Chapter One

Data Communication Basics

Department: Computer Science

2 n d Year
Prepared By: Mr. Dawit M.
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At The End of These Chapter be able to Know

Communication Basics

Data Representation Techniques

Digital Data Transmission Formats

Transmission Impairments

Mode of Data Transmission

Multiplexing

Signal Encoding Techniques

Data Transmission Error Detection and Correction

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 1.1 What is Data Communication?
Data: Known facts that can be recorded and have an implicit meaning.

Communication: is sending and receiving information between two or more people/devices.

 To ensure communication, there must be two parties and channel and both parties must send and
receive the information.

Data communications: are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire less or wired.
 It is the process of transferring data from place to place (from device to device). It deals with the
transmission of signals in a reliable and efficient manner.
 For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication
system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).

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 The effectiveness of data communications depends on the following fundamental
characteristics:
i. Delivery iii. Accuracy
ii. Timeliness iv. Jitter
I. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received
by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
II. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
III. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless.
In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are
produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This
kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
IV. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.
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Data Communication Components:

A data communications system has five components.

1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message.
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver. Transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable,
and radio waves
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices.

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1.2 Data Representation Techniques
 The type of data to be transmitted can be in the form of text, number, image,
audio, and video

1. Text
 In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s).

 Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called a code, and the
process of representing symbols is called coding.
 Today, the prevalent coding system is called ASCII code, which uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character
used in any language in the world.

2. Numbers
 Numbers are also represented by bit patterns.

 However, a code such as ASCII is not used to represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary
number.

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3. Images
Cont’d…
 Images are also represented by bit patterns.

 In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each
pixel is a small dot.

 The size of the pixel depends on the resolution.

 After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit pattern.

4. Audio
 Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music.

 Audio is by nature different from text, numbers, or images.

 It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a microphone to change voice or music to an
electric signal, we create a continuous signal.

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 Cont’d…
5. Video

 Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie.

 Video can either be produced as a continuous entity or it can be a combination of images, each
a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.

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1.3 Digital Data Transmission Format
Data : are entities that convey meaning, or information.

: raw facts or it can be analog or digital.

Signals : a detectable transmitted energy that carries information.

: are electric or electromagnetic representations of data.

Signaling : is the physical propagation of signal along a suitable medium.

Transmission : is the communication of data by the propagation and processing of signals.

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 Cont’d…
 Digital Data:- information that has discrete states.
 Analog Data:- information that is continuous.

 Digital Signal:- can have only a limited number of defined values.

 Example analog clock (with second, minute and hour hands) and digital clock
o For digital signal, although each value can be any number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0.
 Analog signal:- has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time.
 As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and includes an infinite number
of values along its path.
 A digital signal, on the other hand, can have only a limited number of
defined values. Although each value can be any number, it is often as
simple as 1 and 0.

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1. Digital data to digital signal conversion
 It convert digital data into digital signals.

 It can be done in two ways

i. Line coding is necessary for all communications.

ii. Block coding is optional.

1.1. Line Coding: The process for converting digital data into digital signal. Digital data is found
in digital format, which is binary bits. It is represented (stored) internally as series of 1s and 0s.

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 Cont’d…

Line coding can be represented as discrete signal. Three types

i. Unipolar

ii. Polar

iii. Bipolar

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 Cont’d…

1.2. Block Coding: To ensure accuracy of data frame received, redundant bits are used.
Redundant bit(s) are added to each block of information bits to ensure synchronization and error
detection

For example, in even parity one parity bit is added to make the count of 1s in the frame even.

 This way the original number of bits are increased. It is called Block Coding.

After block coding is done it is given to line coded for transmission.

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 2. Analog signal to digital data conversion
 Analog data is wave form continuous stream of data whereas digital data is discrete.

 To convert analog wave into digital data we use Pulse Code Modulation.

 Pulse Code Modulation is one of the most commonly used method to convert analog data into
digital form. It involves three steps:

i. Sampling

ii. Quantization

iii. Encoding.

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 1.4 Transmission Impairments
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection causes
signal impairment.

This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at the
end of the medium.

 When signals travel through the medium they tend to deteriorate. This may have many reasons:

i. Attenuation: a loss of energy.

ii. Distortion: the signal changes its form or shape.

iii. Noise: Random disturbance or fluctuation in analog or digital signals is said to be Noise in
signal, which may distort the actual information being carried.

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 Cont’d…
1. Attenuation: means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels

through a medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium.

This leads the lost of signal.

To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.

Example:
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is reduced to one-
half.

NB: that the decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if a signal is amplified.

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 2. Distortion: means that the signal changes its form or shape. Distortion can occur in a composite
signal made of different frequencies.

Each signal component has its own propagation speed through a medium and, therefore, its own
delay in arriving at the final destination.

3. Noise: is anther type of impairments. Several type of noise exists.

i. Thermal Noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire which creates an extra signal not
originally sent by the transmitter.

ii. Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts as a sending antenna and the
other as the receiving antenna.

iii. Impulse Noise, induced noise are also example of noise

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 The transmission mode decides how data is transmitted between two computers.

 Based on how many bit (s) are transmitted, transmission mode can be divided into two:
i) Parallel ii) Serial transmission

1. Parallel Transmission
 In parallel communications

 Multiple bits (eg. Eight bits) will be transferred at a time

 Needs multiple communication channels

Advantage: It has high speed

Disadvantage: is the cost of wires
 Cont’d...
2. Serial Transmission

 In serial communications
 A single bit will be transferred at a time

 It requires only one communication channel.

 Bits are sent one after another and will be reassembled at the

destination.
 Drawback: Delay
 1.5 Mode of Data Transmission
 There are 3 different transmission modes characterized according to the direction of the exchanges
that means from one location to other location:

1. A Simplex Connection is a connection in which the data flows in only one direction, from the
transmitter to the receiver.

 Useful if the data do not need to flow in both directions.

 For example: from your computer to the printer or from the mouse to your computer...
2. A Half-duplex Connection: system can transmit data in both directions, but only in one direction at
a time. Hence, a half-duplex line can alternately send and receive data.

 It requires two wires. This is most common type of transmission for voice communication

because only one person is supposed to speak at a time.

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 The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.

 For Example: Email, Walkie – Talkie, CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex

systems.

3. Full Duplex: allows information to flow simultaneously in both directions on the

transmission path.
 Use of a full duplex line improves efficiency, because the line turn-around time required
in half-duplex arrangement is eliminated.
The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.

For example: telephone network. When two people are communicating by a telephone

line, both can talk and listen at the same time.

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 Cont’d.…

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 1.6 Multiplexing
 In data communication, there might be a need to share a single media for multiple

communication (media/bandwidth sharing) in order to utilize the available bandwidth wisely

to achieve specific goals.

 Sharing of a single media (fiber, coaxial, microwave,..) is known as multiplexing.

 Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the (simultaneous) transmission of multiple

signals across a single data link.

 A technique to mix and send multiple data streams over a single medium.

 Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the bandwidth needs

of the devices, the link can be shared.

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  This technique requires system hardware called multiplexer (MUX) for multiplexing the

streams and sending them on a medium, and de-multiplexer (DMUX) which takes information

from the medium and distributes to different destinations.

 The link is able to carry n separate channels of data.

 The multiplexer combines (multiplexes) data from the n input lines and transmits over a
higher capacity data link.

 The demultiplexer accepts the multiplexed data stream, separates (demultiplexes) the data
according to channel, and delivers them to the appropriate output lines.

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Multiplexing Vs Non – Multiplexing

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Advantages of Multiplexing

 More than one signals can be sent over single medium or link.

 Effective use of the bandwidth of medium.

 There are three types of Multiplexing MULTIPLEXING

Wavelength-
Frequency- Division Time – Division
Division
Multiplexing Multiplexing
Multiplexing

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 Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)
 FDM is a signal transmission technology in which multiple signals can simultaneously be

transmitted over the same line or channel.

 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) can be used in both wired and wireless networking for

transmitting large amounts of data at high speeds.

 FDM is the simplest and oldest form of multiplexing in wireless networking technology.

 Frequency division multiplexing involves simultaneously transmitting multiple signals on

different frequencies.

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 Cont’d…
These different frequencies, called channels, share non-overlapping portions of

the total frequency band being used.

Signals from different data sources are fed into a multiplexer that modulates

each signal and transmits them at different frequencies.

These signals are then transmitted over the wire or through wireless

communication and are separated at the destination into individual data signals

using a demultiplexer.

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 FD Multiplexing Vs. FD Demultiplexing Example

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Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
In TDM, the data from different input channels is divided into fixed-length segments and then

combined in round-robin fashion into a single output data stream, which can then be transmitted

over a single channel transmission system and demultiplexed at the destination location.

The segments can be created by the multiplexer itself or can be inherent in the input channel

signals, such as fixed-length frames.

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 Cont’d…

 TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate digital channels into
one high-rate one.

 Weakness: if an input channel does not have anything important to carry for a time, empty
segments are inserted into the output stream anyway.

 For example, if channel A is not transmitting data, one-third of the output channel is not being
used.

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 Cont’d…
 For example, if input streams A, B, and C are divided into segments as shown here:
◦ A: A1, A2, A3,...
◦ B: B1, B2, B3,...
◦ C: C1, C2, C3,...
◦ the output stream will look like this:
◦ MUX(ABC) A1, B1, C1, A2, B2, C2, A3, B3, C3, ...

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Wave-Length Division Multiplexing (WDM)
WDM is similar to FDM but, the transmission occurs through fiber optic channels.

 Each light beam has different wavelengths.

 On sending end, WDM combines multiple light beams(optical signals) from channels
using a multiplexer and sends them as a single light beam through an optic fiber strand.

 On the receiving end, the demultiplexer separates the single light back into multiple light
beams and sends them to their own channels.
 1.7 Data Transmission Error Detection and Correction
Networks must be able to transfer data from one device to another with acceptable accuracy.

Data can be corrupted during transmission. Some applications require that errors be detected and
corrected.

 Errors in transmitted data can occur for a variety of reasons.

1. Some errors are due to equipment failure. Redundant devices can also reduce the probability
of failure

2. Some errors are due to attenuation (loss of signal power over a line).

3. Most errors are due to thermal noise that occurs naturally on the line.

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Errors in data
 Data is sent in the form of binary numbers.

 The binary numbers consist bites - which are either 0 or 1.

 There are four possible ways that noise can affect a bit:

 If a bit is 0, the noise can affect it so it stays 0 – no error

 If a bit is 0, the noise can change it to 1- error

 If a bit is 1, the noise can affect it so it stays 1 - no error

 If a bit is 1, the noise can change it to 0- error

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 Cont’d…

There are three type of error.

i. Single bit error: In a frame, there is only one bit, anywhere though, which is corrupt.

ii. Multiple bit error: Frame is received with more than one bits in corrupted state.

iii. Burst error: Frame contains more than one consecutive bits are corrupted.

Error control mechanism may involve two possible ways:

i. Error detection

ii. Error correction

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 Cont’d…

1. Error Detection
There is no way to guarantee that all bits will be sent uncorrupted.


Because errors occur randomly, there is no way of knowing with complete certainty if the data

is correct.
The question is, how can the receiver know when an error has occurred?


The best we can do is detect most errors.



We could try sending the data twice and comparing the two transmissions to see where the

errors are.
This is inefficient, particularly if all we want to know if there is an error in a particular block of

data.

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Error detection can be performed: i. Parity check ii. Checksum

iii. Cyclic redundancy check iv) Hamming code

i. Parity Check
 One of the most common ways of checking to see if an error occurs is to count the bits in a
character to see if there is an even or odd number.

 Before transmission, an extra bit (parity bit) is appended to the character to force the number
of bits to be even (or odd).

 If the received character does not have an even (or odd) number of bits then an error must
have occurred.

 Both the sender and receiver must know which form of parity to use.

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 Cont’d…
 A character such as 0110001 would be transmitted as:

Odd Parity: 01100010 (There are an odd number of 1s)

Even Parity: 01100011 (There are an even number of 1s)

 Parity checking will detect a single error in a character but not double errors.

8 bits including parity

7 bits of data
(count of 1 bits) Even odd

0000000 (0) 00000000 (0) 10000000 (1)

1010001 (3) 11010001 (4) 01010001 (3)
1101001 (4) 01101001 (4) 11101001 (5)
1111111 (7) 11111111 (8) 01111111 (7)

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ii. Checksum
 Another simple way of checking if there has been an error in a block of data is to find a
checksum.

 Imagine we send the data 121, 17, 29 and 47. Adding these numbers up, we get 214.

 We actually send 121,17,29,47 and 214.

 The receiver can total up the first numbers and compare it to the last one.

 A difference means an error has occurred.

 Checksums are common but not particularly good at catching errors. Later errors can easily
hide earlier ones.

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 Cont’d…

iii. Cyclic Redundancy Check

A far more effective way of detecting errors in a block of data is to use a Cyclic Redundancy
Code.

In CRC, a number is mathematically calculated for a packet by its source computer, and then
recalculated by the destination computer.

If the original and recalculated versions at the destination computer differ, the packet is corrupt
and needs to be resent or ignored.

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 Cont’d…
This technique preforms binary division format the data bit being sent.

The divisor is generated using polynomials.

The sender performs a division operation on the bits being sent and calculates the remainder.

For sending the bit, the sender add the remainder at the end of actual data bit is code word.

The results of this calculation are appended to the packet as a trailer.

The receiving station applies the same polynomial to the data and compares the results to the
trailer appended to the packet.

Example: 1. Calculate CRC for transmit data bit 11001 and the polynomial is 101?

2. Calculate CRC for transmit data bit 100100 and the polynomial is 1101?

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 Contd.
The mathematical procedure for performing a CRC is specified by the

International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and involves applying a

16-bit polynomial to the data being transmitted by the packet for
packets of 4 KB of data or less, or a 32-bit polynomial for packets
larger than 4 KB.

The results of this calculation are appended to the packet as a trailer.

The receiving station applies the same polynomial to the data and

compares the results to the trailer appended to the packet.

Implementations of Ethernet use 32-bit polynomials to calculate their

CRC.
44
 Cont’d…
2. Error Correction
In digital world, error correction can be done in two ways:

i. Backward Error Correction: When the receiver detects an error in the data received, it
requests back the sender to retransmit the data unit. This error correction mechanism use
selective ARQ and Go-Back-N.

ii. Forward Error Correction: When the receiver detects some error in the data received, it
uses an error-correcting code, which helps it to auto-recover and correct some kinds of
errors.

To correct the error in data frame, the receiver must know exactly which bit in the frame is
corrupted.

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Reading Assignment: CRC and Hamming Code

Assignment
1) Discuss briefly Unipolar, Polar, Bipolar
#1
2) Describe and discuss briefly Sampling, Quantization, Encoding.

3) Briefly explain Signal Encoding Techniques