7.

0 PHOTOGRAMMETRY

Introduction to Photogrammetry:
• The branch of surveying in which maps are prepared from photographs taken from ground or
air stations is known as photogrammetry or photogrammetric surveying.
• The art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and
the environment through process of recording, measuring, and interpreting photographic
images and patterns of recorded radiant electromagnetic energy and phenomenon.
• Originally, photogrammetry was considered as the science of analyzing only photographs.
• This survey is carried out, with an advancement of photogrammetric techniques, for the
construction of planimetric and topographic maps, classification of soil, interpretation of
geology and geological data and preparation of composite picture of the ground.
• In 1859, Frenchman colonel A. Laussedat took photographs with a photo-theodolite and
exhibited (showed) a plan of Paris prepared by photographic survey in 1867.
• The first aerial photographs taken from an aeroplane were made on 24th April, 1909 by Willer
Wright over Italy.
• In 1915, Oscar Messter built the first aerial camera in Germany and J. W. Bogloyad A. Brock
manufactured the first aerial camera in USA.

Principle of Photogrammetry:
• The principle of photogrammetric surveying in its simplest form is very similar to that of the
plane table survey. The only the difference is that the most of the work in plane table survey
is executed in the field, but in case of photogrammetric survey, most of the work is done in
the office.
• The principal point of each photograph is used as a fixed station in plane table survey and
rays are drawn to get the points of intersection very similar to those used in plane table.

Merits (or suitability) of Photogrammetric Surveying:

1. Photogrammerty is suitable for topographical or engineering surveys and also for those
projects demanding higher accuracy.
2. It is most suitable for mountainous and hilly terrain with little vegetation.
3. Less time required.

Limitations (or unsuitability) of Photogrammetric Surveying:

1. It is unsuitable for dense forest and flat-sands due to the great difficulty of identifying the
points on the pair of photographs.
2. It is also unsuitable for flat terrain where contours are required because of the difficulty of
interpretation of contours in the absence of spirit leveled heights.

Advantages of Photogrammetry:

• It provides a permanent photographic record of conditions that existed at the time the aerial
photographs were taken.
• If information has to be re-surveyed or re-evaluated, it is not necessary to perform expensive
field work. The same photographs can be measured again, and new information can be

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 compiled in a very timely fashion. Missing information, such as inadequate offsets for cross
sections, can be remedied easily.
• It can provide a large-mapped area so alternate line studies can be made with the same data
source can be performed more efficiently and economically then other conventional methods.
• It provides a broad view of the project area, identifying both topographic and cultural
features.
• It can be used in locations that are difficult, unsafe, or impossible to access. Photogrammetry
is an ideal surveying method for toxic areas where field work may compromise the safety of
the surveying crew.
• The road surveys can be done without closing lanes, disturbing traffic or endangering the
field crew. Once a road is photographed, measurement of road features, including elevation
data, is done in the office, not in the field.
• Intervisibility between points and unnecessary surveys to extend control to a remote area of a
project are not required. The coordinates of every point in the mapping area can be
determined with no extra effort or cost.
• The aerial photographs can be used to convey or describe information to the public, State and
Federal agencies, and other divisions.

Disadvantages of Photogrammetry:

• Weather conditions (winds, clouds, haze etc.) affect the aerial photography process and the
quality of the images.
• Seasonal conditions affect the aerial photographs, i.e., snow cover will obliterate the targets
and give a false ground impression.
• Hidden grounds caused by man-made objects, such as an overpass and a roof, cannot be
mapped with photogrammetry. Hidden ground problems can be caused by tree canopy, dense
vegetation, or by rugged terrain with sharp slopes.
• The accuracy of the mapping contours and cross sections depends on flight height and the
accuracy of the field survey.

Photographs:
o Depending upon the positions of the camera at the time exposure, the photographs may be
broadly divided into two types:
1. Terrestrial photographs
2. Aerial photographs

1. Terrestrial photographs:
o The photographs which are taken with photo-theodolites from camera stations on the
ground and keeping the axis of the camera horizontal or nearly horizontal are called
terrestrial photographs.
o These photographs are generally used for the survey of structures and architectural or
archeological monuments because it represents more familiar elevation views.

2. Aerial photographs:
o The photographs which are taken from camera stations in the air with the axis of the
camera vertical or nearly vertical are called aerial photographs.
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 o According to the direction of the camera axis at the time of the exposure, the aerial
photographs are further divided into the following main classes:
a. Vertical photographs:
These photographs are taken from the air with the axis of the camera vertical or
nearly vertical.
A truly vertical photographs closely resemble (look like) a map.
These are used for the compilation of topographical and engineering surveys on
various scales.

b. Oblique photographs:
These photographs are taken from the air with the axis of the camera intentionally
tilted from the vertical.
An oblique photograph covers larger area of the ground but clarity of details
diminishes towards the far end of the photographs.
These are rare used nowadays.
Depending upon the angle of obliquity, it may be further divided into two
categories:
i. Low oblique photograph
ii. High oblique photograph

c. Convergent photographs:
The low oblique photographs taken with two cameras exposed simultaneously at
successive exposure station are called convergent photographs.

d. Trimetrogen photographs:
A combination of vertical and low oblique photographs exposed simultaneously
from the air station from two cameras is called trimetrogen photographs.

Terrestrial photogrammetry:
o Terrestrial photogrammetry is that branch of photogrammetry wherein photographs are taken
from a fixed position on or near the ground carried out by using a photo-theodolite.
o The following are the different parts of photo-theodolites:
a. A camera
b. A vertical frame inside the camera box
c. A straight transparent celluloid tangent scale
d. A circular magnetic compass
e. A telescope
f. A graduated horizontal circle
g. A leveling head
h. A tripod

o The terrestrial photogrammetry may be divided into two branches:

• Plane table photogrammetry
• Terrestrial stereo-photogrammetry

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 i. Plane table photogrammetry consists of taking a photograph of the area to be mapped
from each of the two or three stations.
ii. Terrestrial stereo-photogrammetry consists of taking a photograph providing stereoscopic
views of surface features in pairs. The stereo–photographs are viewed through either a
stereo–comparator or stereoscope.

Aerial photogrammetry:
o Aerial photogrammetry is that branch of photogrammetry wherein the photographs are taken
by a camera mounted in an aircraft flying over the area.
o Mapping of the large areas from aerial photograph is the best mapping procedure for large
areas and it is faster and cheaper than other one.
o With the aerial photographs, more complete and accurate topographic maps can be prepared
on various scales ranging from 1:500 to 1: 10,00,000. Contours can be accurately surveyed
up to 50 cm vertical interval.
o Aerial photogrammetry consists of four stages:
a. Air flights:
i. Planning for flights: include-
• Marking of each run on the flight map
• Computing the flying height of the aircraft
• Determining the number of linear distances of flying
• Determining the exposure intervals & number of exposures in each run
• Making a choice of proper aircraft with due regard to its ceiling height, type of
camera & scale of photographs.

ii. Design of photographic coverage: decided on the following factors-

• Scale of photography
• Type of camera lens
• Percentage of overlap
• Topography of terrain
• Scale of the final map
• Contour interval of the finished map
• Achievable accuracy by the available instruments
b. Photography:
• Use a suitable camera fitted in aircraft with air survey camera (fully automatic and
carry long roll films)
• Aerial survey camera consists of:
o Lens assembly
o Camera cone
o Focal plane
o Camera body
o Drive mechanism
o Magazine
c. Ground control
d. Photographic compilation

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Geometry of Aerial photograph:
The geometry of aerial photography refers to the measurement of different aspects of objects on
an aerial photograph.

Some important technical terms used in aerial surveying:

1. Air station or exposure station
• The exact position of the front nodal point of the lens in the air at the instant of exposure
2. Flying height
• The elevation of the air station above MSL
3. Line of flight
• The line which represents the track of an aircraft on an existing map
4. Focal length
• The distance from the front nodal point of the lens to the plane of the photograph
5. Photo Nadir point or Photo Plumb point
• The point where a plumb line dropped from the front nodal point strikes the photograph
• It defines the location of the ground point vertically beneath the air station
6. Ground Nadir point or Ground Plumb point
• The point on the ground vertically beneath the station of exposure
7. Focal plane or film plane
• The surface in the camera on which the captured photo is imprinted.
• It is also known as the negative or focal plane.
8. Optical axis
• Optical axis is the line joining the center of the film plane with the center of the lens of
the camera and touches the ground plane.
• The angle of the optical axis in relation to ground determines the shape of the objects in
the aerial photographs.
9. Altitude above ground level (AGL)
• The distance between ground plane and the film plane
10. Scale of aerial photograph
• The scale of an aerial photo is the proportion of distance between two points on an aerial
photo (Dp) and the actual distance between the same two points on the ground (Dg).
Scale of Aerial Photograph = Dp/Dg.

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11. Orientation of aerial photograph
• The angle of camera in relation to ground plane determines the orientation and shape of
objects in the aerial photography.
12. Projection of aerial photograph
• The aerial camera uses central projection for capturing photographs.

Scale of a vertical photograph:

Let, N be the perspective centre.

H be the flying height of the camera.
B be the top of a hill of height h above MSL.
V be the ground plumb point or nadir point.
b be the image of the top B on the photograph.
v be the plumb point of the photograph.
f be the focal length of the camera.

Draw BK ⊥ NV meeting at K.
Now, from similar ∆s Nvb and NKB, we get
vb Nv f
= =
KB NK H − h
f
:. Scale of the photograph = ------------------------- (1)
H −h

o If the terrain is perfectly plane at MSL, the scale of the photograph is f/H and it is generally
known as datum scale.
o If the average height of terrain is substituted in equation (1), the scale is called average scale.
o The scale obtained from equation (1) is true for the points of elevation above datum and such
scale is called point scale.
o The scale of the photographs varies according to the elevation and hence it is not constant.

Flight Planning
• The following considerations are kept in mind while designing the air flights:
i. Lay out of the area
ii. Photo scale
iii. Flying height
iv. Overlap

Flying Height
• The flying height of the camera depends on the scale of the photography.
• It is calculated from the following formula:
f
Scale of the photograph =
H −h
From this formula, flying height H can be calculated.

Overlap:
o The following overlaps are generally provided for taking photographs:
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 i. Normal longitudinal or forward overlap: at least 50% but normally 60% or more along the
flight line.
ii. Lateral overlap: at least 20% between the adjacent strips
o In mountainous terrain, overlaps run short i.e. at least 30% due to height distortion and it is
always preferred to increase the overlaps to avoid re-photography of the area.

Fig.: A flight line Fig.: Overlaps

Displacement of Photo image due to height:

Let, N be the camera station.
AB be the hill
f be the focal length of camera
h be the height of the hill above MSL
H be the flying height of the camera
r be the radial distance of the top image from the plumb point
D be the horizontal distance of A from plumb point V.

The perspective rays from A and B will appear on the photographic plane at a and b respectively.
The displacement ab of the image of point B w.r.t. the image of the point A is known as height
displacement and is given by:
ab =
Determination of the Height of the Towers and Pillars:
Let, S be the scale of the photograph
f be the focal length of camera
x be the height displacement of the tower = ab
h be the height of the tower above assumed datum
H be the flying height of the camera above assumed datum

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 r be the radial distance of the top image of the tower
then,
ab =

x=

From this, h can be calculated.

Determination of Horizontal Distance between points of different elevations from a Vertical

Photograph:
Assumption:
The photographic axes coincide the ground coordinate axes and the origin of the ground
coordinate, is vertically beneath the exposure station i.e. ground plumb point.
Let, a and b be the photo images of the stations A and B
(xa, ya) and (xb, yb) be the photographic coordinates of A and B
(Xa, Ya) and (Xb, Yb) be the ground coordinates of A and B
ha, hb be the elevations of the points A and B
f be the focal length of camera lens
H be the flying height of the camera above assumed datum

Then, ground coordinates of A is:

Xa = .xa and Ya = .ya

Similarly, ground coordinates of B is:

Xb = .xb and Yb = .yb

Hence, distance between points A and B is:
D = √((Xa - Xb)2 + (Ya – Yb)2)

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 Relief Displacement on a vertical photograph:
o If the photograph is truly vertical and the ground is horizontal, the scale of the photograph
will be uniform if other sources of errors are neglected. Such a photograph represents a true
orthographic projection i.e. true map of the terrain.
o When the ground is not horizontal, the scale of the photograph varies from point to point and
the photograph is the perspective view and also the ground relief is shown in perspective on
the photograph. Every point on the photograph is displaced from their true orthographic
projection and this displacement is called relief displacement.

Height of an object from Relief Displacement:

A. Calculation of relief displacement:

o Considering the figure below, which shows a vertical section through the photograph of
ground points K.

Let,
r = radial distance of a from K
ro = radial distance of ao from K
R = Ko Ao
f = focal length of camera

Then, from similar triangles,

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 f r
=
H −h R
R. f
r= (1)
H −h
Also ,
f r
= o
H R
R. f
 ro = (2)
H
Hence, relief displacement d is given by
Rf R. f
d = r − ro = −
H −h H
R. fh
d = (3)
H ( H − h)
but, from (1) and (2)
r ( H − h) ro H
R= =
f f

Substituting the value of R in (3)

r ( H − h) fh
d= .
f H ( H − h)

rh
d=
H (4)

Also,
ro H fh
d= .
f H ( H − h)
rh
d = o (5)
H −h

B. Calculation of height of object from relief displacement:

o If the scale of photograph S is known, the equation (4) can be used to determine the
height of any object. From the relation, H can be determined.
f
S= -------------------------------- (6)
H
Knowing H and measuring d and r, the height h is calculated equation.
d .H
h=
r

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Stereoscope:
o The instrument used for viewing stereo-pairs is called stereoscope.
o There are two types of stereoscopes used for viewing the aerial photographs:
i. Lens stereoscope
ii. Mirror stereoscope

v. Lens stereoscope:
It consists of two single convex lenses of focal length of 250 mm mounted on a frame.
The distance between the two lenses is kept generally 65 mm which is equal to the normal
eye base. In adjustable stereoscope, eye base can be adjusted from 58 mm to 72 mm.
It is best suited only for small photographs.

Fig.: Lens Stereoscope

ii. Mirror stereoscope:

Two pairs of plane mirrors inclined 450 to the plane of photographs with their reflecting
surface facing each other and two convex lenses are the main components of a mirror
stereoscope.
Mirror stereoscopes are generally provided with binoculars with 4 to 6 times
magnification.
These are usually used for continuous viewing of large photographs.

Photo Interpretation:
o The art of examining photographic image for the purpose of identifying objects and to
evaluate their significance is known as photo-interpretation.
o It is extensively used by surveyors, civil engineers, architects, geologists and country town
planners.
o Photographs for photo-interpretation may be taken either from air or from the ground.
o With the help of permanent photographic images, the interpreter studies the area thoroughly.
o Photo-interpretation is preferred to for the following reasons:

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 i. The interpreter can examine larger areas in great details in a shorter time without
visiting the ground and facing weather condition.
ii. It saves a lot of time as no visit to the area is required during preliminary examinations.
iii. The result of photo-interpretation to aerial photographs are more reliable and accurate,
because aerial photographs are free from human errors.
iv. The results compiled by junior staff are easily checked independently by the senior and
experienced officers at any time.
v. It is more economical as no field work is involved.

Characteristics of photographic images:

o The following characteristics of photographic images are useful identifying the objects:
i. shape
ii. size
iii. shadow
iv. Tone and colour
v. texture
vi. pattern

Instrument required for photo interpretation:

iii. For aerial photo-interpretation, the following instruments are required:
i. Stereoscope
ii. A grease or china marking pencil for drawing on the photographs
iii. A plastic rule mm division for measuring the distances on the photographs
iv. A parallax bar or stereo-meter for measuring the parallaxes to determine the relative
height difference and the slope of the objects.

Surveying using UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle):

• An UAV survey is the use of drones or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) equipped with
RGB cameras, multispectral cameras, or LiDAR payloads to collect data and then this data is
transmitted to special equipment on the ground near the UAV operator.
• The result of drone land surveying is a finished map of detail at a given scale, presented in
digital format.
• Even the most beginner user knows that drones can be used for photography. The availability
of unmanned aerial photography has led to its use in many sectors and produced incredible
images.
• The accuracy of drone surveying depends on the performance of the UAV, the quality of the
camera, weather factors, flight altitude, etc.
• Generally, drone maps produced using quality UAV equipment, careful flight planning,
commercial-grade GPS ground control points, and commercial-grade processing software
have the potential to be accurate to about 2-3 cm horizontally and 5-6 cm vertically.
• Drone surveying saves valuable time for land surveyors, allowing safer working conditions,
better data, and more accurate 3D models.
• There are some limitations and potential complications to using drones for aerial
surveying:

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 o Drones do not cope well with high winds. Drones are lightweight and small, so they
can easily be deflected by high winds, preventing them from obtaining accurate
results.
o Drones can be easily hijacked or manipulated. It is similar to hacking a computer in
that hackers can intercept signals from a mile away to establish a connection with
your drone so they can manipulate the gadget.
o Drones must be flown by someone trained in drone operations to obtain images and
data in a safe and efficient manner; this increases the cost of using drones.
o Ever-changing drone laws. There is a range of regulations when it comes to the use of
drones. According to FAA guidelines and regulations, drones cannot be flown over
military bases, near airports, or in overpopulated and crowded areas.

Introduction to UAV:
• Any aircraft or flying machine operated without a human pilot is called an unmanned aerial
vehicle (UAV).
• It can be guided autonomously or remotely by a human operator using onboard computers
and robots.
• During surveillance or military operation, UAVs can be a part of an unmanned aircraft
system (UAS), Drones are separately for air and water
• Drones have become increasingly popular in recent years. They are used for a variety of
purposes, including photography, videography, surveying, inspection, and even delivery.
• Surveying drones can fly at much lower altitudes than traditional techniques like manned
aircraft or satellites, providing high-resolution, high-precision images faster and cheaper, and
independent of weather conditions such as cloud cover.
• The design of drone for a particular application comprises many factors like
the aerodynamic shape of propellors, strength and weight of drone parts, electric motor,
electric speed controller, radio transmitter or receiver, and software interface on mobile or
computer for monitoring and data analysis.

Application of UAV in civil engineering:

1. Site inspections: Drones equipped with high-resolution cameras can provide detailed aerial
images of construction sites, allowing project managers to monitor progress and identify
potential issues. This can help with project planning, risk management, and quality control.
2. Surveying and mapping: Drones can be used to create accurate 3D maps and models of
construction sites, which can be used for surveying and planning purposes. This can save
time and money compared to traditional surveying methods.

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3. Monitoring and tracking: Drones can be used to track materials, equipment, and personnel on
construction sites, which can help improve logistics and resource management.
4. Safety inspections: Drones can be used to inspect hard-to-reach areas of construction sites,
such as roofs and high-rise structures, which can help identify potential safety hazards. They
can provide high-resolution images and videos to identify structural issues, cracks, and other
defects. This technology can improve safety and reduce the need for costly scaffolding and
crane setups.
5. Progress reporting: Drones can be used to create time-lapse videos and progress reports,
which can be shared with stakeholders and investors to provide an overview of the project.
6. Safety and Security: Drones can be equipped with sensors and cameras to monitor
construction sites for safety hazards, such as unsecured materials or personnel working in
hazardous areas. They can also be used to detect unauthorized access to the construction site,
improving security.
7. Infrastructure planning: Site analysis, planning and design; asset mapping and monitoring,
3D modelling and extraction of features
8. Disaster management:
Pre-disaster – hazard and exposure mapping, risk management
Post-disaster - Mapping and monitoring the extent of disasters
- Situational awareness for emergency response coordination
- Search and rescue operations
- Damage mapping for insurance industries for assessing the insurance claims

9. Traffic management

10. Wildlife observation and monitoring

11. Railway Corridor, Roads, and Power Line monitoring

12. Defense application etc.

Components of UAV:
• The basic components of a drone or UAV are:
1. Frame
2. Battery: Low weight and high-power wattage battery
3. Flight controller
4. Sensor: transmitter and receiver for radio signals
5. Motor
6. Propellers or blades: aerodynamic shape
7. Software-based interface: data collection, monitoring and analysis using mobile or
computer

How does Drone mapping work?

• Like satellite imagery, drones survey photos taken from the air or from a controlled altitude.
Equipped with cameras of different capabilities, drones can produce high-resolution images.

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• When taking photos, the operator must check the maintenance and calibration of the drone.
The drone mapping software then analyzes the photos taken by the drone, aligns and
calibrates them, and creates a 3D model based on these photos.
• In addition to photogrammetry, drones can carry LiDAR sensors to measure distances and
object heights, allowing for more accurate surveys than satellite surveys.

UAV Survey Data:

• UAV survey data refers to the information, measurements, and imagery collected by
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or drones during aerial surveys.
• These surveys are conducted to capture detailed geospatial information, including aerial
photographs, videos, LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) data, or other sensor-derived
data.
• The primary purpose of UAV survey data is to support mapping, analysis, and decision-
making in various fields, such as land surveying, construction, agriculture, environmental
monitoring, and infrastructure assessment.
• Key characteristics of UAV survey data include:
a. Aerial imagery: UAVs capture high-resolution aerial photographs and videos, offering a
bird’s-eye view of the surveyed area.
b. LiDAR data: Some UAVs are equipped with LiDAR sensors to capture 3D point cloud
data, which is used for terrain modeling, vegetation analysis, and more.
c. Georeferenced information: UAV survey data is precisely georeferenced, meaning it
includes geographic coordinates, allowing for accurate location-based analysis.
d. Topographic and structural details: The data may include topographic information,
land cover details, and the condition of buildings, infrastructure, or vegetation.
e. Analysis and mapping: UAV survey data is processed and analyzed using specialized
software to create ortho-mosaics, 3D models, contour maps, and other geospatial
products.
f. Measurement and quantification: The data is used to measure distances, areas,
volumes, and other spatial attributes, supporting applications like stockpile analysis, land
use planning, and asset management.

Types of UAV Survey Data:

• Various types of Data are:

1. Orthomosaic map
2. Point Cloud
3. 3D Reconstruction
4. Multispectral Imagery

Orthomosaic map:
• 2D orthomosaic maps contain the location (X and Y coordinates) and color information of
each point on the map.
• These aerial maps can be used for linear or distance and surface calculations as well as
alteration monitoring.

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Point cloud:
• A point cloud is a set of data points that each represent a position (X, Y, Z) on the ground,
vegetation, or infrastructure.
• According to the accuracy of data collected, point clouds depict everything captured as
location-specific objects.
• Point clouds can be used to measure distances, volumes, and surfaces.

3D Reconstruction:
• 3D data can be turned into 3D models, point clouds, digital surface and terrain models,
elevation maps, photorealistic reconstructions and more.
• These high-resolution aerial imagery outcomes provide volume, distance, surface area and
elevation calculations used in mining operation & planning, stockpile inventories, topography
depiction and generating photorealistic models.

Multispectral Imagery:
• WingtraOne’s integrated Micasense cameras collect multispectral data that can be turned into
chlorophyll maps, NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) layers, digital surface
models or RGB single images.
• A resultant high-resolution aerial view map can be used for monitoring plant health and
vigor, as well as evaluating surface properties, water flow and much more.

UAV Survey Data Processing Software:

• Once the drone survey is complete, it is time to process and analyze the data captured.
• This involves importing the data into data processing software, creating a point cloud,
orthomosaic, or digital elevation model (DEM), analyzing and interpreting the data, and
generating reports and visualizations.
• Various data processing software are:
o Pix4D
o Pix4DMapper
o Propeller
o Bentley ContextCapture
o Trendspek
o WebODM
o DroneDeploy
o DJI Terra
o Maps Made Easy
o DroneMapper
o Pix4DFields
o Agisoft Metashape
o Agisoft
o 3DF Zephyr
o PrecisionMapper
o UASMaster

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Difference between LiDAR and photogrammetry:

• Nowadays, survey drones can carry both LiDAR sensors and photogrammetry. This depends
entirely on the specific use.
• In the field of forestry mapping, LiDAR is a significant advantage. Drone
photogrammetry can only produce high vertical accuracy if the site is sparsely vegetated,
while LiDAR can map denser vegetation and large areas of trees.
• But when it comes to the broader surveying needs of the construction, mining, and aggregates
industries, photogrammetry is a more affordable solution with good accuracy and ease of use.

How drone surveys work?

Here's how the drone data collection process works:

a. Flight planning: Before a drone takes off, surveyors plan its flight path over the area of
interest. This path is often defined using GPS waypoints, ensuring that the drone systematically
covers the entire area.

b. Data collection: Surveying drones are equipped with various types of sensors, such as RGB
cameras, multispectral cameras, and LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging). These sensors
capture images, videos, or even laser pulses that bounce off the ground, structures, and
vegetation.

c. Image capture: Cameras on a drone capture high-resolution images from various angles as it
flies over a designated area. These images overlap to ensure comprehensive coverage and
accurate mapping.

d. Data processing: After a surveying drone has collected data, it is transferred to a computer for
processing. Software is used to stitch the individual images together, creating a cohesive mosaic
that represents the entire area. In the case of LiDAR data, information is processed to create
detailed elevation models.

e. Mapping and analysis: Once data is processed, it can be used to create various outputs, such
as orthomosaic maps (geo-referenced images with corrected perspective), digital elevation
models (DEM), 3D models, contour lines, and vegetation health maps (using multispectral data).

Application of Photogrammetry in Civil Engineering:

• Photogrammetry has been used in several areas. The following description give an overview
of various applications areas of photogrammetry:
a. Geology: Structural geology, investigation of water resources, analysis of thermal patterns on
earth's surface, geomorphological studies including investigations of shore features.
o Stratigraphic studies
o General geologic applications
o Study of luminescence phenomenon
o Recording and analysis of catastrophic events
o Earthquakes, floods, and eruption.
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b. Forestry: Timber inventories, cover maps, acreage studies
c. Agriculture: Soil type, soil conservation, crop planting, crop disease, crop-acreage.
d. Design and construction: Data needed for site and route studies specifically for alternate
schemes for photogrammetry. Used in design and construction of dams, bridges, transmission
lines.
e. Planning of cities and highways: New highway locations, detailed design of construction
contracts, planning of civic improvements.
f. Cadastre: Cadastral problems such as determination of land lines for assessment of taxes.
Large scale cadastral maps are prepared for reapportionment of land.
g. Environmental Studies: - Charting the environmental changes that have occurred in a given
area, examining a particular area and evaluating the environmental status and/or damage that
has taken place over a set period of time.
h. Land-use studies.
i. Urban area mapping.
j. Exploration: To identify and zero down to areas for various exploratory jobs such as oil or
mineral exploration.
k. Military intelligence: Reconnaissance for deployment of forces, planning manoeuvres,
assessing effects of operation, initiating problems related to topography, terrain conditions or
works.
l. Medicine and surgery: Stereoscopic measurements on human body, X-ray photogrammetry in
location of foreign material in body and location and examinations of fractures and grooves,
biostereometrics.
m. Mountains and hilly areas can be surveyed easily.
n. Miscellaneous in Civil Engineering:
o Topographic mapping and orthophotographs.
o Design, location construction and maintenance of modern highways at all phases,
o Dam settlement, wave action structural deformation and channel sedimentation can be
analyzed from photographic products.
o In hydrology, analysis of slopes, ground coverage, watershed areas and snow depth can
be determined from photographs these are all important in run off estimation.
o In agriculture, crop inventory and crop diseases analyses are performed by using aerial
photographs.
o In land surveying photographs are used for identification and location of boundary lines
and corners, and determination of soil and vegetal covers.
o Design water and sewerage systems, power transmission lines, airports, and city
development,
o Site Selection - The area around a proposed site can be viewed and analyzed in terms of
o parking/traffic access, adjacent buildings, land types and street networks to improve
decision-making regarding site selection.
o Saving in cost and time

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