Year 11 Units 1 & 2 Human Biology

CELLS
Syllabus Statements
• Cells and tissues
• The human body is comprised of cells, tissues and organs within complex
systems that work together to maintain life
• Cell organelles maintain life processes and require the input of materials
and the removal of wastes to support efficient functioning of the cell
• The cell membrane separates the cell from its surroundings with a structure,
described by the fluid mosaic model, which allows for the movement of
materials into and out of the cell by diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis,
active transport and vesicular transport (endocytosis/exocytosis)
• Factors affecting the exchange of materials across the cell membrane
include surface area to volume ratio, concentration gradients, and the
physical and chemical nature of the materials being exchanged
• The various tissues of the human body perform specific functions and can be
categorised into four basic tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscular and
nervous
The Cell Theory

• The idea that all living things are composed of

cells developed over many years and is
strongly linked to the invention and
refinement of the microscope.

• Three main principles

• All living things are made up of one or
more cell.
• Cells are the basic unit of life.
• Cells come from other cells
LEVELS OF
ORGANISATION
 Stable environment.

Supply of nutrients, gases and other materials.

Cell Removal of wastes and other materials.

Requirements
Continual exchange of materials between the
cell and the extracellular fluid.

Oxygen for respiration.

Cells are made up
of the following
• Cell membrane: Surrounds and forms the outer
boundary

• Cytoplasm: Fluid within and organelles

• Cytosol: Liquid part of the cell

• Organelles: Structures within the cell that carry out

particular functions

• Cytoskeleton: internal scaffolding of protein fibres

within the cell
• Inclusions: Chemical substances within the cell
(granules or liquid droplets)
 CELL
STRUCTURE & FUNCTION
 Task) add notes from
CHPT 2 pg 27 (inside
green boxes) AND extra
notes from this PP.
CYTOPLASM
CYTOSOL
Structure
• The cytosol is the fluid component of the cytoplasm
• gel-like substance containing 75-90% water, ions, and various
molecules like proteins and small molecules.

Function:
• serves as the medium in which many chemical reactions occur
(e.g., glycolysis)
• Helps transport materials between organelles
• provides a solution for the dissolved ions and nutrients that are
used by the cell
CYSTOSKELETON
STRUCTURE

• is a network of protein filaments

• provide structural support to the cell
• located throughout the cytoplasm and is composed of three main types of filaments:

Microtubules: Hollow tubes that help with cell shape, organelle movement, and cell division.
Intermediate filaments: Provide mechanical support and maintain the cell's shape.
Actin filaments: Involved in cell movement, shape changes, and muscle contraction.

FUNCTION
• Helps cell maintain shape
• provides structural support & facilitates intracellular transport,
• essential for cell division and cell movement.
Cytoplasm: The entire area inside the cell, including the
cytosol, organelles, and cytoskeleton.

Cytosol: The fluid component of the cytoplasm, where

biochemical reactions occur.

Cytoskeleton: The protein network that gives the cell its

shape, structure, and aids in movement and division.
Cell Membrane
STRUCTURE
• Outer boundary of cell , separates
• adjacent cells
• Made of a phospholipid bilayer
• embedded proteins (integral and
peripheral), cholesterol, and glycoproteins.

FUNCTION
Selective permeability: Controls the
movement of substances in and out of the cell
via certain mechanisms:
- Diffusion
- Osmosis
- facilitated diffusion
- active transport.
 NUCLEUR MEMBRANE

Nucleus STRUCTURE
• Double membrane, contains pores
& Nucleolus FUNCTION
• allows selective passage of materials

NUCLEUS
STRUCTURE
• Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear membrane
FUNCTION
• houses the DNA, which is responsible for storing genetic information and
guiding cell activities like growth, reproduction, and repair.
• Transcription (the process of copying DNA into RNA) occurs here before
the RNA moves to the cytoplasm for translation (protein synthesis).

NUCLEOLUS
STRUCTURE
• Located within the nucleus
FUNCTION
• synthesizes rRNA and assembles ribosome subunits.
 STRUCTURE
• float freely in cytoplasm
• or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (forming the
rough ER

Ribosomes FUNCTION
• responsible for protein synthesis.
• read messenger RNA (mRNA) and translate it into amino
acid chains, forming proteins.
• They are essential for cellular function, growth, and repair

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 Ribosomes Role
Inside nucleus→ DNA contains full set of
instructions (genes) for making proteins….can’t
exit

Passing instructions → DNA makes copy of

code → mRNA form (Process=transcription)

Transcription → DNA "unzips" → strand is used

to create a complementary mRNA strand.

mRNA leaves nucleus → nuclear pores →

cytoplasm → ribosomes located. Ribosome
will use the mRNA to build a protein.
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
(ER)
- Rough ER
- Smooth ER
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Rough ER (Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum) Smooth ER (Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum)

Structure: Structure:
• network of membrane-bound sacs, studded with • tubular network of membranes (no ribosomes)
ribosomes (on cytoplasmic side).
Function:
Function: • involved in lipid synthesis, including phospholipids
• responsible for protein (important for membrane structure) and steroid
synthesis and modification. hormones.
• detoxification, especially in liver cells where it
Ribosomes on its surface synthesize proteins that breaks down toxic substances like alcohol or drugs.
are either • storage and release of calcium ions, which is
- secreted from the cell important for muscle contraction and other cellular
signalling processes.
- incorporated into the cell membrane
- sent to an organelle called the Golgi
apparatus for further modification.
• involved in the folding and quality control of
proteins.
Golgi Apparatus
(Packaging and Shipping Centre)
Golgi Apparatus
(Packaging and Shipping Center)

Structure:
• series of flattened, membrane-bound sacs
(cisternae).
• closely connected to rough ER & receives
proteins/lipids from it.

Function:
• responsible for modifying, sorting,
and packaging proteins and lipids for
transport.
• It also produces lysosomes, which are
involved in the breakdown of cellular waste.
• It adds carbohydrate tags to proteins
(glycosylation) to help them reach their
destinations.
Lysosomes
Structure:
• small, spherical membrane-bound organelles
containing digestive enzymes.

Function:
• break down/digest waste materials, cellular debris, and foreign
substances (e.g., bacteria).
• key role in autophagy → process where the cell degrades its own
components for recycling.
• fuse with vacuoles to digest material engulfed by the cell.
 Mitochondria (Powerhouses of the Cell)
Structure:
• oval-shaped, double-membraned organelles.
Inner membrane → highly folded structures i.e cristae
• Contain own DNA and can replicate independently of the cell

Function:
• sites of cellular respiration, process converts glucose and
oxygen into ATP(adenosine triphosphate) primary energy
carrier in the cell.
• ATP produced by mitochondria powers various cellular
processes including
-muscle contraction
-protein synthesis
-and active transport.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
Cell Membrane & Movement
How Substances Get Into and Out of The Cell
• Each cell is surrounded by a cell/plasma membrane
• Extremely thin
• The cell membrane is selectively permeable
• It allows some substances to cross.
• The model for the cell membrane is known as the fluid mosaic
model.
 Fluid Mosaic Model

• Fluid because the molecules

are constantly moving.
• Mosaic because it is made
up of many different
molecules.
Cell Membrane

The membrane is made of

phospholipid molecules in a double
layer
→ phospholipid bilayer

2 parts:
• Hydrophilic (water loving)
head
• Hydrophobic (water hating)
tail
**Head on the outside, tail on the
inside
Cholesterol
• Embedded in the bilayer.
• Cholesterol molecules
regulate the fluidity of the
cell membrane which is
necessary for the cell to
retain it's shape.
• Are attracted to each other
providing strength when
required.
Membrane Proteins

Receptor proteins
• Receptors bind to
signalling molecules.
Determine cell response.
• Growth, hormone
release, etc.
Channel proteins
• Simple diffusion
Carrier proteins
• Facilitated diffusion and
active transport
Cell identity markers
Functions of • Physical barrier
• Separates cytoplasm
• Sensitivity
• The cell membrane
and extracellular fluid.
the Cell
is the first part of
• Important as cytoplasm the cell to be
and extracellular fluid affected by change
Membrane have very different
composition.
in extracellular
fluid.
• Receptors are
• Regulation of the passage of sensitive to
materials molecules in ECF.
• Semi-permeable
membrane controls the • Support
movement of
substances into and • Cytoskeleton
out of cell. attached to the cell
• Water, Oxygen, Carbon membrane.
Dioxide, Glucose.
Transport Across the Cell Membrane
Transport processes are either:

Passive transport
• No energy required

Active transport
• Uses energy (ATP)
Transport
Processes
1. Diffusion
• Passive
• Spreading of particles so that they are evenly
distributed
• Osmosis – water diffusion

2. Carrier-mediated transport
• Passive or active
• Channel or Carrier Proteins required

3. Vesicular transport
• Active
• Transport in membrane bound sacks
Diffusion

• Sspreading of particles (liquid or gas) until they are

evenly distributed over available space.
• Results from the random motion of atoms and
molecules due to their kinetic energy.
• As they move, they hit each other and bounce away.
• Molecules moving away from a concentrated area
stay in straight lines longer and therefore move further
away.
• The random movement continues even when evenly
spread.
Diffusion

• When the concentration of a substance is

different at two places, the substance will
diffuse along the concentration gradient until
the concentration of the two areas becomes
equal.
Diffusion
• Alcohol, steroids and other fat
soluble substances enter the cell via
diffusion.
• Oxygen diffuses with the
concentration gradient into the cell
and is used in cellular respiration.
• Carbon dioxide diffuses with the
concentration out of the cell.

35
 Concentration Concentration
at A at B
1
Diffusion
High gradient
concentration
Low
concentration

Equilibrium
3
Uniform
concentration
Osmosis
• Diffusion of a solvent (water) through a differentially permeable membrane.
• Moves from a region of high solvent concentration to low concentration/low solute
concentration to high.
• Where there is more solute there will be less solvent.
• Passive process
• Glucose and ions such as sodium unable to enter through diffusion.
• Water can fit between lipid tails or through protein channels.
Protein Channels

• Water soluble molecules like certain

drugs and vitamins are repelled by
the hydrophobic inner portion of the
cell membrane.
• Protein channels provide a pathway
for these hydrophilic substances to
pass into the cell.
• Large molecules cant fit through the
protein channels.

39
Facilitated Transport

• Proteins in the cell membrane allow

molecules to be transported across
the membrane.
• Channel proteins act like pores to
allow substances like water, ions and
glucose.
• Carrier proteins are involved in carrier
mediated transport. Sodium
Potassium pump.

40
Carrier Proteins

• Carrier Proteins in the cell membrane that are

only open to one side of the membrane at a time
bind to protein molecules to be transported
across the membrane.
• When the specific substance binds to the binding
site the protein changes shape, opens to other
side of membrane and releases the substance.

Characteristics:
• Specific – only bind to a particular molecule
• Can become saturated – if no free carrier
molecules, no more will be transported
• Regulated by substances such as hormones
Carrier Mediated Transport

1. Facilitated diffusion
• Passive process using proteins –
from high to low
• Examples: glucose & amino acids

2. Active transport
• Requires energy – against the
concentration gradient (from low to
high)
• Does not rely on concentration
gradient,
• Example: membrane pumps
Active Transport (sodium pump)

• Diagram created by LadyofHats

VESICULAR TRANSPORT
Vesicular Transport
• Movement of substances using vesicles
• Active process

Endocytosis = things entering the cell

• Phagocytosis = cell eating (take in
solids)
• Pinocytosis = cell drinking (take in
water)

Exocytosis = things leaving the cell

Endocytosis

• Cell membrane folds around a

droplet.
• Vesicle is formed and pinched off
when droplet is completely enclosed.
• Vesicle is suspended in the
cytoplasm of the cell.

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Exocytosis

• Vesicle is formed inside the cell.

• Migrates the to the cell membrane
and fuses with it.
• Contents of the vesicle are then
pushed out into the extracellular
fluid.

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Transport Within Cell

• Substances within cell mostly move via diffusion.

• Think about oxygen and the mitochondria.
• Endoplasmic reticulum transports substances like proteins to the Golgi
Body.
• Microtubules act like railway tracks guiding organelles and molecules
within cell.

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To be uploaded…SLIDE 49-70