1. What are the layers of OSI model and describe each?

Ans:- The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a seven-layer

framework that standardizes network communication. Each layer has specific
functions and works with the layers above and below it.

1. Physical Layer

🔹 Function: Transmits raw binary data (0s and 1s) over a physical medium.
🔹 Responsibilities:

 Defines hardware components (cables, signals, and connectors).

 Determines data transmission rate and voltage levels.

🔹 Devices: Cables, hubs, repeaters.
🔹 Example: Ethernet cables, fiber optics, Wi-Fi signals.

2. Data Link Layer

🔹 Function: Ensures error-free data transfer between adjacent network

nodes.
🔹 Responsibilities:

 Divides data into frames.

 Handles error detection (via CRC).

 Manages MAC addresses for device identification.

🔹 Sub-layers:

 MAC (Media Access Control): Controls access to the physical medium.

 LLC (Logical Link Control): Handles frame synchronization and flow

control.
🔹 Devices: Switches, network interface cards (NICs).
🔹 Example: Ethernet, Wi-Fi (MAC addresses).

3. Network Layer

🔹 Function: Determines the best path for data to travel across networks.
🔹 Responsibilities:

 Routing: Determines optimal paths using routers.

 Logical addressing: Assigns IP addresses to devices.

 Fragmentation & Reassembly: Splits large packets into smaller ones.

🔹 Devices: Routers, layer-3 switches.
🔹 Protocols: IP (IPv4, IPv6), ICMP (ping), ARP.
🔹 Example: IP addressing (192.168.1.1).

4. Transport Layer
 🔹 Function: Ensures reliable data transmission between hosts.
🔹 Responsibilities:

 Segmentation and reassembly: Splits data into segments for

transmission.

 Flow control: Prevents sender from overwhelming receiver.

 Error control: Ensures data integrity.

🔹 Protocols:

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Reliable, connection-oriented.

 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Fast, connectionless.

🔹 Example: Port numbers (HTTP - port 80, HTTPS - port 443).

5. Session Layer

🔹 Function: Manages sessions between devices.

🔹 Responsibilities:

 Establishes, maintains, and terminates communication sessions.

 Synchronizes data exchange.

🔹 Example: Video conferencing, online banking sessions.

6. Presentation Layer

🔹 Function: Formats and encrypts data for application layer.

🔹 Responsibilities:

 Data translation: Converts data formats (e.g., ASCII to EBCDIC).

 Encryption & Decryption: Secures communication (SSL/TLS).

 Compression: Reduces file size for efficient transmission.

🔹 Example: SSL/TLS (HTTPS), JPEG image compression, MP3 encoding.

7. Application Layer

🔹 Function: Provides network services to end-users.

🔹 Responsibilities:

 Enables user interaction with network applications.

 Defines protocols for web browsing, email, file transfer, etc.

🔹 Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, IMAP, Telnet.
🔹 Example: Web browsing (HTTP/HTTPS), email (SMTP, IMAP).

2. Describe Analog to Digital Signal conversion.

ANS: - Analog to Digital Conversion (ADC) is the process of converting

continuous analog signals (e.g., sound, temperature, voltage) into digital
signals (binary: 0s and 1s) so that computers and digital devices can process
them.

-> Analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) involves sampling, quantization,

and encoding to convert continuous signals into a digital format.

Step 1: Sampling

🔹 Definition: The analog signal is measured at regular time intervals.

🔹 Key Concept: The Nyquist Theorem states that the sampling rate must
be at least twice the highest frequency in the signal to avoid distortion
(aliasing).
🔹 Example:

 A human voice signal typically has a maximum frequency of 20 kHz.

 According to Nyquist, the sampling rate should be at least 40 kHz

(common values: 44.1 kHz for CDs, 48 kHz for professional audio).

Step 2: Quantization

🔹 Definition: The sampled values are mapped to discrete levels.

🔹 Key Concept: The precision of quantization depends on the bit depth.
🔹 Example:

 A 3-bit system has 23=82^3 = 823=8 possible levels.

 A 16-bit system has 216=65,5362^{16} = 65,536216=65,536 levels

(better quality).

Step 3: Encoding

🔹 Definition: The quantized values are converted into a binary format.

🔹 Example:

 If a voltage level is measured as 2.5V and corresponds to the 3rd level in

an 8-level system, it may be encoded as "011" in binary.

Mathematical Example
 Suppose we have an analog sine wave with a frequency of 1 kHz and
amplitude of 5V.

 Sampling rate: 8 kHz

 Bit depth: 3 bits (8 levels)

Time Analog Quantized Binary

(ms) Voltage (V) Level Encoding

0 0.0 4 100

1 2.5 6 110

2 4.0 7 111

3 2.5 6 110

4 0.0 4 100

3.Describe Analog to Analog Signal conversion.

ANS: -Analog-to-Analog Conversion is the process of modifying an existing

analog signal into another analog form. This is commonly used in
modulation techniques for communication systems like radio, television,
and telephony.

Types of Analog to Analog Conversion (Modulation Techniques)

1️. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

🔹 Definition: Varies the amplitude of the carrier wave based on the

message signal.
🔹 Example: AM radio stations (e.g., 600 kHz AM).
🔹 Advantages:

 Simple and low-cost.

🔹 Disadvantages:

 More prone to noise and interference.

✅ Formula:

s(t) = A (1 + m(t)) cos(2πfct)

where:

 AAA = Carrier amplitude

 m(t)m(t)m(t) = Message signal

 fc = Carrier frequency

2️. Frequency Modulation (FM)

🔹 Definition: Varies the frequency of the carrier wave while keeping

amplitude constant.
🔹 Example: FM radio (88 - 108 MHz).
🔹 Advantages:

 Better sound quality and resistance to noise.

🔹 Disadvantages:

 Requires more bandwidth than AM.

✅ Formula:

s(t) =A cos(2πfct + kf ∫ m(t)dt)

where kf is the frequency deviation constant.

3️.Phase Modulation (PM)

🔹 Definition: Varies the phase of the carrier wave based on the message
signal.
🔹 Example: Used in digital communication (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).
🔹 Advantages:

 Robust against interference.

🔹 Disadvantages:

 Complex receiver design.

✅ Formula:

s(t) = A cos (2πfct + kpm(t))

where Kp is the phase sensitivity constant.

4. Describe Digital to Analog Signal conversion.

Ans: -Digital-to-Analog Conversion (DAC) is the process of converting a

digital signal (binary: 0s and 1s) into an analog signal (continuous
waveform). This is essential for devices like speakers, analog TVs, and radio
transmitters that need analog signals to function.

Types of Digital-to-Analog Conversion (Modulation Techniques)

1️.Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

🔹 Definition: Represents digital data by varying the amplitude of the analog
carrier wave.
🔹 Example: Used in RFID systems and low-speed modems.
🔹 Advantages:

 Simple to implement.
🔹 Disadvantages:

 Susceptible to noise.

✅ Waveform Representation:

 1 → High Amplitude

 0 → Low Amplitude

✅ Formula:

s(t)=Adcos(2πfct)

where Ad depends on whether the bit is 0 or 1.

2️.Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

🔹 Definition: Represents digital data by varying the frequency of the analog

carrier wave.
🔹 Example: Used in fax machines, Bluetooth, and radio transmission.
🔹 Advantages:

 More resistant to noise than ASK.

🔹 Disadvantages:

 Requires more bandwidth.

✅ Waveform Representation:

 1 → High Frequency

 0 → Low Frequency

✅ Formula:

s(t)=A cos (2πf1t) (for ’1’)

s(t)=A cos (2πf2t) (for ’0’)

where f1 and f2 are different frequencies for 1s and 0s.

3️.Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

🔹 Definition: Represents digital data by varying the phase of the carrier

wave.
🔹 Example: Used in Wi-Fi, satellite communication, and modern
 modems.
🔹 Advantages:

 Very efficient in bandwidth usage.

🔹 Disadvantages:

 Requires complex signal processing.

✅ Waveform Representation:

 1 → 0° Phase Shift

 0 → 180° Phase Shift

✅ Formula:

s(t)=A cos(2πfct + θ)

where θ is 0° or 180° depending on the bit.

4️.Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

🔹 Definition: Combines both Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) and Phase

Shift Keying (PSK) to send more bits per symbol.
🔹 Example: Used in modern digital TV (DVB), Wi-Fi, and 4G/5G
networks.
🔹 Advantages:

 Highly efficient for high-speed data transmission.

🔹 Disadvantages:

 More complex to decode.

✅ Example:

 QAM-16 can encode 4 bits per symbol (0000 to 1111).

 QAM-64 can encode 6 bits per symbol (000000 to 111111).

5. Describe Digital to Digital Signal conversion.

Ans: -Digital-to-Digital Conversion is the process of converting digital data

(binary 0s and 1s) into a specific digital signal format for efficient transmission
over a communication channel. This process is also known as Line Coding and
is crucial in computer networks and data communication.

Types of Digital-to-Digital Conversion (Line Coding Techniques)

1️. Unipolar Encoding

🔹 Definition: Uses a single voltage level for 1s and 0V for 0s.

🔹 Example: Simple ON/OFF keying.
🔹 Advantages:

 Simple to implement.
🔹 Disadvantages:

 No synchronization; long sequences of 0s cause loss of signal.

✅ Waveform Representation:

 1 → High Voltage (e.g., +5V)

 0 → Zero Voltage (0V)

2️.Polar Encoding

🔹 Definition: Uses two voltage levels (positive and negative) for 1s and 0s.
🔹 Types:

 NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) – Keeps the signal constant for each bit.

 NRZI (Non-Return-to-Zero Inverted) – Changes the signal on 1, stays

the same on 0.

 Manchester Encoding – 1 = High-to-Low transition, 0 = Low-to-High

transition.

 Differential Manchester – Transition at the middle of each bit, extra

transition at the start of a ‘0’.

✅ Example: Ethernet uses Manchester encoding.

3️.Bipolar Encoding

🔹 Definition: Uses three voltage levels (+V, 0, -V) to encode data.

🔹 Types:

 AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) – 1s alternate between +V and -V, 0 is

always 0V.
  Pseudoternary – Opposite of AMI, where 0s alternate and 1s are 0V.
🔹 Advantages:

 Reduces DC bias, improves synchronization.

✅ Example: Used in T1 lines (telephone networks).

4️. Multilevel Encoding (MLT-3, 4B/5B, 8B/10B, PAM-5)

🔹 Definition: Uses multiple voltage levels to encode multiple bits per signal.
🔹 Example:

 MLT-3 – Cycles through three levels (0, +V, -V).

 4B/5B – Maps 4-bit data into 5-bit codes (used in Fast Ethernet).

 8B/10B – Used in Gigabit Ethernet and fiber-optic networks.

 PAM-5 (Pulse Amplitude Modulation-5) – Used in Gigabit Ethernet

(1000BASE-T).

✅ Example: Gigabit Ethernet (1000BASE-T) uses PAM-5 encoding.

6. What is switching and describe about circuit switching?

Ans: -Switching is the process of forwarding data from one device to another
through an efficient path in a network. It helps in transferring data between
different network nodes.

Types of Switching Techniques:

1. Circuit Switching – A dedicated communication path is established

before data transmission.

2. Packet Switching – Data is divided into packets, which are sent

separately and reassembled at the destination.

3. Message Switching – The entire message is stored and forwarded from

one node to another.
Circuit Switching

Definition:

Circuit switching is a network communication method where a dedicated

communication path is established between two devices before data
transmission begins. This path remains reserved for the entire duration of the
communication.

How Circuit Switching Works:

1. Connection Establishment – A dedicated path is set up between sender

and receiver.

2. Data Transfer – Data is transmitted continuously along the established

path.

3. Connection Termination – The path is released once the communication

ends.

Examples of Circuit Switching:

Telephone Networks – When a call is made, a dedicated circuit is established

until the call ends.
Leased Lines – Private circuits used for dedicated communication between two
points.

Advantages of Circuit Switching:

✅ Reliable Communication – Once established, the path remains stable.

✅ Low Latency – No delays due to packet queuing.
✅ Predictable Bandwidth – Dedicated resources ensure a constant data rate.

Disadvantages of Circuit Switching:

❌ Inefficient Resource Utilization – Resources are occupied even when no

data is transmitted.
❌ Setup Delay – Establishing a connection takes time before data transfer
begins.
❌ Not Scalable for Internet Use – Not suitable for bursty data traffic like web
browsing or email.

7. What is multiplexing and types of multiplexing?

ANS: -Multiplexing is a technique used in telecommunications and networking

to combine multiple signals into a single medium for efficient transmission. It
maximizes the use of available bandwidth and reduces transmission costs.

Types of Multiplexing

1️.Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

📡 Definition:

 Different signals are transmitted on separate frequency bands within the

same channel.

 Used in analog communication systems.

📌 Example:

 Radio & TV Broadcasting – Different stations use different frequencies.

 Cable TV – Multiple TV channels are sent over a single coaxial cable.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Efficient for continuous signals (e.g., radio, TV).
✔ No waiting time between transmissions.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Prone to interference (cross-talk between frequencies).
✖ Wastes bandwidth if some channels are idle.

2️. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Definition:

 Multiple signals share the same channel by using different time slots.
  Used in digital communication.

Example:

 Telephone Networks (T1/E1 lines) – Multiple calls are time-shared on

the same wire.

Types of TDM:
🔹 Synchronous TDM – Each device gets a fixed time slot, even if it has no data
to send.
🔹 Asynchronous (Statistical) TDM – Time slots are allocated dynamically
based on demand.

✅ Advantages:
✔ More efficient than FDM for digital data.
✔ No interference between signals.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Time slots may be wasted in synchronous TDM if some users are inactive.

3️. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Definition:

 Used in fiber-optic networks where multiple data streams are

transmitted using different wavelengths (colors) of light.

Example:

 Optical Fiber Communication (DWDM in 5G/Internet backbone)

✅ Advantages:
✔ Very high-speed data transfer.
✔ Supports long-distance communication.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Expensive hardware is required (lasers, fiber optics).

4️.Code Division Multiplexing (CDM/CDMA)

Definition:
  Multiple signals are transmitted simultaneously over the same channel
using unique codes for each user.

Example:

 Cellular Networks (3G, 4G CDMA) – Multiple users communicate

without interfering by using different codes.

✅ Advantages:
✔ More users can share the same frequency.
✔ Secure and resistant to interference.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Complex signal processing is needed.

8. Describe Noiseless channels and Noisy channels.

Ans: -In network communication, data transmission occurs over channels that
can either be noiseless (ideal) or noisy (real-world). The presence of noise
affects how data is transmitted and received.

1️. Noiseless Channels (Ideal Communication Channels)

Definition:

A noiseless channel is an ideal communication medium where data is

transmitted without any errors or interference. This means that the receiver gets
exactly what the sender transmits.

Characteristics:

✅ No external interference (e.g., no electrical noise or distortions).

✅ Perfect signal transmission.
✅ Theoretical concept (not found in real-world scenarios).

Examples:

📡 Fiber-optic cables in controlled environments (low interference).

🔗 Theoretical models in information theory (like Shannon’s Noiseless
Channel Model).
Models of Noiseless Channels:

🔹 Ideal Channel – No data loss, perfect transmission.

🔹 Shannon’s Noiseless Model – Used for lossless data compression studies.

2️. Noisy Channels (Real-World Communication Channels)

Definition:

A noisy channel is a communication medium where external interference

distorts or corrupts the transmitted data, leading to errors.

Characteristics:

❌ Signal degradation due to interference.

❌ Errors in data reception (bits may change from 0 to 1 or vice versa).
❌ Common in real-world networks (Wi-Fi, mobile networks, etc.).

Examples of Noisy Channels:

📞 Telephone lines – Experience static due to electrical interference.

📶 Wireless networks (Wi-Fi, Mobile) – Affected by distance, walls, and other
signals.
⚡ Copper cables (Ethernet, DSL) – Susceptible to electromagnetic
interference.

9. What is virtual circuits networks?

Ans: -A Virtual Circuit Network (VCN) is a type of packet-switched network

where a pre-established logical path (virtual circuit) is set up between the sender
and receiver before data transmission begins. Unlike traditional circuit switching,
no dedicated physical path is used; instead, packets follow a predefined logical
route.

Types of Virtual Circuits

1️. Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC)

  A pre-configured virtual circuit that remains available even when not in
use.

 Used for consistent communication between devices.

 Example: Leased lines in ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)

networks.

2️. Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC)

 A temporary virtual circuit established dynamically for each session.

 Once the session ends, the circuit is closed.

 Example: X.25 and Frame Relay networks.

Examples of Virtual Circuit Networks

📡 X.25 – An early packet-switching network using virtual circuits.

🔄 Frame Relay – Uses virtual circuits for efficient wide-area networking (WAN).
🚀 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) – Uses PVC and SVC for high-speed
data transfer.

Advantages of Virtual Circuit Networks

✅ Efficient Bandwidth Utilization – No dedicated path required like circuit

switching.
✅ Reduced Overhead – Once a path is established, packets only need a virtual
circuit identifier (VCI).
✅ Reliable Transmission – Ensures packets follow a predefined route.

Disadvantages of Virtual Circuit Networks

❌ Setup Delay – Establishing a virtual circuit takes time before data transfer.
❌ Failure Sensitivity – If a node in the path fails, the entire circuit may need re-
routing.

10. What is spread spectrum modulation?

Ans: - Spread Spectrum Modulation is a technique used in wireless
communication where a signal is spread over a wide frequency range to improve
resistance against interference, jamming, and eavesdropping. It enhances
security, reliability, and efficiency in data transmission.

Types of Spread Spectrum Modulation

1️⃣ Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

🔄 Definition:

 The signal rapidly switches between different frequencies within a wide

bandwidth in a pseudorandom sequence.

 If interference occurs at one frequency, the signal simply hops to another.

📌 Example:

 Bluetooth, Military Communications, RFID.

✅ Advantages:
✔ High resistance to jamming and interception.
✔ Efficient in crowded frequency environments.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Requires synchronization between sender and receiver.

2️⃣ Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

🌐 Definition:

 The signal is spread by multiplying it with a high-rate pseudorandom noise

code.

 Increases bandwidth but makes the signal appear as noise to unintended

receivers.

📌 Example:

 Wi-Fi (802.11b), GPS, CDMA (3G networks).

✅ Advantages:
✔ Better resistance to noise and interference.
✔ Provides security as it appears as noise to unauthorized users.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Requires higher bandwidth compared to FHSS.

3️⃣ Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) – Hybrid

Approach

📡 Definition:

 Uses multiple subcarriers at different frequencies to send data in parallel.

 Commonly used in modern broadband and 5G networks.

📌 Example:

 Wi-Fi (802.11a/g/n/ac), 4G LTE, 5G, Digital TV.

✅ Advantages:
✔ High-speed data transmission.
✔ Efficient spectrum usage.

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Sensitive to frequency offsets and Doppler shifts.