UNIT – 1:

Introduction to Photogrammetry:

Faculty: G.Bhogayya Naidu

Associate Professor

Surveying Definition:

“Surveying is the art and science of determining the relative positions of various points or
stations on the surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal and vertical distances, angles,
and taking the details of these points and by preparing a map or plan to any suitable scale”

Objective of Surveying:

The object of surveying is to prepare a map or plan to show the relative positions of the objects
on the surface of the earth. The map or plan is drawn to some suitable scale. It also shows
boundaries of districts, states, and countries too. It also includes details of different engineering
features such as buildings, roads, railways, dams, canals, etc.

The work of a surveyor can be divided into four parts:

 Field work – making and recording measurements in the field.

 Computing - Making the necessary calculations to determine areas, locations, volumes

etc.

 Mapping - Plotting the measurements and drawing a map.

 Setting - Setting out structures, to delineate boundaries etc, on the field.

Introduction to Photogrammetry:

Photogrammetry describes from three words:

‘photo’ – light

‘gram’ – drawing

‘metry’ – measurement

The output of photogrammetry is typically a map, drawing, measurement, or a 3D model of some

real-world object or scene. Many of the maps we use today are created with photogrammetry and
photographs taken from aircraft.
Advantages of photogrammetry over conventional Surveys

There are many advantages in aerial photo-interpretation over conventional surveys or field
works. The main advantages are as follows:

1 Time:
In the initial stage, an aerial survey for photographing the earth’s surface may prove to be
expensive, but it is very rapid. One flight of aircraft may cover an area of thousands of square
kilometers within a day, while for a party of surveyors it would take several years.

2 Cost:
In the initial stage, the expenditure on aerial photography is much more but in the long run
expenditure becomes many times less than the manual fieldwork to cover the same area.

3 Greater Accuracy:
The maps prepared from aerial photographs techniques are much more accurate than the
conventional fieldwork, because the possibility of human error are greater in the later case. On
aerial photographs, the boundaries between the various natural features and cultural features are
reproduced as accurately as the actually in the area. However, there is a possibility of errors in
case of oblique photographs or even the vertical photographs due to relief displacement in the
region of high relief. Such errors can be easily rectified by various simple photogrammetric
instruments.

4 Three Dimensional Vision and Stereoscopic Perception:

This is the most important feature, which must be considered as a positive point in the
representation of a large area in the form of three-dimensional model under the stereoscope. The
stereopairs of aerial photographs, when viewed under the stereoscope a “ Birds Eye View” of the
terrain, and when a perfect depth perception is obtained the observer feels as if he is viewing the
terrain actually from air.

Definition of Photogrammetry:

Photogrammetry may be defined as the art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable
information about physical objects and the environment. This is done through a process of
recording, measuring, and interpreting aerial images and patterns of recorded electronic radiation
through a device (Camera)

There are two distinct branches of application included in the basic definition of
Photogrammetry. The first, or metric branch, involves precise measurements and computations
regarding the size, shape, and position of photographic features. The second, or interpretive
branch, deals only with recognition and identification of the photographic features.

Some of nonmapping application of photogrammetry are made in the areas of medicine,

dentistry, architecture archeology, experimental analysis of structures hydraulics, ship building,
animal husbandry, deformation of dams, glacier and earth slide movements, vehicle motion,
missile tracking, accident reconstruction and uderwater events.

When to Use Photogrammetry:

Each project has a unique set of conditions that will determine which mapping techniques
should be utilized. Surveys in consultation with the Project Manager will determine if
photogrammetry will be used on a project.

The following are factors to consider when deciding to use Photogrammetry:

• Photogrammetry is a cost efficient surveying method for mapping large areas.

• Photogrammetry may be safer than other surveying methods. It is safer to take photographs of
a dangerous area than to place surveyors in harms way.

• Photogrammetry provides the ability to map areas inaccessible to field crews.

• Photogrammetry creates a photographic record of the project site (snapshot in time).

• Photogrammetry produces useful digital products such as orthophotos.

• Photogrammetry produces electronic terrain models.

When Not to Use Photogrammetry:

Photogrammetry is not the solution for all mapping situations. Photogrammetry may not be
appropriate under the following conditions:

• The accuracy required for a mapping project is greater than the accuracy achievable with
photogrammetric methods.

• The scope of the work is not large enough to justify the costs of surveying the photo control
and performing the subsequent photogrammetric processes. However, when unsafe field
conditions are encountered, safety shall hold a higher weight than cost in the decision process.
Flight Planning:

The Flight Planning Unit is staffed with surveyors within the Planning and Aerotriangulation
Branch in Office of Photogrammetry.

It is the responsibility of the Flight Planning Unit to:

• Assign mapping and aerial photography service contract order numbers.

• Review mapping limits and requested products submitted by the DPC on the Request for
Photogrammetric Services.

• Obtain resource grade base-maps of an area where engineering grade photogrammetry mapping
is requested.

• Plan the flight lines and the photo control layout for all precision photography.

• Produce working maps for field crews and aerial photography contractors.

• Provide approximate coordinates of all planned photo control.

• Produce the contract order letter.

• Perform quality checks and contract compliance checks on photographic products.

• Monitor and contribute to OoP databases.

Basic Terms and Definitions:

1. Vertical photograph: A photograph exposed with the optical axis of the camera coinciding
with the direction of gravity or optical axis of the camera held vertical.
2. Tilted Photograph: A photograph taken with the optical axis unintentionally tilted from the
vertical by a small amount, usually less than 30.
3. Focal length: The distance from the front nodal point of the lens to the plane of photograph,
as the distance Lo in the Figure 1.
4. Exposure Station: The space position of the front nodal point (perspective centre) at the time
of exposure, as the point L in the Figure 1.
5. Flying Height: The elevation of aircraft/front nodal point/exposure station at the instant of
exposure above mean sea level or any reference datum.
6. Principal point: The point where the perpendicular dropped from the front nodal point
meets/strikes the plane of photograph, as the point O in the Figure 1.
7. Nadir Point: The point, where the plumb line dropped from the front nodal point meets the
plane of photograph, as the point n, in the Figure 1. It is the point on the photograph vertically
beneath the exposure station.
8. Tilt: The angle formed between the optical axis of the camera and the plumb line, as the angle
oLn in the Figure 1. It is also the angle which the plane of tilted photograph makes with the plane
of vertical photograph.
9. Isocentre: The point where the bisector of angle of tilt meets the plane of photograph, as the
point i in the Figure 1.
10. Principal plane: The vertical plane containing the optical axis, as the plane Lno in the Figure
1.
11. Principal Line: The intersection of principal plane with the plane of photograph, as the line
‘no’ in the Figure 1.
12. Axis of symmetry (Isometric parallel): The line in the plane of photograph perpendicular to
the principal line and passing through the Isocentre. The axis of tilt is a horizontal line as the line
perpendicular to the principal line. The other perpendicular lines are called plate paralles.
13. Crab: The condition caused by the failure to orient the camera with respect to the track of
aircraft. In vertical photograph, crab is indicated by the edged of photograph not being parallel to
the air base line.
14. Drift: The lateral shift or displacement of the aircraft from its course, due to the action of
wind or other causes.
15. Floating mark: A mark seen as occupying a position in the 3 dimensional space formed by
the stereoscopic fusion of a pair of vertical photograph and used as a reference mark for
examining or measuring the stereoscopic model.
16. Fiducial Mark: Marks located in the middle of the sides of the focal plane opening. These
are exposed on the negative when the picture was made
17. Fiducial centre: The point of intersection of straight line of joining opposite Fiducial marks.

Figure 3: Fiducial Marks and Fiducial Centre

18. Air base: The length of line joining two exposure stations.
19. Photo base: It is the distance between the principal points of two adjoining vertical
photographs.
20. Dia-positive: A positive print (photograph) on a transparent medium (glass/film).
21. Displacement: Any shift in the position of images on a photograph which does not alter the
perspective characteristics of the photograph is called displacement (shift due to tilt of the
camera and relief of the objects).
22. Emulsion: A suspension of light sensitive silver salt (especially silver chloride or silver
bromide in a colloidal medium usually in gelatin) which is used for containing photographic
films, plates and paper.
23. Equivalent vertical photograph: Theoretically, truly vertical photograph taken at same
camera station with a camera whose focal length equal to that of camera taking a corresponding
tilted photograph.
24. Exposure interval: The time interval between the exposures of successive aerial
photographs.
25. Model scale: The ratio that exists between the distances measured in a stereoscopic model
and the corresponding ground distances.
26. Neat model: The portion of the overlap of a stereo pair of photograph that is actually utilized
in photographic procedures. Generally, the neat model approximates a rectangular area whose
width is equal to the air base and length equal to the width between the flights.
27. Stereogram: A set of photograph correctly oriented and mounted for stereoscopic viewing.
28. Eye base: The distance and orientation of the line between centers of rotation of eye ball of
an individual.

Fundamental principle of Photogrammetry

The fundamental principle used by photogrammetry is triangulation. By taking photographs from

at least two different locations, so-called “lines of sight” can be developed from each camera to
points on the object. These lines of sight (sometimes called rays owing to their optical nature) are
mathematically intersected to produce the 3-dimensional coordinates of the points of interest.
Triangulation is also the principle used by theodolites for coordinate measurement. If you are
familiar with these instruments, you will find many similarities (and some differences) between
photogrammetry and theodolites. Even closer to home, triangulation is also the way your two
eyes work together to gauge distance (called depth perception).
Type of Photogrammey:

Classification based on the Camera Location and the purpose of the photograph used.

Mainly they are classified in to 4 Types.

1. Terrestrial Photogrammetry: Deals with the photographs taken from the ground surface
as platform for the photographic instruments, like cameras. In this photographic system,
the distance between the object and the photographer should be 300mt or more than
300mts .

2. Close Range Photogrammetry: The terrestrial photogrammetry is called as close range

photogrammetry if this distance is less than 300 mts.

3. Aerial Photogrammetry: Deals with the photographs taken by an aerial cameras onboard
aircraft. Aerial or space photogrammetry connotes the use of traditional analog
photographs or digital photographs that have been taken vertical or oblique images based
on its geometry and characterstics. The geometry of this type of photographic system is
illustrated.

4. Stereo Photogrammetry: Deals with the overlapping pairs of photographs are obtained,
measure and interpreted in a stereoscopic viewing device. This provides a three
dimensional view and creates the illusion that the observer or photogrammestrist is
viewing a relief model of the terrain stereo photogrammetry is essential for creating a
digital elevation model of real world by measuring the elevation of ‘h’ – measurements .
This can be performed by using specially designed instrument like stereo meter or by
computer digitally.

Inpractice , airborne / space borne photogrammetry is embraced into two broad

categories, namely metric photogrammetry and photointerpretation.

In the metric photogrammetry, the quantitative measurements are made, from which
ground co-ordinates, elevations, distances, areas, volumes and angles can be
computed. This is also used to prepare planimetric or topographic maps. This category is
often called quantitative photogrammetry. The most common applications are 1.) The
production of topographic maps that contain contours, transportation network and other
baseline information of the terrain, 2) The extraction of digital elevation model, 3) The 3-
D extraction of planimetric details and contours, 4) production of orthophoto images.

The second category is photo interpretation in which the photographs are evaluated or
interpreted for the extraction of qualitative data like water pollution, classification of
soils, geological formation, crops identification and military intelligence etc. This
type of photogrammetry is also called as interpretative photogrammetry. Photo-
interpretation coupled with fundamental photogrammetric analysis results in the creation
of thematic maps of land use/ land cover, hydrogeomorphological and biophysical
information maps, which can be used as data sources and data input to GIS
 Standard format size of image 9”(230mm) and 6” (152.4mm)

The most common focal lengths are 150 mm (wide angle camera) and 300 mm (normal
angle camera). There are other focal lengths available as well.

They are classified as according to the Instantaneous field of View(IFOV)

1)Narrow angle cameras , IFOV is < 60o

2)Normal angle cameras , IFOV is 60 o to 75o

3)Wide angle cameras , IFOV is 75o to 100o

4)Wide angle cameras , IFOV is >100o

TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHS:

Vertical Aerial Photograph:

Aerial photos can be distinguished depending on the position of camera axis with respect to the
vertical and motion of the aircraft. Aerial photographs are divided into two major groups, vertical
and oblique photos.

i) Vertical photos: The optical axis of the camera or camera axis is directed vertically as straight
down as possible (Fig 7.1). The nadir and central point of the photograph are coincident. But in
real a truly vertical aerial photograph is rarely obtainable because of unavoidable angular
rotation or tilts of aircraft. The allowable tolerance is usually +3 o from the perpendicular (plumb)
line to the camera axis. Vertical photographs are taken for most common use in remote sensing
and mapping purposes.

Fig. 7.1. Schematic diagram of taking a vertical photograph.

(Source: www.map-reading.com/aptypes.php)

A vertical photograph has the following characteristics:

(1) The camera axis is perpendicular to the surface of the earth.

(2) It covers relatively small area than oblique photographs.

(3) The shape of the ground covered on a single vertical photo closely approximates a square or
rectangle.

(4) Being a view from above, it gives an unfamiliar view of the ground.

(5) Distance and directions may approach the accuracy of maps if taken over flat terrain.

(6) Relief is not readily apparent.

ii) Oblique photos: When the optical of the camera forms an angle of more than 5 0 with the
vertical, oblique photographs are obtained (Fig. 7.2). The nadir and central point of the
photograph are not coincident.
 Fig. 7.2. Vertical and oblique photography.

(Source: fhf1.com/Aerial_Photography.html)

There are two types of oblique aerial photography – high angle and low angle. In high angle
oblique aerial photography the resulting images shows the apparent horizon and in low angle
oblique photograph does not. Oblique photographs can be useful for covering very large areas in
a single image and for depicting terrain relief and scale.

(a)
 (b)

Fig. 7.3. (a) High oblique and (b) low oblique photographs.

(Source: armyintelligence.tpub.com/IT0649/IT06490010.htm)

A square outline on the ground appears as a trapezium in oblique aerial photo. These
photographs can be distinguished as high oblique and low oblique (Fig.7.3). But these are not
widely used for mapping as distortions in scale from foreground to the background preclude easy
measurements of distance, area, and elevation.

An oblique photograph has the following characteristics:

1. Low oblique photograph covers relatively small area than high oblique photographs.
2. The ground area covered is trapezoid, but the photograph is square or rectangular. Hence
scale is not applicable and direction (azimuth) also cannot be measured.
3. The relief is discernible but distorted.

Organization of Aerial photographs:

1. Overlap between two photographs in the same strip is called end lap (60% overlap
area)
Vertical aerial photographic coverage of an area is normally taken as a series of
overlapping flight strips. As illustrated in below pictures, the end lap is the overlapping
 of successive photos along a flight strip and the side lap is the overlap of adjacent flight
srips.

2. Overlap between two strips is called side lap (30% overlap area)
The scale of a vertical aerial photograph of Various Conditions:
One of the most significant geometric relationships of Figure 8.5 is that equal angles are
subtended at a camera lens by an object and by its photographic image. In other words, the
triangles abc and cde are similar and it follows that the ratio of object size (O) to image size (i) is
the same as the ratio of focal length (f) to flight height (H), or f H = i O .(8.1) The ratio of image
to object size is the general scale of the aerial photograph and it follows that the scale Chapter 8:
Aerial photograph interpretation 102 may be determined if the camera focal length and flight
height are known: scale = focal length flight height.(8.2) For example, the average scale of
photographs taken at 10 000 feet (3 048 metres) above the terrain with a 6-inch (0.1524-metre)
focal-length lens is 0.1524 3 048 or 1 20000 . Note that, for a photo-scale determination using
equation 8.2, the focal length and the flight height must be expressed in the same units. Thus, if
we had chosen to use the Imperial units, the scale would be 0.5 feet 10 000 feet = 1: 20 000. It
also is very important to remember that flight height refers to the distance above the ground
directly below and not necessarily to the altitude (height above sea level or the base airport) of
the aircraft. For this reason a more precise restatement of equation (8.2) should read: scale =
focal length [flight altitude - average terrain elevation]
Photogrammetry

Scale = f / H

f = focal length (distance from centre

of lens to film surface)
 Fig : 1 - Plain Surface

Fig : 2 - Undulated Surface

Geometry of the single aerial photograph:

ABCD is the terrain which is photographed. A’b’c’d’ is the negative obtained during the
photography. The negative is a reversal of both tone and geometry of the object space ABCD.
The negative is situated at a distance equal to the focal length (f) O’L, of the camera. The
positive is obtained by contact process. Geometrically it is situated at a distance (OL) equal to
the focal length f (O’L) of the camera O’P is the optical axis, which isalong the direction of the
focal length and perpendicular to both negative and positive planes, The basic geometry of
vertical photograph is shown.

The first thing that a photogrammetrist shoud understand is the geometry of aerial photography.
The aerial photograph is taken by means os an aerial camera on board aircraft at an altitude
based on the scale needed for the given application. The geometry of the photograph is often
controlled by the application, scale, size, and the condition of terrain, in general, the geometry of
the photography can be known during flight planning. Let us assume that the aircraft is flying at
an altitude of ‘H’ from the Mean Sea Level(MSL). The focal length of the lens used in camera
system is ‘f’. The focal plane of an aerial camera is the plane in which all incident light rays are
brought to focus. In aerial photography the image distances are less than the object distances.
This is done by setting the focal plane as exactly as possible at a distance equal to the focal
length behind the rear nodal point of the camera lens. The focal plane is defined by the upper
surface of the focal plane frame. Camera fiducial marks, impressions of holdings, appear on the
photograph in the shape of ‘V’ or ‘W’ are usually Four or Eight in number. The fiducial
marks are situated in the middle of the sides of the focal plane resulting an impression on the
negative when the picture is taken, The line of joining opposite fiducial points is called fiducial
axes. The point of inter section of these fiducial axes is called the principal point. The location of
this principal point is based on the centre of the photograph. The fiducial axes provide a
rectangular coordinate axes which are taken as a photo coordinate system.

Fiducial Marks:
Fiducial marks are photographed each time aerial photograph is recorded. These marks are of
varying shape or form and may appear in the corners or the middle of each side of the photo or in
all eight locations. These marks allow users to locate the precise center of a photograph, i.e.,
the principal point (PP).
Fiducial marks is a set of marks located in the corners or edge-centers, or both, of an aerial
photographic image. These marks are exposed within the camera onto the original film and are
used to define the frame of reference for spatial measurements on aerial photographs.

It is 4 or 8 in number, fixed in centrs in edges, Letters used is ‘V’ or ‘W’

In the context of aerial photography, fiducial marks are small registration marks located along
the outside of an aerial photograph. There are typically four or eight numbered marks, which
look like this (note: this is number
So what are they for? During the camera calibration process, the positions of the fiducial marks
are measured precisely. The principal point of the image can be derived from the intersection of
the fiducial marks. The results of the camera calibration are usually stored and reported in a
document (typically a USGS camera calibration report in the USA), and some organizations
include their camera calibration reports on their web-sites:

Fidicial marks are also important in the early stages of the photogrammetric processing, when
the system establishes the relationship between "film" coordinate space and "pixel" coordinate
space (solving for interior orientation). This process involves either physically or automatically
measuring the fiducial marks.
Definition of Stereoscopy

Stereoscopy, sometimes called stereoscopic imaging, is a technique used to enable a three

dimensional effect, adding an illusion of depth to a flat image. In aerial photography, when two
photographs overlap or the same ground area is photographed from two separate position forms a
stereo-pair, used for three dimension viewing. Thus obtained a pair of stereoscopic photographs
or images can be viewed stereoscopically. A stereoscope facilitates the stereo viewing process by
looking at the left image with the left eye and the right image with the right eye. It is based on
Porro-Koppe’s Principle that the same flight path can be generated in an optical system if a light
source is projected onto the image taken by an optical system. Stereoscopic vision is constructed
with a stereopair images using the relative orientation or tilt at the time of photography. Stereo
viewing allows the human brain to judge and perceive in depth and volume. 3D representation of
the earth’s surface resulting in the collection of the geographic information with a greater
accuracy compared to the monoscopic techniques.

Stereoscopic Vision Depth perception (To find the height of an object by using stereo
vision)
On our daily life we unconsciously perceive and measure depth using our eyes. This stereo effect
is possible because we have two eyes or binocular vision. The perception of depth through
binocular vision is referred to as stereoscopic viewing, which means viewing an object from two
different locations. Monoscopic or monocular vision refers to viewing surrounding objects with
only one eye. Depth is perceived primarily based on the relative sizes of objects, shadow; distant
objects appear smaller and behind closer objects. In stereoscopic vision, objects are viewed with
both eyes a little distant from each other (approximately 65 mm) helps in viewing objects from
two different positions and angles, thus a stereoscopic vision is obtained. The angle between the
lines of sight of two eyes with each object known as parallactic angle helps our brain in
determining the relative distances between objects. Lesser the parallactic angle higher the objects
depth. Figure 8.1 shows the human stereoscopic vision, parallactic angle Ø a > Øb, helps the brain
automatically to estimate the differences (Da - Db) in depths between the objects A and B. This
concept of distance estimation in stereoscopic vision is applied to view a pair of overlapping
aerial photograph.

Human stereoscopic vision.

Relief displacement: (To find the height of an object by using Relief Displacement).

Is the radial distance between where an object appears in an image to where it actually should be
according to a Planimetric coordinate system. The images of ground positions are shifted or
displaced due to terrain relief, in the central projection of an aerial photograph. If a photograph is
truly vertical, the displacement of images is in a direction radial from the photograph center. This
displacement is called the radial displacement due to relief. Radial displacement due to relief is
also responsible for scale differences within any one photograph, and for this reason a
photograph is not an accurate map. Relief displacement is caused by differences in relative
elevation of objects photographed. All objects that extend above or below a datum plane have
their photographic images displaced to a greater or lesser extent. This displacement occurs
always along the line which connects the photo point and the nadir and is, therefore termed
“radial line displacement”. Or this displacement is always radial with respect to principal point.
It increases with increasing height of the feature and the distance from nadir.

The magnitude of the displacement in the image between the top and the bottom of an object is
its relief displacement and is related to:

The height of the object

The distance from the nadir point

What is the image nadir point? ↓

We can derive an expression for the relationship between object height and relief displacement
using the geometry depicted in following picture.

X is the perspective center, Y is the image nadir point

We may write two expressions for distance D in this figure, in terms of radial image
distances rB and rT.
and

and set the two expressions for D equal to each other,

Digital photogrammetric:
It is a well-established technique for acquiring dense 3D geometric information for real-world
objects from stereoscopic image overlap and has been shown to have extensive applications in a
variety of fields.
Aerial photogrammetry refers to the collection and processing of imagery captured from an
aerial or orbital vehicle. Close-Range photogrammetry (CRP) refers to the collection of
photography from the ground or some lesser distance than traditional aerial photogrammetry and
is becoming increasing popular and accessible due to new, easy to use software and digital
cameras. Non-metric, off-the-shelf digital cameras can be used along with relatively inexpensive,
or in some cases free, open-source software, to extract and process highly accurate and detailed
3D models of real-world objects.

3D model of Razorback Stadium created from four digital aerial images using PhotoScan Pro
(model shown here in Meshlab software)

The Center relies heavily on digital photogrammetry (learn how here) as a means of collecting
3D data sets and has a number of high resolution digital SLR cameras for collecting close-range
data sets. For a description of these cameras and other photogrammetry equipment at CAST,
The Center also has a number of software packages used for both aerial and close-range
photogrammetry. Information about these programs can be found on the Software page.
 Learn more starting with the Four Basic Steps of a Close-Range Photogrammetry
Project and visit the data page for example photogrammetric data sets created by CAST.

Classification of Processes and Tasks in Digital Photogrammetry

 System Level Tasks
 Low Level Tasks
 Middle Level Tasks
 High Level Tasks
Advantages of using Digital Images:
 Appropriate way for displaying and Measurement
 Stability
 Applying image Enhancement is possible
 Automation can be applied
 Real time Real time phptogrammetry is not out of access

Characteristics of Digital Data Characteristics of Digital Data

 Digitization – Intensity
– Gray Value
– Density
 Sampling
 Quantization of gray levels
 Noise

Aerial Photogrammetry planning and Execution:

 Purpose of Photography

 Camera and scale of photography

 End lap & Side lap

 Flying Height

 Ground Coverage

 Weather Conditions

 Season of the year

 Flight Map

 Purpose of Photography: The first and foremost consideration is the purpose for which
the photography is taken. For topographic mapping, photos having good metric qualities
are needed. For these calibration cameras, films having fine grained and high resolution
emulsion are selected.

 Camera and scale of photography: Average photo scale is one of the most important
variables that must be selected in aerial photography planning. For topographic mapping
photo scale depends upon the final scale, contour interval and the photogrammetric
instruments for map preparation. In most of the photogrammetric instruments the
enlargement ratio from photo scale to map scale is five. Hence photo scale for mapping
can be fixed at one fifth of the photo scale.

 End lap & Side lap: For topographic mapping and photogrammetric control extension,
the end lap requirement is 60% and the side lap is 30%. The side lap is required for
tieying the strips and making the block for the specified area.

 Flying Height: Once the selection of the camera and scale of photography is finalized,
the flying height for the project is determined.

 Ground Coverage: Once the photo scale and camera format dimension are selected the
ground surface area covered by a single photograph can be calculated. In addition, if the
end lap and side lap are known the area covered by a stereoscopic neat model can be
calculated. Neat model is the stereoscopic area between adjacent principal points and up
to the middle of the side lap in both directions, extending sideways.

 Weather Conditions: The weather for aerial photography is an important consideration

cloud less days, have sky and atmosphere clear without haze, smokes are chosen for
flight.

 Season of the year: For topographic mapping the season to be chosen in based on
altitude of sun and trees having leaves fallen or intact. The ground should not be obscured
by tree leaves. Normally start of the winter season is chosen in for aerial photo mission.
  Flight Map: Based on the above specifications and consideration, a flight map is
prepared. The flight map gives the project boundaries and flight lines, the pilot must fly
to obtain the desired coverage. Flight maps are prepared on existing maps covering the
project area

MOSAIC and its Classifications:

• An aerial mosaic is an assemblage of two or more individual over lapping photographs to

form a single continuous picture of an area. The assembly is made by cutting and piecing
to gather part s of photographs, being careful to make common images coincide as
closely as possible at the match lines between adjacent photos.

Classification of Mosaics:

1)Controlled Mosaic:-

These are prepared by using ground Controlled points at horizontal ground,

rectified aerial photographs etc.

2) Un-controlled Mosaics :-

Optically matching up the details of image which are adjacent to aerial

photography. Un-controlled mosaics do not involve the ground control points, the
photographs are unrectified due to which they are not accurate when compared to the
controlled Mosaics.

3) Semi- Controlled Mosaics:

By combining the techniques of controlled and un-controlled mosaics. It is

formulated by using the photographs which are unrectified and the ground control points

Advantages :

Planimetric qualities , whereas objects on maps which are shown with symbols must be
limited in number.

Preparation of Mosaics of large areas with effective utilization of the resources.

Easy understanding and interpretation without photogrammetry and engineering back

ground.

Study related to

Geological features,

land-use classification and planning

 Identification of suitable sites for civil engineering projects

ORTHOPHOTOGRAPH: Orthophotographs are photographic images constructed from

vertical or nearvertical aerial photographs. The processes used to generate orthophotos remove
the effects of terrain relief displacement and tilt of the aircraft. When properly generated, these
digital images have a predictable constant positional accuracy throughout the entire image.

an orthophotograph can be used to measure true distances, because it is an accurate

representation of the Earth's surface, having been adjusted for topographic relief, lens distortion,
and camera tilt.

Uses of Aerial photos:

 Geological surveys

 Soil surveys

 Land surveys

 Tax mapping

 Reconnaissance and military intelligence

 Urban and regional development

 Transportation system investigations

  Quantity estimations

 Costal erosion, etc.

Applications of Photogrammetry:

 To prepare planimetric topographical maps (Surveying/mapping).

 To determine the space position of ground objects.

 For acquisition of military intelligence (Military/artificial intelligence).

 To classify soil (Forestry/agriculture).

 For the interpretation of geology (Geology/archaeology).

 Assessment of crop damage due to floods or other natural calamities.

 To prepare a composite picture of ground.

 To relocate existing property boundaries.

 In the field of medicine.

Advantages of Photogrammetry

 Cover areas quickly.

 Low costs.

 Easy to obtain/access information from air.

 Illustrates great detail.

PARALLAX:

Parallax is an apparent displacement or difference of orientation of an object viewed at two

different locations during vertical aerial photography. The objects at a higher height lie closer to
the camera and appear relatively larger than similar objects at a lower elevation.

X-PARALLAX:

Absolute Parallax (X-Parallax/Horizontal Parallax): This parallax is in the X direction, It is the

algebraic difference of the distances of the two images from their respective photograph nadirs,
measured in horizontal plane and parallel to the airbase.

Y-PARALLAX:
The difference between the perpendicular distances of two images of a point from the vertical
plane containing the air base The existence of y parallax is an indication of tilt in either or both
photographs and/or a difference in flight height; it interferes with stereoscopic examination of
the pair.

Stereoscopic Parallax:

Methods of visually judging depth may be classified as either stereoscopic or monoscopic (Wolf,
1974). Monoscopic vision refers to viewing surrounding objects with only one eye. Depth is
perceived primarily based on the relative sizes of objects and hidden objects; distant objects
appear smaller and behind closer objects. However, depth perception is poor with monoscopic
vision, and distance estimation can be difficult. In stereoscopic vision, objects are viewed with
both eyes, producing a composite three-dimensional image. Stereoscopic vision allows for a far
greater degree of depth perception than monoscopic vision. The concept of stereoscopic vision
can also apply to viewing an aerial photography stereopair. By viewing the left photograph with
the left eye and the right photograph with the right eye, a three-dimensional view of the terrain
can be obtained (Lillesand, 1994). An instrument called a stereoscope is designed to aid in this
type of visualization. Many people will find stereoscopic viewing of aerial photography without
a stereoscope to be quite a challenge.

Parallax is the apparent displacement in the position of a stationary object, with respect to a
frame of reference, caused by a shift in the position of observation (Wolf, 1974). If an object is
observed monoscopically with the left eye and then the right, there is an apparent shift in
position. As the distance between the observer and object decreases, the apparent position shift
increases. An instrument called a stereometer is used to measure differences in parallax between
objects in a stereopair. Parallax equations can then employed to convert measured parallax into
object height.

Based on the definitions given above for stereoscopic vision and parallax, the term stereoscopic
parallax refers to perception of depth based on viewing objects from separate points of
observation. Stereoscopic parallax is a very important concept in photogrammetry because it
allows for the measurement of height of objects appearing a stereopair.

Measurement with Parallax bar and floating marks

 From the parallax equation, we note that
o parallax of any point is directly related to its elevation
o parallax is greater for point which are higher in elevation
 If we could measure the parallax of the point, its height could be measured easily. Unfortunately
there is no device for this. However, difference in absolute parallaxes which can be related to
height differences. Therefore, if the elevation of one point is known, the elevation of other point
can be measured.
 Parallax bar (figure 8) or stereometer is used to measure the difference in parallaxes between
corresponding points on stereopair which have been oriented as they were at the time of
 photography.

 If the two photographs are placed in a properly oriented position (this process is known as base
lining) on a table and viewed through stereoscope, the distances between corresponding
(conjugate) points on left and right photos can be measured by parallax bar in terms of parallax bar
reading. The differences between two measured distances will provideparallax differences between
two points. The measurement by stereometer is called parallax bar reading.
 While measuring the parallax, the stereometer uses the principle of floating mark.
 Floating mark is used to carry out quantitative measurements on stereo photographs. It is made up
of two identical half marks or dots which are placed over conjugate images on the two overlapping
photographs
 The dots may be black circular spots or crosses (etched on two clear glass plates), for example
parallax bars used with stereoscopes or many stereoplotters. The dots may also be luminous
circular spots, crosses or annuli which are used in stereoplotters, stereocomparators and
particularly the digital image display.
 The floating marks are placed on the photographs such that the right mark is on the right photo and
the left mark is on the left photo.
 Within a stereomodel, the floating mark will appear to lie on the surface of the terrain (fused form)
when the dots are placed exactly on conjugate or corresponding images.
 If the dots are moved slightly closer together, the floating mark will appear to rise or float off the
surface.
 If the mark floats too far above the surface then stereofusion will be broken because the eyes can
not accommodate the range in convergence, and a double image of the terrain will result
 If the dots are moved slightly apart the floating mark will split into two separate dots as the brain
of the observer can not imagine seeing the floating mark beneath the surface
  Again if the dots are moved too far apart a double image of the terrain will result.

Parallax of point = Xa-X’a

= D-(K-ra) = (D-K) + ra

(D-K) is called the parallax bar constant © for the set up. Substituting

Pa = C + ra
 Difference between Maps and Aerial Photographs:

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH MAP

It is a central Projection. It is an orthogonal Projection.
An aerial photograph is geometrically incorrect. A map is a geometrically correct representation of
The distortion in the geometry is minimum at the the part of the earth projected.
centre and increases towards the edges of the
photographs.
The scale of the photograph is not uniform The scale of the map is uniform throughout the
map extent.

Enlargement/reduction does not change the Enlargement/reduction of the maps involves

contents of the photographs and can easily be redrawing it afresh.
carried out.
Aerial photography holds good for inaccessible The mapping of inaccessible and inhospitable
and inhospitable areas. areas is very difficult and sometimes it becomes
impossible.

INFORMATION COLLECTED THROUGH AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH

Unlike a Map, features on an aerial photograph are not generalized or symbolized Air photos
record all visible features on the Earth’s Surface from an over head perspective. Although the
features are visible, they are not always easily identifiable. The process of studying and gathering
the information required to identifying the various cultural and natural features are called photo
interpretation. With careful interpretation, air photos are an excellent source spatial data for
studying the Earth’s environment.

Factors to assess to identify a feature

Shape:
The form of an object on an air photo helps to identify the object. Regular uniform shapes often
indicate a human involvement.

[Figure 1 - Text Version]

Pattern:
Similar to shape, the spatial arrangement of objects (e.g. row crops vs. pasture) is also useful to
identify an object and its usage.
 [Figure 2 - Text Version]

Size:
A measure of the object's surface area (e.g. single-lane vs. multi-lane highways).

[Figure 3 - Text Version]

Tone/Colour:
The colour characteristics of an object, relative to other objects in the photo, are used to identify
the feature (e.g. sand has a bright tone, while water usually has a dark tone; tree species can be
determined by the colour of their leaves at certain times of the year).

[Figure 4 - Text Version]

Shadow:
A shadow provides information about the object's height, shape, and orientation (e.g. tree
species).
 [Figure 5 - Text Version]

Texture:
The physical characteristics of an object will change the way they appear on a photo (e.g. calm
water has a smooth texture; a forest canopy has a rough texture).

[Figure 6 - Text Version]

Association/Site:
Associating the presence of one object with another, or relating it to its environment, can help
identify the object (e.g. industrial buildings often have access to railway sidings; nuclear power
plants are often located beside large bodies of water).
 [Figure 7 - Text Version]

Time:
Temporal characteristics of a series of photographs can be helpful in determining the historical
change of an area (e.g. looking at a series of photos of a city taken in different years can help
determine the growth of suburban neighbourhoods.

[Figure 8 - Text Version]

IMP Questions from Unit - 1
1. Define a) Focal length b) Exposure Station c) Principal point d) Nadir Point e) Tilt f)
Principal plane g)Crab h) Displacement i) Neat model j) Eye base
2. Principle of Aerial Photyogrammetry Explain with neat sketch?
3. What is photogrammetry? Explain types of photogrammetry?
4. Describe the types of aerial photographs with neat sketches?
5. Differentiate between vertical and oblique photographs?
6. Explain with neat sketch the organization of aerial photography?
7. Define scale and types of scales of plain and undulated surfaces explain with neat
diagrams?
8. Explain about aerial cameras?
9. Explain the Geometry of vertical aerial photograph with neat sketch?
10. Define stereoscopic in Aerial photogrammetry?
11. Write short notes on fiducial marks (or) fiducial points with diagram?
12. What are the parameters to be considered in the planning and execution of aerial
photography? Explain?
13. Explain about Vertical control and Horizontal control?
14. Discuss about the different methods for measuring the height of object on vertical
aerial photograph? (Relief Displacement and Shadow)
15. Explain stereoscopic depth perception with example?
16. Stereoscopic methods of parallax measurement by parallax bar with neat diagram?
17. Explain stereoscopic overlapping aerial photographs?
18. Discuss in detail the stereoscopic method of parallax measurement?
19. Explain a) Flight Planning b) Stereoscopy
20. Explain the Characteristics of photographic images?
21. Define interpretation? Explain about the aerial photo interpretation techniques?
22. Explain about Digital Photogrammetry?
23. Define Mosaic and types of Mosaics?
24. Difference between Maps and Aerial Photographs?
25. Advantages of photogrammetry over conventional Surveys?
26. Define Orthophoto?
27. List out the uses and applications of photogrammetry?
28. Explain about Factors to assess to identify the features on the aerial Photographs?