. It intercepts the radio waves and converts their energy into a small
electrical signal. The characteristics of the antenna, such as its gain, impedance, and
frequency response, significantly influence the strength and quality of the signal
captured.
• Following the antenna, an RF amplifier is often employed, although it is considered
optional in some basic superheterodyne designs. This stage amplifies the weak
signal received by the antenna, improving the receiver's ability to detect faint or
distant transmissions. Furthermore, the RF amplifier can incorporate tuned circuits
or filters to provide initial selectivity, attenuating strong signals outside the desired
reception band. Crucially, it can also play a role in suppressing the image frequency,
an unwanted signal that will be discussed later. To ensure optimal performance,
especially for weak signals, a low-noise amplifier (LNA) is typically used at this stage
to minimize the addition of noise to the received signal.
• The heart of the superheterodyne receiver's tuning mechanism is the local
oscillator (LO). This circuit generates a stable, sinusoidal signal at a specific
frequency (fLO) that is controlled by the user. By adjusting the LO frequency, the
receiver can be tuned to different radio stations or frequencies of interest. In many

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designs, the LO's tuning is linked to the tuning of the RF stage to maintain a constant
difference frequency, the IF.5 The stability and accuracy of the LO are critical for
reliable reception; any fluctuations in its frequency can lead to signal distortion or
loss.
• The signal from the RF amplifier (or directly from the antenna) and the signal from
the LO are then fed into a mixer. This non-linear component combines the two input
frequencies and produces a range of output frequencies, including the original two,
their sum, and their difference. This process is known as heterodyning. The desired
output of the mixer is the intermediate frequency (IF), which is the absolute
difference between the received RF and the LO frequency: fIF = | fRF - fLO |.
• The IF signal is then passed through an IF amplifier. This stage provides the
majority of the receiver's amplification, boosting the IF signal to a level suitable for
detection. The IF amplifier also incorporates one or more band-pass filters centered
at the IF frequency. These filters are crucial for selecting the desired IF signal and
rejecting unwanted signals at other frequencies, including adjacent channels, thus
providing the receiver's selectivity. Because the IF is a fixed frequency, these filters
can be designed for optimal performance with specific bandwidth and selectivity
characteristics that remain constant across the receiver's tuning range. Automatic
Gain Control (AGC) is often implemented in the IF amplifier to maintain a stable
output level despite variations in the strength of the received signal.
• Following the IF amplifier, the signal is fed into a detector or demodulator. This
stage extracts the original modulation (audio, video, or data) from the IF signal. The
type of detector used depends on the modulation scheme of the transmitted signal
(e.g., envelope detector for AM, frequency discriminator for FM).
• Finally, the demodulated signal is passed to an audio amplifier (in the case of audio
receivers) or other processing circuitry. The audio amplifier increases the power of
the audio signal to drive a loudspeaker or headphones. In modern digital receivers,
the demodulated signal might undergo further digital signal processing for tasks
like filtering, equalization, or decoding.

3. Understanding the Image Frequency Problem:

While explaining the superheterodyne principle in the above figure, we made an assumption
that the whole spectrum only consists of our desired signal. In reality, the very concept of a
spectrum is based on dividing the users in frequency domain by assigning them different
frequencies, commonly known as Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). For this reason,
much of the empty spectrum here is actually occupied by other transmissions.

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The image frequency problem is an inherent characteristic of superheterodyne receivers

that arises from the frequency mixing process. The mixer, being a non-linear device,
produces a spectrum of output frequencies, including both the sum and the difference of the
input frequencies. The issue is that for any chosen intermediate frequency (fIF), there are
typically two different radio frequencies that, when mixed with the local oscillator frequency
(fLO), can produce this same IF.

If the IF is defined as the absolute difference between the received RF and the LO, i.e., fIF =
|fRF- fLO |, then while the receiver is tuned to a desired RF signal (fRF), another unwanted
signal at the image frequency (fIMAGE ) can also be downconverted to the same IF. This
occurs because the mixer cannot distinguish between two input frequencies that are
equidistant from the local oscillator frequency. As shown in the figure below.

Mathematically, the image frequency can be derived as follows:

• For high-side injection (fLO > fRF), the IF is fIF = fLO - fRF, so fRF = fLO - fIF.
The image frequency (fIMAGE) that also produces fIF when mixed with fLO is given by
fIF = fIMAGE - fLO, which leads to fIMAGE = fLO + fIF = (fRF + fIF) + fIF = fRF + 2fIF.
• For low-side injection (fLO < fRF), the IF is fIF = fRF - fLO, so fRF = fLO + fIF.
The image frequency (fIMAGE) that also produces fIF when mixed with fLO is given by
fIF = fLO - fIMAGE, which leads to fIMAGE = fLO - fIF = (fRF - fIF) - fIF = fRF – 2 fIF.

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In both scenarios, the image frequency is separated from the desired RF frequency by twice
the intermediate frequency: | fIMAGE - fRF | = 2 fIF.
The image frequency problem can be visualized using frequency spectrum diagrams. When
the desired RF signal and the local oscillator signal are mixed, they produce the IF signal.
However, if a signal at the image frequency is also present at the input of the mixer, it too
will be mixed with the local oscillator and will produce an output at the same IF frequency.
The image frequency appears as a spectral component located at a distance of 2fIF from the
desired signal, on the other side of the local oscillator frequency. Once both the desired signal
and the image signal are downconverted to the same IF, the receiver's IF amplifier and filter
will process both, leading to potential interference. Once the image frequency is in the mixer,
there is no way to remove it since it is now heterodyned into the same IF band as the desired
station.

4. The Detrimental Effects of Image Frequency on Receiver Performance:

The image frequency problem can significantly degrade the performance of a
superheterodyne receiver. One of the primary effects is interference with desired
reception. If a strong and unwanted signal is present at the image frequency, it will also be
converted down to the IF and will be processed by the receiver as if it were a signal at the
desired frequency. This can lead to the undesirable reception of another radio station or the
presence of unwanted noise and distortion in the received signal.
The presence of an image frequency signal also has a negative impact on signal quality and
the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The unwanted signal at the image frequency, when mixed
down to the IF, adds to the total signal power in the IF band. If this unwanted signal carries
different modulation or is just noise, it effectively contaminates the desired signal, making it
harder to extract the original information cleanly. This degradation in SNR can significantly
affect the clarity and fidelity of the received signal.
Furthermore, a strong signal at the image frequency can lead to a reduction in receiver
sensitivity. Even if the image frequency signal is not strong enough to directly interfere with
the demodulation process, it can still overload the receiver's front-end stages, such as the RF
amplifier or the mixer. This overload can cause intermodulation distortion and the
generation of other spurious signals within the receiver, which can mask or interfere with
the reception of weak signals at the desired frequency.
Several real-world examples illustrate the image frequency problem. In FM radio, which
typically uses an IF of 10.7 MHz, if a receiver is tuned to a station at 100 MHz (using high-
side injection, LO at 110.7 MHz), the image frequency would be at 100 MHz + 2 * 10.7 MHz =
121.4 MHz. If a strong signal were present at 121.4 MHz, it could interfere with the reception
of the desired 100 MHz station. Similarly, in the AM broadcast band with an IF of 455 kHz, a
receiver tuned to 600 kHz (LO at 1055 kHz) could also receive an image at 1510 kHz if a
strong signal is present there. Older radio scanners have also been known to suffer from
image frequency reception, where signals from one frequency band appear in another due
to the mixing process. These examples highlight that the image frequency problem is a
practical concern that can affect various types of radio receivers.

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5. Strategies and Techniques for Mitigating Image Frequency Interference:

Several techniques are employed in superheterodyne receiver design to mitigate the effects
of image frequency interference. One of the most common methods is the use of image reject
filters, also known as preselectors, placed between the antenna (or RF amplifier) and the
mixer. These band-pass filters are designed to allow the desired RF signal to pass through
with minimal attenuation while significantly attenuating signals at the image frequency.1
Ideally, the filter's passband should cover the desired reception band, and its stopband
should effectively reject the image frequency band. To remain effective across the receiver's
entire tuning range, these filters often need to be tunable, with their tuning linked to that of
the local oscillator.

A superheterodyne receiver works in the following stages.

§ An RF preselection filter serves the purpose of removing out of band signal energy as
well as partially suppressing the signal located at the image frequency.
§ The signal is subsequently amplified by a Low Noise Amplifier (LNA).
§ Next, the image frequency signal is cleaned up by an Image Reject (IR) filter. Whether
the IR filter is fixed or tunable depends on the band of desired signals that determines
where the image frequencies are located. In any case, the requirements on an IR filter
are much relaxer than the TRF Rx since its only purpose is to filter out the image signal
(as opposed to filtering out everything around the desired band) and the image
frequencies lie away from the center frequency. This results in a large transition
bandwidth and low cost for the IR filter.
§ The signal at the IR filter output is multiplied or mixed with the output of a tunable
Local Oscillator (LO) to downconvert the desired band to a fixed Intermediate
Frequency (IF).
§ Eventually the output can be shifted directly to baseband from here or further
downconverted to lower IFs before final demodulation. If another stage of
downconversion is utilized, such an architecture is known as a dual-IF receiver.

At this stage, it is imperative to have a look at the output signals at various stages during this
process to get an insight into the design of an IR filter. This is illustrated in the figure below
in which the difference between the transition bands of the IR filter and the fixed BPF is of
particular note.

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We have seen in equation fIMAGE = fRF – 2 fIF that the desired signal and the image signal are
separated by twice the IF.

§ Recalling that a larger transition bandwidth puts relaxer constraints on a filter, it is

attractive to choose a high IF so that the frequency spacing between the desired signal
and the image signal is as large as possible. This is shown by the top arrows and a
wide IR filter in the above figure.
§ On the other hand, a low IF allows utilization of high-quality channel select filters with
better selectivity or out-of-band rejection.

Consequently, the choice of IF depends on the tradeoff between image rejection and channel
selection qualities. Since the image falls directly over the intended channel, it deteriorates
the sensitivity of the Rx. This then translates into the more familiar sensitivity-selectivity
tradeoff in a communication receiver.

Another powerful technique for improving image rejection is the use of double conversion
superheterodyne receivers, as shown in the figure below. These receivers employ two
stages of frequency conversion. The first intermediate frequency (IF1) is typically chosen to
be relatively high. A higher IF1 results in a greater frequency separation between the desired
RF signal and its image frequency (fIMAGE = fRF – 2 fIF1), making it easier to design a preselector
filter that effectively attenuates the image before the first mixing stage. The signal is then

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mixed down again to a lower second intermediate frequency (IF2), which allows for the use
of high-Q filters with narrow bandwidth, providing excellent selectivity for rejecting adjacent
channel interference. While double conversion adds complexity and cost, it significantly
improves image rejection compared to single conversion receivers.

Beyond filtering and multiple conversion, other advanced techniques are also employed for
image rejection. Image rejection mixers utilize a combination of two mixers and phase-
shifting networks to selectively suppress either the sum or the difference frequency output,
effectively canceling the image frequency. In modern receivers, particularly software-
defined radios (SDRs), quadrature mixers and digital signal processing (DSP) techniques
are increasingly used. These methods downconvert the RF signal to a low IF or directly to
baseband using in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q) components. Sophisticated digital
algorithms can then be applied to the I and Q signals to effectively cancel out the image
frequency. These advanced techniques often allow for high levels of image rejection without
the need for bulky external filters.

6. Visualizing the Architecture and the Origin of Image Frequency:

The architecture of a superheterodyne receiver can be effectively visualized using a block
diagram. A typical single-conversion superheterodyne receiver consists of the following key
stages in sequence: an antenna to receive the radio signal, an optional RF amplifier to boost
the signal, a local oscillator to generate a mixing frequency, a mixer to combine the RF signal
and the LO signal, an IF filter to select the intermediate frequency, an IF amplifier to increase
the IF signal strength, a detector or demodulator to extract the original information, and
finally an audio amplifier (or other processing) to make the information usable.
The image frequency problem arises specifically at the mixer stage. Both the desired RF
signal and the unwanted image frequency signal, if present, enter the mixer. When mixed
with the local oscillator, both of these input frequencies can produce an output at the
intermediate frequency.
The process of frequency transformation can be visualized using frequency domain plots. At
the antenna, the spectrum might show the desired signal at fRF and an interfering signal at
the image frequency fIMAGE . The local oscillator generates a signal at fLO . When these signals
are mixed, the output spectrum contains components at fLO ± fRF and fLO ± fIMAGE. If fIF = | fRF -
fLO |, then it is also true that fIF = | fIMAGE - fLO |. Thus, both the desired and the image signals
are translated to the same IF frequency. The IF filter that follows the mixer is designed to

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pass signals within a narrow band around fIF, so both the desired signal and the image signal
(if not suppressed earlier) will pass through to the IF amplifier. An image reject filter placed
before the mixer would ideally attenuate the component at fIMAGE, preventing it from being
downconverted to the IF and causing interference.

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