Geography and

Environment

Senior 1

Student’s Book
 © 2021 Rwanda Basic Education Board

All rights reserved

This book is property of the Government of Rwanda.
Credit must be given to REB when the content is quoted.
FOREWORD
Dear Student,
Rwanda Basic Education Board is honoured to present to you Geography book for
Senior One which serves as a guide to competence-based teaching and learning
to ensure consistency and coherence in the learning of geography subject. The
Rwandan educational philosophy is to ensure that you achieve full potential at
every level of education which will prepare you to be well integrated in society
and exploit employment opportunities.
The government of Rwanda emphasizes the importance of aligning teaching and
learning materials with the syllabus to facilitate your learning process. Many
factors influence what you learn, how well you learn and the competences you
acquire. Those factors include quality instructional materials available, assessment
strategies for the learners among others. Special attention was paid to activities
that facilitate learning process develop your ideas and make new discoveries
during concrete activities carried out individually or with peers.
In competence-based curriculum, learning is considered as a process of active
building and developing knowledge and meanings by the learner where concepts
are mainly introduced by an activity, a situation or a scenario that helps the learner
to construct knowledge, develop skills and acquire positive attitudes and values.
For effective use of this textbook, your role is to:
• Work on given activities which lead to the development of skills
• Share relevant information with other learners through presentations,
discussions, group work and other active learning techniques such as
role play, case studies, investigation and research in the library, from the
internet or from your community;
• Participate and take responsibility for your own learning;
• Draw conclusions based on the findings from the learning activities.
To facilitate you in doing activities, the content of this book is self-explanatory so
that you can easily use it by yourself, acquire and assess your competences. The
book is made of units whereby each unit comprises: the key unit competence,
followed by the introductory activity before the development of geography
concepts that are connected to real world situation.
I wish to sincerely extend my appreciation to REB staff who organized the
editing process of this textbook. Special gratitude also goes to lecturers, teachers,
illustrators and designers who supported the exercise throughout. Any comment
or contribution would be welcome to the improvement of this textbook for the
next edition.

Dr. MBARUSHIMANA Nelson

Director General, REB
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my appreciation to all the people who played a major role in
editing process of this Geography book for Senior One. It would not have been
successful without their active participation.
Special thanks are given to those who gave their time to read and refine this
textbook to meet the needs of competence based curriculum. I owe gratitude to
different Universities and schools in Rwanda that allowed their staff to work
with REB to edit this book. I therefore, wish to extend my sincere gratitude to
lecturers, teachers, illustrators, designers and all other individuals whose efforts
in one way or the other contributed to the success of this edition.
Finally, my word of gratitude goes to the Rwanda Basic Education Board staff
particularly those from Curriculum, Teaching and Learning Resources Department
who were involved in the whole process of editorial work.

Joan Murungi,
Head of Curricullum, Teaching and Learning Resources Department/REB
 Table of Content
Unit 1: Introduction to geography......................................................................... 2
Definition of geography............................................................................. 2
Importance of Geography.......................................................................... 9
Sources of geographical information....................................................... 10
Unit 2: Elements of a map................................................................................... 18
What is a map? ...................................................................................... 18
Elements of a good map.......................................................................... 20
Symbols and signs used on maps............................................................. 22
Drawing sketch maps ............................................................................. 24
Indicators of relief on maps .................................................................... 27
Maps and aerial photographs ................................................................ 46
Atlas index ............................................................................................... 50
Unit 3: The Earth in relation to the universe ..................................................... 54
Components of the universe................................................................... 54
The Earth’s movements and their consequences ................................... 78
Latitudes and longitudes.......................................................................... 87

Unit 4: The structure of the Earth ....................................................................... 92

The components of the Earth ................................................................. 92
External structure of the earth ................................................................ 93
Internal structure of the earth ................................................................. 94
Unit 5: Forms of relief ......................................................................................... 98
Relief........................................................................................................ 98
Forms of relief....................................................................................... 101
Relationship between relief and human activities……………….…...…..….104
Unit 6: Rocks..................................................................................................... 109
Definition of rocks ................................................................................. 109
Types and characteristics of rocks......................................................... 109
Characteristics of rocks ........................................................................ 119
The importance of rocks ....................................................................... 120
Unit 7: Soils ....................................................................................................... 124
Definition of soil ................................................................................... 124
Soil formation processes ..……………………………………………..……..…...……. 124
 Factors influencing soil formation ........................................................ 127
Soil properties and constituents............................................................ 130
Soil profile and soil catena .................................................................... 138
Relationship between soil types and human activities .......................... 142
Unit 8: Weather and climate ............................................................................ 145
Definition of atmosphere, weather and climate . ................................. 145
Atmosphere .......................................................................................... 147
Elements of weather and climate ………………...…………………….…………....150
The weather station and its instruments .…………………..……….….……..….151
Temperature………............................................ ……………………….……..…..157
Precipitation ………………………..……………………………………………..……..……..161
Atmospheric pressure ...…….…………………..………………………….…………..…170
Humidity ………………………........…… ..…………………………………………...……..174
Winds ……………………………..……………………………………….....……………...…..177
Clouds.………………………………………..…………………………………………........….187
Sunshine ……………………………………………..…………….…………………....… ....193
Factors that influence climate ……………………….....………..…………….….….194
Climatic zones of the world ……………………………………..……..…………..……196
Impact of weather and climate on human activities ……. .…………....…..201
Unit 9: Vegetation ............................................................................................. 204
Classification of vegetation ..................................................................204
Factors that influence the distribution of vegetation …...……………..…..207
Importance of vegetation ....................................................................209
Relationship between vegetation and human activities ....... ..............210
Unit 10: General organisation of hydrography.................................................... 213
Definition of drainage............................................................................ 213
Water bodies.......................................................................................... 213
Major rivers of the world....................................................................... 216
River profile........................................................................................... 218
Drainage patterns.................................................................................. 220
Relationship between water bodies and human activities.................... 223
Unit 11: Hazards ................................................................................................. 228
Hazards.................................................................................................. 228
 Types of hazards.................................................................................... 228
Responses to hazards............................................................................. 245
Unit 12: Population and settlement.................................................................... 250
Population.............................................................................................. 251
Population structure and composition.................................................. 251
Population distribution and density...................................................... 254
Population growth................................................................................. 256
Settlement ............................................................................................ 259
Types of settlements.............................................................................. 260
Migration............................................................................................... 263
Unit 13: Economic activities................................................................................ 267
Economic activities................................................................................ 267
Importance of economic activities......................................................... 271
Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Map reading and photographic
interpretation
Number of periods: 3

1
 UNIT Introduction to
1 geography

Key unit competence Geography

To be able to determine the importance of The word geography is derived from two
geography and its relationship with other Greek words; geo and graphein. Geo means
subjects. “the Earth” and graphein or grapho means
to “write, draw, or describe.” The two words
Unit objectives are joined form one word “geographia”,
which stands for “writing about the Earth.”
By the end of this unit, you must be able to: It also means describing the Earth, Earth
(a) define geography description or to draw about the Earth.”
(b) identify the main branches of The term geography was first used in
geography 240 B.C. It was introduced by a Greek
(c) state the importance of geography philosopher known as Eratosthenes. He
(d) state different sources of geographical published a book about the earth and
information named it geography. According to this Greek
(e) identify the relationships between scholar, geography is defined as writing
geography and other subjects. about the planet Earth.
His book contributed a lot to the
Definition of geography understanding of the Earth. He is regarded
as “the father of geography”.
Activity 1.1
“Geography can be defined as the scientific
Do the following individually. study of the description and interrelationship
of physical and human features on the
1. Using dictionaries, the Internet,
earth’s surface”
textbooks and other geographical
documents, look for the meaning of Therefore, geography can be defined as
geography. the scientific study of the description and
2. Write down the meaning in your interrelationship of physical and human
exercise book. features on the Earth’s surface.
3. Tell your teacher what you have
understood by the meaning of
geography.

2
 Activity 1.2 Activity 1.3
Do the following. 1. Use coloured pencils, pencils,
1. Using your school’s surroundings, art books and paint to draw and
identify physical features and relate colour the following.
them to your existence. (a) Your homestead and its
2. Discuss how the geographical surroundings.
features you have identified help (b) People fishing on a lake.
you to understand the meaning of
(c) Your school and its
geography.
surrounding.
2. For each drawing, briefly
Dialogue: describe the relationship
between humans and
Do you think it is important the components of the
for us to plant trees?
environment.

Activity 1.4
Yes, trees help to make 1. Identify the natural features
our environment look in Figure 1.2.
beautiful. 2. Suggest how it is useful to the
people who live here.

They also help to prevent soil

erosion

Fig 1.1 Students planting trees.

Activity 1.2
Do the following.
1. Using your school’s surroundings,
identify physical features and relate
them to your existence.
2. Discuss how the geographical
features you have identified help
you to understand the meaning of
geography.

3
 Fig 1.2
Physical geography
Task 1.1
1. Briefly define the term geography. Activity 1.5
2. Explain the meaning of the following. Do the following .
(a) geo
1. Go to your garden and collect samples
(b) graphein of soil, stones and plants.
(c) geographia.
2. Write the names of the samples in
3. Giving specific reasons, explain why your notebooks.
Eratosthenes is very important in
3. Relate the soil samples to the human
geography.
activities.
4. Identify the relationship that exists
between man and the following
physical features. Physical geography is a branch of
geography that deals with the study of the
(a) Lakes
physical environment of humans. It studies
(b) Forests the natural features that have a direct
(c) Land and soils relationship with the activities of humans.
(d) Atmosphere It deals with geographical features that
(e) Rivers. are found on or near the earth’s surface.
The major aspects studied under physical
Branches of geography geography include the following.
There are two major branches of geography, (a) Drainage (rivers, lakes, swamps and
namely: other wetlands).
(a) Physical geography (b) Vegetation.
(b) Human and economic geography. (c) Weather and climate (climatology).
4
(d) Relief (landforms such as mountains, highlands and plains).

Fig 1.3 Birunga Mountains in northern Rwanda and prominent physical features.

(e) The structure of the earth (internal

and external parts of the earth).
Table 1.1: Sub-divisions of physical
(f) The earth and universe. geography .
(g) The internal land-forming processes Sub-division Specific area of
(endogenic processes). geography
(h) The external land-forming processes Biogeography This is the study
(exogenic processes). of the animals and
(i) Rocks and soils (geology). plants found on the
earth’s surface and
Activity 1.6
their relationship with
Do the following. mankind.
1. Define the following sub-divisions of Climatology This is the study
physical geography. that is concerned
with climate and
(a) Drainage
all its associated
(b) Lithology geographical aspects.
(c) Relief Geomorphology This is the study of
(d) Geomorphology landforms – their
formation and
influence on humans’
way of living.

5
Lithology This is the study that Task 1.2
deals with rocks and
1. (a) Outline the main branches of
soils. It looks at their
geography.
type, characteristics,
formation and (b) Describe the following, giving
influence on human examples of each:
activities and the (i) physical features
environment. (ii) human activities.
Hydrography This is the study of 2. Explain two reasons why physical
rivers, lakes, seas, features are important in our lives.
oceans, swamps – their 3. Physical features have advantages
features, formation and and disadvantages. Name the ways in
types and their role in which they are:
landform formation.
(a) advantageous
It also looks at their
influence on the (b) disadvantageous.
environment and on
humans’ way of living. Human and economic geography
Activity 1.8
Activity 1.7
Do the following.
Do these individually.
1. Visit the communities around your
1. Using the Internet, geographical school.
documents and knowledge learnt 2. Identify ways in which the people
in class, research on how physical utilise the resources in the
features can be protected. environment for their benefit.
2. Do you think it is necessary to 3. Write your findings in your notebook.
protect the physical features in our
environment? 4. Discuss your findings in class.
3. Discuss your findings in class.
Human and economic geography is a branch
of geography that deals with the study of
human beings and their activities on the
earth’s surface. It examines what human
beings do on or near the earth’s surface.
Human and economic geography analyses
the role of humans in the world. It looks at
what humans have done and the outcomes
of their actions to the environment.
Fig 1.4 Students being shown how to plant
trees by their teacher.

6
 Fig 1.5 Environmental degradation at a site in Gicumbi district as
a result of human activity.

Human and economic geography includes (b) suggest reasons why it is

the following geographical aspects: necessary for the activity to be
• Mining carried out.
• Forestry 2. Using the same photograph, explain
the effects of the activity on the
• Agriculture environment.
• Trade and commerce 3. What suggestions would you give
• Power and energy on how to care for and protect their
• Pollution surroundings? Use the knowledge
• population you have learnt so far.
• Settlement
• Urbanisation
• Industrialisation
• Tourism
• Conservation and management of
natural resources
Fig 1.6
Activity 1.9
1. Using the photograph of Figure 1.6: Task 1.3
1. Explain the meaning of human and
(a) identify the economic activities
economic geography.
being carried out
2. State examples of activities studied in

7
 human and economic geography. climate. Its main cash crops are pyrethrum
3. Name and describe at least four and tea, while its food crop is the Irish
branches of human geography. potatoes. The following morning we left
4. Distinguish between physical Musanze for Rubavu in Western Province.
geography and human geography. We visited the hot springs. The water was
steaming hot. Our guide put an egg in the
hot water. In about two minutes, the egg
was fully cooked. After that, we visited Lake
Practical geography Kivu. There, we saw fishermen at work and
Case study people swimming.
Read the passage below and answer the Lastly, we visited the Bralirwa breweries.
questions that follow. Later we travelled back to Kigali. We
thanked Father for the trip. We had learnt
Akaliza’s day out a lot and had lots of fun.
“Pack your bags we will be going for a trip (a) Suggest a suitable title for this
tomorrow,” Father said. My siblings and passage.
I were all so excited that we hardly slept
that night. (b) Name the physical landforms
mentioned in the story.
The next morning, we left for our destination. (c) Identify the human activities
There we were, in the land of beautiful mentioned in the passage.
mountains, Musanze district. I must admit
I was stunned by the beautiful scenery. We (d) Using the geographical knowledge,
went to climb Mount Karisimbi. However, I you have describe how one
was afraid and did not climb with the rest. can conserve and protect the
When my family members came down environment in Musanze district.
they told me about all the things they had (e) Use a map of Rwanda to identify
seen. They also showed me pictures of the Musanze and Rubavu districts,
famous crater lake on Mount Karisimbi. We respectively.
then went to see Mount Sabyinyo. We saw (f) On the maps, point out the location
its top sharp peaks. We learnt that it got its of some of the physical features that
name from those “sharp peaks”. We also Akaliza and her family visited.
saw gorillas and monkeys at the Volcanoes Practical geography is a minor branch
National Park. The gorillas looked scary at of geography.It deals with the scientific
first, but later, I found them to be friendly approaches that are aimed at collecting,
when treated well. In the afternoon, we studying, analysing, recording and
travelled to Burera to visit the Ntaruka interpreting geographical data. This is done
hydropower plant. We learnt about how in a practical way hence the name practical
electricity is produced. Lake Burera supplies geography. This includes the following.
water to the Ntaruka hydropower station.
• Fieldwork studies.
I learnt that Musanze district has many trees
and volcanic mountains. It also has a cold • Maps and map work.
8
• Statistical methods such as divided (a) Geography creates a platform for
circles and graphs. learners to research on different topics.
• Photographic interpretation, where This equips them with research and
various physical and human features analytical skills.
are recorded in the form of photographs (b) Geography assists learners to know the
for further interpretation. outside world as they do their research.
This branch enables learners to further (c) It gives learners the knowledge and
understand what is studied in theory in skills that enable them to understand
class. It also relates different geographical their environment.
aspects to the real world. For example, (d) Geography enables humans to
when studying fishing, one goes out to the understand problems that face the
field to study the practice on a lake or river. community. They therefore work
towards finding solutions.
Activity 1.10
(e) Geographical studies and research
1. Under the guidance of your teacher, visit findings are helpful to the government
the community living near your school. and related agencies during the
2. Observe the farming methods formulation of policies.
they use and the soil conservation (f) Geography equips an individual with
measures they have put in place. knowledge of the relationships of
3. Explain the findings. people from different countries.
(g) Geography provides guidance to
leaders on how to allocate national
Importance of geography resources to all parts of the country.
Activity 1. 11 (h) Geography informs the attitude that
countries and individuals have towards
other countries. For example, it is
Use the Internet, your personal experience important for countries in the EAC to be
and geographical documents to do the aware of the socio-economic conditions
following: prevailing in Burundi and Somalia.
1. Find out the contribution of (i) Geography equips people with problem
geography to the socio-economic solving skills.
development of Rwanda. (j) Human and economic geography
2. Explain your findings. provides learners with the knowledge
on the available resources that humans
can utilise for survival.
Geography is a subject that directly deals
with different aspects of life. Studying (k) Geography provides learners with a
geography as a subject is important in the strong foundation in understanding
following ways: other subjects of equal importance
such as Physics, Mathematics and
Economics.

9
(l) Geography assists learners to develop the governor’s office. They discussed the
the spirit of cooperation through economic activities of the Eastern Province.
teamwork during fieldwork studies. He got a lot of information which he wrote
in his notebook. He was also given a map
Activity 1.12 and was referred to the museum.
Do the following under the guidance of As he left, he met an elderly man who
your teacher. was familiar to him. The man had lived in
1. Visit the community around your the province for a long time. They greeted
school. each other and began talking about land
2. Study the influence of geography use in the province. As they talked about
on land-use patterns and on socio- agriculture in the region, Mr. Hakizimana
economic development. wrote notes. When they finished the
discussion, he thanked the old man and left
3. Write down your findings.
for his home.
4 Present your findings in a class
discussion. On his way back, he kept looking out of
the taxi window. He saw various plants,
settlements, industries and rice growing in
Sources of geographical
valleys. He was impressed by what he saw.
information
The following day, he visited the public
Case study library at Nyagatare. He read books that
had information about the Eastern Province.
Read the passage provided below and
answer the questions that follow. The next morning, he visited the fields
in Gashora area. He interacted with the
Mr. Hakizimana, was commissioned to farmers, traders and school administrators
conduct a study in the Eastern Province in the nearby areas. He then went back
of Rwanda. The study was on the land use home and began writing on the topic he had
patterns in the province. He decided to visit been given. After two weeks, he was able
the governor of the province. to present the findings of his study.
At the governor’s office, he was received (a) Who was the researcher mentioned
by the secretary. As he waited for his in the story?
turn to see the governor, he asked to use
(b) Why do you think the researcher
the Internet. He was allowed to and he
decided to visit the governor of the
immediately started using his laptop. He
Eastern Province?
searched for information about land uses
in the Eastern Province. As time went by, (c) Why was Mr. Hakizimana carrying a bag
he saw a pile of journals on a table at the full of books, journals and magazines?
corner of the reception office. His attention (d) Name the sources of geographical
shifted to them. He began reading them information mentioned in the story.
one by one. (e) Name some of the things that
Shortly after, he was asked to get into impressed him as he looked outside

10
 through the taxi window.

Sources of geographical information refer

to the different materials that a geographer
uses to obtain information.
There are many sources of geographical
information depending on the type of
data or information that is required. The
following are the most commonly used Fig 1.8 Geographical magazines.
sources. Mass media always has geographical
programmes with information that is helpful
(a) Textbooks to geographers. Examples of geographical
These are geographical documents that programmes on television can be found
have a lot of information concerning specific on the National Geographic channel.
geographical aspects. They are the most The programmes tackle issues like the
common source of information used by environment, wildlife, rocks and physical
geographical researchers. Textbooks are features.
usually written by professionals and well
informed authors. (c) Atlases
An atlas is a collection of maps. An atlas
is a map of the Earth or a region on the
Earth. However, there are also atlases
of other planets and their satellites in
the solar system. Atlases usually present
geographic features, political boundaries and
geopolitical, social, religious and economic
statistics.

Fig 1.7 Geography textbooks.

(b) Mass media
This refers to the means of public
communication that reach large audiences.
Mass media includes radio, television,
magazines and newspapers. Fig 1.9 Atlases.
(d) Maps
A map is a diagrammatic representation
of an area of land or sea. It shows physical
features such as mountains, rivers and lakes.
A map may also show economic activities,
natural resources and land use.
11
 Administrative Divisions of Rwanda

W E

0 60
15 30 45

Fig 1.10 A map of Rwanda showing administrative district boundaries.

(e) Graphs This is shown by means of a line, curve, a

A graph is a two-dimensional drawing that series of bars or other symbols. A set of
shows a relationship usually between two variables are represented on both the x and
sets of numbers. y axes. A variable is a factor or figure that
Rwanda GDP can change.
7.89
7.52 8
7.22
7
An independent variable is a factor or figure
USD Billions

6.41
5.7 6
that does not depend on another variable
4.8
5.31
5
to change. It is usually represented on the
3.78 4
x-axis. In Figure 1.11, the years 2006-2014
3.11
3
are independent variables.
2006 2008 2010 2012 2014

Source: tradingeconomics.com/worldbank
A dependent variable is a factor or figure
that changes and is dependent on another
Fig 1.11 Graph showing Rwanda’s GDP factor. It is usually represented on the y-axis.
between 2006 and 2014 . In Fig 1.11, the billion US dollars are the
dependent variables.

12
(f) Billboards (h) People
A billboard is a large outdoor advertising These are people who may be experienced,
structure. They are usually erected along busy skilled, unskilled or ordinary locals.
roads. Billboards present advertisements to
pedestrians and motorists. They can also be
a source of geographical information such
as the one shown in Figure 1.12.

BIRUNGA

Fig 1.14 A resource person guiding students

in a fieldwork study.

These people usually have relevant

geographical information concerning
Fig 1.12 A billboard advertising the mountain
different features, activities or areas.
gorillas of the Birunga Mountains.
Such people usually give dependable data
(g) Libraries or information that geographers use in
A library is a place where books, documents, their work. They are usually very useful
documentaries and films are stored. A library in fieldwork or as additional sources of
is a very reliable source of information. information in classwork .
Geographers can visit libraries to read about
the findings of other past geographers. (i) Internet
These findings are usually documented This is the most used source of geographical
in books. Examples of libraries in Rwanda information. It is used by many researchers.
include the Kigali Public Library and the Researchers look for information from
National Library of Rwanda. different sites.

Fig 1.13 Students studying inside the Kigali

Public Library. Fig 1.15 Children using laptops.

13
Different researchers, scholars and authors
post their information and findings on
the Internet. Over the Internet, sites such
as http://images.nationalgeographic.
com/wpf/media-live/photos/000/728/
cache/gorilla-volcanoes-national-park-
rwanda_72891_990x742.jpg provide a
lot of information that can be used to get
data. The Internet is accessed by use of
computers or smart phones. Fig 1.17
(a) What can you see in the
(j) Physical environment photograph?
This includes humans and their surroundings. (b) Who used to stay in such huts?
The surroundings are made up of natural
(c) Give three reasons why we
features such as mountains, hills and water
should protect such historical
bodies. The physical environment is a
sites.
reliable source of geographical information.
(d) Where are such sites found in
Rwanda?

Museums are places selected for storing

a variety of historical and geographical
information and artefacts. In such places,
various data are kept. A museum is very
important in gathering information on the
past historical and geographical events.
The following are some of the museums
Fig 1.16 Students during a field study. in Rwanda.
It enables the geographer to get first-hand • Natural History Museum (Kandt House)
information on different geographical located at Nyarugenge in Kigali.
phenomena. This information is used to
• Ethnographic Museum located at
enrich geography as a subject.
Huye.
(k) Museums • Presidential Palace Museum located
at Kanombe in Kigali.
Activity 1.13
• National Liberation Park Museum
1. Study the photograph of Figure 1.17 known as Umurindi w’intwari.
and use it to answer the questions • Environmental Museum located at
that follow. Karongi.
• King’s Palace Museum located at
Rukari in Nyanza.

14
 Geography as a subject involves many
calculations. They include determining the
areas of given locations and lengths of roads
or rivers. Climatic aspects such as relative
humidity, temperature range and averages
are also calculated.
(b) Chemistry
There is a direct relationship between
chemistry and studies in geography.
This applies to chemical and mineral
Fig 1.18 Animal artefacts at the Natural compositions of rocks, chemical weathering
History Museum. and gases in the atmosphere.

The relationship between geography (c) Physics

and other subjects There are areas in geography that have a
relationship with certain concepts studied in
Activity 1.14 physics. They include topics like waves that
are found in earthquakes and the influence
of gravity in mass wasting.
1. List all the subjects you are taught in
school. (d) Entrepreneurship education
2. Discuss the relationship between Entrepreneurship is a discipline that deals
each one of them and Geography. with the selection of business opportunities.
3. Write down the points that you These opportunities are based on the local
discuss in your note book. environment. The available resources are
4. Make a class presentation of your utilised in the production of goods. The
findings. goods are sold to make profits as well as to
satisfy people’s needs. Similarly, geography
is concerned with natural resources and the
Geography as a subject cuts across environment.
many other disciplines. There is a strong
relationship between geography and other (e) Agriculture
disciplines such as history, mathematics, Agriculture deals with the cultivation of the
physics, chemistry, economics, medicine ground for crop production and the keeping
and entrepreneurship. Below is a brief of livestock. Various geographical aspects
description of the relationship between such as climate, soils and topography affect
geography and the other subjects: agriculture in different ways.
(a) Mathematics

15
(f) Biology and ecology and distribution and life expectancy. In
Biology is the study of living things. Geography, the population size in an area
Plants, animals and their environment determines the settlement patterns in the
are also important in geography. Ecology area.
on the other hand is the study of the
relationship between living organisms and
Did you know?
• The ancient Greek scholar Eratosthenes
their environment. It is also a function of
is known as the father of geography.
geography.
• Geography is related to almost
(g) Meteorology and climatology everything that concerns our world.
Meteorology is concerned with short-term • Geography provides solutions to
weather conditions. Activities such as environmental and social problems.
fishing and agriculture are influenced by • Geography is linked to all other
the weather. Climatology on the other hand disciplines under study.
deals with long-term weather conditions. • Geography studies real places and
Climate determines the economic activities real processes.
and vegetation in a given area.
(h) Geology End unit assessment.
This discipline deals with the history and 1. (a) Define geography.
structure of the earth in relation to rocks. (b) Name the two branches of
Geography is also concerned with such geography.
characteristics as colour, hardness and the (i) _______ (ii) _______
chemical composition of rocks. 2. Give five examples of aspects studied
under physical geography.
(i) Pedology
3. Write short notes on the following:
This is the study of soils. It deals with
the nature of the soil, its formation, its Term Description
characteristics and variation. Biogeography _________
Climatology _________
(j) Economics
Geomorphology _________
This refers to the conditions and laws
4. Giving specific examples, describe
affecting production, distribution and
the major sources of geographical
consumption of resources. The exploitation
information.
of natural resources is regulated by
economics. (a) __________ (b) __________
(c) __________
(k) Demography
Essay
This is concerned with human population
5. “Studying geography is important in
and its characteristics. It looks at birth
Rwanda’s education system.” Support
rates, death rates, population sizes
this statement.
16
 Topic area:
Practical geography
Sub-topic area:
Map reading and photographic
interpretation
Number of periods: 5

National capital
Major city
International boundary
17
 UNIT
2 Elements of a map

Key unit competence friend had told him that they would meet
under a certain tree. She gave him a list of
By the end of this unit, you must be able to
physical features to look out for on his way.
interpret the essential elements of a map
He was to cross a river and then turn right.
and draw sketch maps.
After going down a valley, he was supposed
Unit objectives to turn left and wait for his friend under a
big tree with many leaves.
By the end of this unit, you must be able to:
(a) If you were Gahigi, what would you
(a) define a map have done?
(b) identify the various elements of a (b) Do you think Gahigi got to his
good map destination?
(c) identify and interpret symbols and (c) Name the tool that Gahigi needed for
signs on a map him to get to his destination quickly.
(d) draw sketch maps
(e) state indicators of relief on a physical A map is a representation of the features of
map an area of the earth on a flat surface. The
(f) define a map and an aerial area could be on land or sea. A map usually
photograph shows physical features such as mountains,
(g) define an atlas index. hills, plateau, etcs. This representation is
usually done on a flat surface or piece of
What is a map? paper.
There are several types of maps. In this
Case study
topic, we will use topographic maps for
Read this passage and answer the our study. Topographic maps are also
questions that follow. called relief maps. These are maps that
show both natural and artificial features
Gahigi wanted to go to a place far away
of a given area. The maps are drawn to
from his home. He had been invited by his
scale. This means that they are reduced so
friend Uwase to go on an expedition. Early
that large areas are represented on small
one morning, he set out on his journey. His
sheets of paper.

18
Activity 2.1
Study the map of Rwanda below, and answer the questions that follow. Write your answers
in your notebooks.

Fig 2.1
1. (a) What is the title of the map?
(b) What is the main information reader to understand the
represented by the map? meaning of various symbols and
(c) Why do you think it is important signs used on a map?
for such a map to have a title? 3. Suppose Miss Tumusiime
2. (a) Name other elements of maps wishes to use the above map,
that have been shown on the map. which tool would help her to
( b) Give the importance of the locate Kigali City?
elements you have identified on
the map.
(c) Which element helps a map

19
Elements of a good map
Activity 2.2
Study the map of Africa below and answer the questions that follow.
Natural vegetation in Africa (i) (ii)

(iii)

(iv) (v)

Fig 2.2
1. Name the elements of a good map marked:
(a) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v).
(b) Explain the purpose of each element mentioned in (a) above.
2. Give the direction of tropical rain forests from Lesotho.

A good map has specific features. These represented in a map. They are therefore
features are commonly referred to as the usually placed at the margins.
elements of a map. The elements of a The following are the major elements of a
map are not part of the information that is good map.

20
Table 2.1 Elements of a good map.
Element Description
Title This shows the information that is contained in a map.
Frame This is a line that surrounds a map showing its limitation.
A key A key contains the symbols, colours and signs that help the map
readers to understand what is represented on the map.

A compass This shows the direction of various features that are shown on
map. The directions are usually in relation to the cardinal points
of a compass. They are North, South, West and East.
Scale This is the ratio of the size of a map to the ground area
represented on it. A scale helps cartographers to draw a large
area of the earth’s surface on a small sheet of a paper.

Activity 2.3
Use the elevation map shown below to answer the questions that follow.

Physical features of Rwanda

Fig 2.3

21
1. Which physical feature is found to the
north-western part of the map? Symbols and signs used on maps
2. Name the lake that is found to the A symbol is something that is used for or
western side of the map. regarded as representing something else.
In map work, a key usually shows different
3. Give the direction of Birunga
symbols. It also gives their meanings.
Mountains from the Eastern plains.
4. Your teacher has organised a trip for The symbols are usually in the form of short-
you to the Rusumo falls. Identify its hand characters, pictorial presentations
direction from Kigali city. or colours. In most cases, they show the
activities, towns and other physical features.
This is done purposely to avoid overcrowding
a map with a lot of information that would
make it look untidy.
Activity 2.4
Use the map extract provided below.
1. Identify the symbols used to represent various features on the map.

78

79

80
28 29 30 31 32 33

Borehole Water hole Well Spring

Settlement BH WH W S
Woodland
27 PWD Public Works Division
Scrub RC Regional Commissioner
Sch School
Scattered trees T Telephone
Mkt Market
Papyrus Swamp, Marsh, Bog TC Trading Centre
Seasonal Swamp SCHQ Sub-County Headquarters
Murram road
Contours .................................... Tarmac road
River .................................... Loose surface road

Fig 2.4

22
2. Use the map key to identify the Lake
symbols used.
3. Give the meaning of each of the School
symbols and signs used on the map.
Some of the features represented on a key
Hospital
are given in Table 2.2:
Table 2.2 Symbols used in maps Antiquity
Feature Symbol used
Road
Swamps
Railway line
Airstrip (airport) Telephone lines

Religious centre Trigonometrical

station (Primary)

Village Trigonometrical
station
Town (Secondary)
Foot path

Mineral works/
mining
Brown lines
Mosque (contours)

Power The features shown in Table 2.2 are only

transmission line a few of the features that are represented
Hut on maps. It is important that you go to the
library and find out other symbols used
Bridge to represent the features that are shown
in maps. The symbols used on maps are
River usually given in the key of a map. It is
important to study the key of a map.

23
Drawing sketch maps 4. On the map, use symbols to represent
features such as buildings, vegetation
Activity 2.5
and roads.
Do the following: 5. Include all the elements of a good
1. Collect drawing materials: pencils, map on the map that you draw. This
paper, a ruler and an eraser. include; a title, a frame, a key, a scale
and a compass.
2. Go outside your classroom and
carefully observe your school
surroundings. A sketch map is an outline map that is
3. Draw a map showing your school drawn from observation. It does not use
surroundings. Your teacher will exact measurements. It only shows the main
show you how to come up with and features of an area.
use different scales, for example Below is an example of a sketch map of
1:100,000. Mt. St. Helens
Se
15

am
3k

ile
ilo
me
tre
s

Obscured
by eruption
cloud
N

Shoreline at
Spirit Lake
Mt. St. Helens

Longview
s
56 kilometre
Tree blow down
n d
es 1 2 3 4 5 6 kilometres
rtla etr
Po m Debris flow
kilo
72

Fig 2.5 Sketch map.

24
Characteristics of sketch maps landforms such as hills, mountains,
Sketch maps have the following features lakes and rivers. Remember to also
that distinguish them from other maps. include land use such as construction,
mining and farming. Transport
• They are drawn roughly.
facilities such as roads, railway lines
• They are not drawn to the scale. and airports should also be included.
• They represent few features for the 2. Place the identified elements in
interests of the user. order according to the divisions of
• They are less detailed as compared to the landscape. These include the
topographical maps. background, middle ground and
• They are simple and hence easy to the fore ground. This is important
understand. because it ensures that each feature
• They have the elements of a good is rightly shown where it is supposed
map such as the title, key, frame and to be.
compass. 3. Draw the actual sketch map,
representing it in a simple way.
Steps involved in drawing a sketch map
4. Select a suitable title that accurately
There are five steps in the designing and
shows the purpose of the sketch map,
drawing of a sketch map.
for instance, what the map is about.
1. Identify and point out the features
to be represented. For instance,
Sketch map of a school

Fig 2.6 (a) Sketch map of a school.

25
 Sketch map of a school

Fig 2.6 (b) Sketch map of a school.

Activity 2.6
1. Draw a sketch map of your 4. State the difference between a
homestead with all the features that topographical map and a sketch map.
are in it. 5. Explain the main steps involved in
2. In your sketch map apply the drawing a sketch map.
elements of a good map. 6. Describe the characteristics of a
3. Present your work for assessment by sketch map.
your teacher.

Task 2.1
1. Explain the meaning of a map.
2. Which of the following combination
comprises of elements of a good
map?
A. Title, roads, key
B. Title, key, relief
C. Title, key, compass direction
3. Give other elements of a good map
that are not listed in the combination
in Question 2.
26
Indicators of relief on maps
Activity 2.7
Use the map extract provided below to answer the questions that follow:

KEY
Main tarmac road Lake, swamp Bananas

Savannah or pasture Papyrus Natural forest

Fig 2.7

27
(a) Identify the vegetation type of the 3. Study the relationship between the
area represented. artificial and natural features.
(b) Identify two natural features on the 4. Write down your observations in a
map. notebook.
(c) Describe the economic activity of the 5. Explain how human activities have
people in the area. affected the environment.
6. Explain the ways humans can use
The term relief in geography refers to the their surrounding in a sustainable
nature and outlook of a landscape. Relief way.
usually refers to the highest and lowest
elevation points in an area. Mountains and Methods of presenting relief on
ridges are the highest elevation points, while maps
valleys are the lowest. Relief describes the
horizontal and vertical dimensions of a land Activity 2.9
surface. This is also known as terrain. Your teacher will provide you with a
Relief features are visible on physical maps. topographical map extract of Rwanda.
This is because these maps emphasize the 1. Study the map carefully.
height of the land. This is usually shown 2. Using the key of the map, find out how
with differences in colour and shading. This both the artificial and natural features
is done for different heights. have been presented in the map.
The earth’s surface is made up of various 3. Draw the signs and symbols that have
relief features. These features have varying been used to represent the physical
altitudes, characteristics and origins that features.
shape their appearance. The relief features 4. Present your work to your teacher for
represented on maps include the following: marking.
• mountains areas)
• hills • escarpments/ Physical maps show the location of
• rivers rift valley landforms like deserts, mountains and
• lakes • fault lines plains. Topographical maps are detailed,
accurate graphic representations of features
• plains (low land • swamps.
that appear on the Earth’s surface. These
Activity 2.8 features include:
• roads, buildings, urban development,
Do Tthe following. railways and airports.
1. Go for a field study in the area around • geographical features, administrative
your school. boundaries, state and international
2. Study the relief of the area. Observe borders and reserves
both the artificial and natural • lakes, rivers, streams, swamps and
features. coastal flats

28
 • mountains, valleys, slopes, depressions and plains
• forested and cleared areas.
A map key lists the features shown on the map, and their symbols. There are many
ways of representing relief on topographical maps. They include:
(a) use of colour (e) pictorials
(b) trigonometric stations (f) hachures
(c) spot heights (g) shading.
(d) contours

Layer tinting
This is the use of colour to show different relief features in relation to various heights.
The colour or shade used varies from dark to light shades.

Fig 2.8 Coloured representation of relief.

The dark shades of colour are used for areas of higher altitudes. Areas with lower altitudes
are shaded using lighter shades of colour. For example, areas with ice or snow are shown
in white. Dark brown represents mountains, light green shows low lying areas and light
brown colour represents hilly areas. Depths of oceans and seas are shown in shades of
blue from light to dark. This means that as the height increases, the shade deepens and
becomes darker.

29
Activity 2.10
1. Study the map of Figure 2.9.

Fig 2.9

2 Identify the relief features shown.

3. Describe the height of the features presented on the map.

Trigonometric stations
These are fixed surveying stations that are used for land surveys. A trigonometric station
is also known as a trig point. Many trigonometric stations are located on the top of hills.
This is done so that they can easily be spotted from many directions. Trigonometric
stations are shown on maps using a triangle. In some instances, the actual heights of
specific spots where the triangles are placed are given beside the triangle. The stations are
important in the construction of modern infrastructure such as land boundaries, roads,
railways and bridges. Table 2.3 shows the types of symbols for trigonometric stations.

Table 2.3 Symbols showing trigonometric stations.

Type of trigonometrical station The sign or symbol used on the map
Pillar Ground station
Primary trigonometrical station

Secondary trigonometrical station

Boundary pillar

30
Activity 2.11
Study the map of Figure 2.10.

KEY
Main tarmac road Lake, swamp Bananas

Savannah or pasture Papyrus Natural forest

Fig 2.10

1. Using the map extract provided, state the highest points in metres.
2. Describe the terrain of the area represented on the map.
3. Draw a sketch map of the landscape around your school. Use colour to show the
important features.

31
Spot heights
These are dots used to represent specific areas on a topographical map. They show the
actual heights of given areas. For example, • 2015 • 2001 • 560 • 675.

1030

labelspot height.

530
310
570
530
430 671

Fig 2.11 Spot heights on an extract of a topographic map.

Activity 2. 12
1. Identify the spot heights indicated on the map of Figure 2.12.

1030

labelspot height.

530
310
570
530
430 671

Fig 2.12
2. Describe what they represent.

32
Contours intervals. The contour lines never cross
each other. The lines are usually brown in
Contours are lines drawn on maps joining
colour. In steep areas, the lines are very
areas with the same height above sea level.
close to each other. In areas with gentle
They show both the height and steepness
gradients, the lines are far apart. Contours
of a place. Height is usually represented
are mostly used in representing relief on
in metres or feet. The contour lines are
topographical maps.
usually drawn at intervals called contour

overhanging cliff

0
540

gentle slope (widely

5200 spaced contours)

closed depression

hill contours upstream

steep slope
5400

repeat contours
(ridge top)
5000

5200

Fig 2.13 Contour lines used on a map.

33
Characteristics of contour lines used on maps
• They have the height number written on them.
• They are drawn based on a specific and uniform interval.
• Contour lines generally do not meet or intersect each other.
• All points on a contour line are of the same elevation.
• They have the height number.
• They are drawn based on specific and uniform intervals.
Activity 2. 13
Do the following.
1. Study the picture below.

Fig 2.14
2. Which side of the hill is shown in Figure 2.14?
3. Sketch contour lines representing this
side of the hill.
4. Give reasons for your choice of sketch.

Interpretation of contours on a • craters

topographical map • slopes
• plateaus
Contours are used on maps to represent
various landforms. Some of the landforms• spurs
include: • low lands
• conical hills • river valleys.
• flat-topped hills Conical hills
• ridges
These are types of hills that have round
• hills with depressions tops with slopes that are similar in gradient
34
and appearance. The contours representing Flat-topped hills
conical hills are of the same size. They also
These differ from the conical hills as their
have uniform spacing between them. This
tops are generally flat. The contour lines
means that the lines are evenly spread.
representing flat-topped hills are wide apart
They usually have a circular arrangement
at the top, but start getting close together
as shown in Figure 2.16.
towards the lower parts of the hills.

Fig 2.15 A conical hill .

Fig 2.18 Flat topped hill.

320
210
180

170 230
150 290
260
230
200
Fig 2.16 Contour lines representing a conical
hill. Fig 2.19 Contours representing a flat topped
The top part of the hill is represented by hill.
contour lines which are close together. As Hills with depressions
you move away from the top, the space
between the lines are widely spaced on the These are hills which have depressions at
slopes of the hill. This is due to the gentle their tops. They are represented by contours
gradient of the slopes. that are ring shaped. The depression is
represented by pictorial symbols.
If a hill has the same gradient in all its slopes,
it is represented by the contour lines shown
in Figure 2.17.

Fig 2.20 A hill with a depression on its top.

Fig 2.17 Contour lines representing a conical

hill with an even gradient.
35
 A depression
with a lake
A hill with a
depression
1000
0
102
2600
1040
2580 1060
2560

Fig 2.23 Contours representing a depression

Fig 2.21 Contours representing a hill with a crater
depression.
Ridges
Depression craters A ridge is an elongated or stretched out hill,
or a range of hills that are close together.
Activity 2.14
The contour lines representing ridges are
Work in groups of three. Use geographical elongated or sometimes oval shaped. In
documents and other resources. some instances, the hills that make up a
ridge are separated from each other by gaps
1. Find out information about
called saddles which are broad gaps or cols
(a) depression craters which are narrow gaps.
(b) ridges
(c) escarpments.
2. Write short notes about each feature.
3. Present your findings in a class
discussion.
Depression craters are hills or mountains
that have deep depressions usually
containing water. An example is Mt. Bisoke
in Rwanda. Such hills or mountains are
represented on a topographical map with
ring-shaped contour lines. Fig 2. 24 A ridge.

Saddle Col

Fig 2.25 Contours showing a ridge with cols

Fig 2.22 The crater lake on Mt. Bisoke and saddles.

36
Escarpments
These are physical features that have two
distinctively different slopes. One side is
steeper than the other. The steep side is
called a scarp slope while the gentle side
is known as the dip slope. The contour lines
representing the dip slope are far apart
from each other while those representing
the scarp slope tend to be close together. Fig 2.27 A slope.
Types of slopes and how they are
represented on topographical maps
Activity 2.16
1. Do a field visit near your school or
home.
2. Carefully study the hilly areas and
the slopes and draw them in your
exercise book.
3. Describe the difference in the
gradients of the slopes you have
drawn.
Fig 2.26 An escarpment and contour lines
representing it.
Concave slope
Activity 2.15
The contours that represent this slope are
Visit a hill near your home/ School. close together towards the top. They are
1. Observe and describe the nature of wide apart towards the base of the slope.
the hill. This is because the land is steep at the top
and gently slopes towards the base.
2. Identify the scarp slope and the dip
slope.

Slopes
A slope refers to the surface of the earth
whereby one end is at a higher level than
the other.

Fig 2.28 (a) A concave slope.

37
 concave
Convex slopes
This is a slope that is gentle towards the top
and steep towards the base. The contours
are widely spaced at the top. Towards the
base where the land is steep, they are
closely spaced.
260

240

220
320

280
300

down

Fig 2.28 (b) Contours representing a concave

slope.

Fig 2.29 (a) A convex slope.

Down

Co
nv
ex

Fig 2.29 (b) Contours representing a convex slope.

38
Steep slopes 2. Explain the gradient or nature of the
slope.
Activity 2.17 3. Suppose you lived in such an area, how
Use Figure 2.30 below to answer the would you use the land sustainably?
questions that follow.
A steep slope is represented on a topographical
map by contours that are very close together.
This is due to the uniform steepness of the
slopes or land.

Fig 2.30
1. Describe the nature of the landscape
shown.
Fig 2.31 (a) A steep slope.
ste
ep

ste
ep
con slop
tou e
rs

Fig 2.31 (b) Contours representing a steep slope.

Gentle slopes uniformly spaced. This is because the slope

is uniformly gentle.
A gentle slope is represented on a
topographical map by contours that are

39
 Fig 2.32 (a) A gentle slope.

Gentle

down
220
260
280

240
300
320

Fig 2.32 (b) Contours representing a gentle slope.

Flat land or plains

This is represented on a topographical
map by contours spaced. Such areas are
associated with other features such as
swamps.

Fig 2.33 (a) A flat land.

40
 500

400
300

200

100

Fig 2.33 (b) Contour lines on a relatively flat land.

Even slope
This is a slope where the land has an almost similar gradient. When being represented on
a topographic map, contour lines with same distance between the lines are drawn. The
contour lines are equally spaced.

Fig 2.34 (a) An even slope.

Fig 2.34 (b) Contours showing an even slope.

41
Activity 2.18
Do the following.
1. Describe the nature of the land shown by the contour lines.
2. Identify some of the landforms on the map represented by the contour lines.

42
 Borehole Water hole Well Spring
Settlement BH WH W S
Woodland PWD Public Works Division
Scrub RC Regional Commissioner
Sch School
Scattered trees T Telephone
Mkt Market
Papyrus swamp, marsh, bog TC Trading Centre
Seasonal swamp SCHQ Sub-County Headquarters
Murram road
Contours .................................... Tarmac road
River .................................... Loose surface road

Fig 2.35

There are other indicators of relief used on of areas represented as is the case with
maps. They include the following. contour lines.

Hachures
Hachuring is one of the commonly
used methods of representing relief on
topographical maps. This method is used to
show the altitude of a given area. It is used
more in places with steep gradients. They are
represented using short parallel lines.
The steepness or gentleness of a slope is
shown using lines with varying lengths and
thicknesses. It is very important to note that Fig 2.36 Hachures.
hachures do not reveal the actual heights

Table 2.4: Interpretation of hachure lines.

Nature of the lines Interpretation

Lines drawn very close to one another in a Represent a very steep slope or gradient
compacted way. such as a cone volcano.

43
Lines drawn widely apart and less Represent a very gentle gradient or a
compacted or not congested (thin in gently sloping area.
nature).

Pictorial method
This method uses symbols based on the appearance of the features. It shows how features
appear from above. For example, mountains are raised while valleys are sunken. When showing
height, very short thick lines which have thick heads and tails are used. The sharp point of
the symbol points towards the lowland part of a feature while the thick head points to the
high altitude.

Hill shading
This method of representing relief is about careful use of light and shadow. It is imagined
that light over a given area brings variations in shading. The intensity of light keeps on
reducing depending on the nature and angle of the slope and the gradient.
The darker expressions are used to represent the steep slopes. Bright expressions are
used to represent hill tops, areas with gentle gradients such as valley bottoms and plain
or flat lands.

Fig 2.37 Hill shading.

44
Activity 2.19
Study the map extract provided below, and answer the questions that follow.

KEY
Main tarmac road Lake, swamp Bananas

Savannah or pasture Papyrus Natural forest

Fig 2.38

45
1. Give the grid reference of Lac Nyakuzi.
2. Mention the relief indicators that have been used to represent relief features on
the map.

Activity 2.20
Do the following.
1. Draw a sketch map showing the landscape of the area around your school.
2. Using different colours, shade the map illustrating variations in light. Ensure that
you bring out the gradient expressions.

Maps and aerial photographs

Activity 2. 21
1. Study Figures 2.39 and 2.40. Give a name to each one of them

Fig 2.39

46
 N

W E

0 60
15 30 45

Fig 2.40
2. Describe the features of each one of them.

As earlier explained, a map is a representation on a flat surface of a whole or part of an

area. Maps represent parts of the earth’s surface drawn to scale. Figure 2.41 shows a
map of Rwanda.

Nyagatare

Burera
Musanze
Gatsibo
Nyabihu
Rubavu Gakenke Gicumbi
Rulindo

Ngororero
kayonza
Rutsiro Gasabo
Nyarugenge
Kivu Lake Muhanga Kicukiro Rwamagana
Kamonyi
Idjwi Island
Karongi
Ruhango Bugesera Ngoma
Kirehe
Nyanza
Nyamasheke
Nyamagabe
Huye
Rusizi
Gisagara N

Nyaruguru W E

0 60
15 30 45

Fig 2.41 A map showing the districts of Rwanda.

47
A photograph is a picture created using a 2. Identify maps and photographs. Do
camera and stored digitally. Photographs this by separating them accordingly.
are usually in the form of a print or a slide. A 3. Give reasons why you have classified
photograph could be a picture of a person, them the way you have.
a scene or a physical feature on earth or
space.
The sizes of photographs vary. There is Differences between maps and
no relationship between the size of a aerial photographs
photograph and the size of the object
Aerial photographs and maps are used by
represented.
geographers. Cartographers sometimes
An Aerial photograph is a picture of the use aerial photographs when designing and
earth’s surface or features on the earth’s preparing maps.
surface taken from above.
Activity 2.23
Aerial photographs are often used as data
for geographers. They are also used for Do the following.
locating geographic features as well as for 1. Draw a sketch map of your school.
interpreting environmental conditions. Include all the elements of a good
map in your drawing.
2. Your teacher will help you take
ground photographs of your school
using a camera.
3. Compare the photographs you have
taken with the aerial photographs
that you had studied before.
4. Note the differences that you can
observe between the two types of
photographs. Write them in your
exercise books.

Fig 2.40 An aerial photograph of Mt. Bisoke in

Rwanda
Activity 2.22
With copies of maps and a variety of aerial
photographs.
1. Study the documents carefully.

48
The table below shows the difference between maps and aerial photographs.

Table 2.4 Differences between maps and aerial photographs.

Maps Aerial photographs
A map is a representation of a part of An aerial photograph is a picture taken from a
the earth’s surface. raised platform representing a small part of the
earth’s surface.
They are drawn to scale. Not taken to scale.
A map can represent a relatively large An aerial photograph only covers a small area
area. or object.
The features used on a map are The features are clearly seen without the use
interpreted by use of symbols. of symbols. They appear as they are in their
natural form.
A map is sometimes difficult to An aerial photograph is easy to interpret.
interpret.
A map only shows specific information An aerial photograph shows all features that are
that is needed. It is thus prepared near a place, whether they are useful or not.
selectively.
A map is difficult to come up with. It It is relatively easier to take a photograph. It
requires a wide range of skills such as only requires one to have a camera and to know
cartographic techniques. how to use it.
A map has a key that helps readers to An aerial photograph has no key. To understand
interpret and understand it. it, one only has to keenly look at it.
A map has no skyline. It does not An aerial photograph has a skyline especially the
show the horizon which can be used high oblique aerial photographs. This makes it
to determine the relief of an area. It easy to determine the relief and climate of the
instead uses contours to represent area represented.
relief.
A map has a compass that shows the An aerial photograph does not have a compass
direction of various parts on it. This to aid in determining the direction of the
is done in relation to the actual areas features in it.
being represented.

49
Atlas index
Activity 2.24
Using Atlas .
1. Read the contents on the last page of the atlas.
2. Write down your observations in your exercise book.
3. Using the Internet and your textbook, find out the meaning of an atlas index.
4. Identify its main characteristics.

An atlas is a collection of maps of the Earth Atlases usually present geographical

or regions of the Earth. However, there features, political boundaries, geopolitical,
are atlases of other planets too. An atlas social, religious and economic statistics.
is usually a bound book with a collection They also have information about maps and
of maps. However, there are atlases in places in them.
multimedia formats. An atlas index is a detailed alphabetical
listing of names, places and topics. In some
cases, an atlas index follows numerical
listing. The list is accompanied by the
numbers of the pages on which they are
mentioned or discussed. The atlas index is
usually found at the end of the atlas.

Activity 2.25
1. Using Atlas. Find the index page and
comment on the following.
• Content of the index.
• The position of the index.
• The arrangement of content of
the index.
2. Present your findings in class.

Fig 2.43 An atlas book.

50
168 Index

Latitude Longitude
A Auckland .... 7, 13, 97
Australia ....7, 13, 88-
Abidjan ..................................... 4, 7, 13, 60-1, 65, 69, 71, 74 5°N 4°W
.........................
Acapulco ........................................................ 108-13, 115-16 16°N 99°W
South Australia ....
Addis Ababa ...........4, 7, 44-58, 60-1, 69, 71, 74, 89, 138 9°N 38°E
Adelaide .................................................................. 13, 99-105 34°S 138°E Average Life Expectan
Afghanistan ...................................... 13, 87, 89-90, 92, 139 33°N 66°E
Africa ..... 3-4, 14, 17, 19, 24, 34-5, 38, 41, 44, 47-8, 54,
...................... 56, 58-75, 138, 147-8, 151-2, 155-8 7°N 21°E B
Central Africa ............................................ 32, 59, 65, 75 Baffin Bay ....................
East Africa ...........20, 38, 42, 48, 50, 52-4, 56-7, 64, 75 Baffin Sea ....................
Northern Africa ........................51, 65, 67, 72, 75, 145 Baghdad ......................
South Africa ............4, 13, 58-9, 61, 65, 67-9, 71, 73, Baha'i ........................
......................................................................... 138, 158 Bahamas .....................
Western Africa .................................................... 64-7, 75 Bahia Blanca ..............
Agriculture .... 3-4, 27, 40-1, 43, 48, 50, 52-3, 66, 69, 83, Balkan Peninsula ......
.........................................104, 113, 115, 125, 150-1 Baltic Sea ........... 7, 13
Agro-Forestry ........................................................................ 27 Bamako .......................
Airports ...................................5, 20, 32, 35, 53-5, 115, 129 Bananas .......................
Alaska .................... 7, 12, 107, 109, 131-2, 136, 140, 144 64°N 150°W Bangkok .............. 7, 1
Algiers Tunis ........................................ 4, 7, 60-1, 69, 71, 74 36°N 3°E Bangladesh ................
Alice Springs ........................................................ 99-105, 139 Bangui .........................
Altitude ...............................................................10-11, 46, 48 Banjul .........................
Amazon ..........................................................12, 118-20, 122 3°S 60°W Barcelona ....................
America ..............................................115-18, 126, 147, 151 40°N 100°W Bauxite .........................
Amsterdam ............................................................ 78-85, 138 52°N 4°E Bay Labrador .............
Anchorage .................................... 12, 108-13, 115-17, 138 61°N 149°W Bay Of Bengal ...... 7, 1
Andes Mountains .. 7, 118-9, 122-3, 136, 140, 144, 150 32°S 70°W .........................
Andorra ....................................................... 4, 61, 74, 79, 159 42°N 1°E Bay Of Biscay ................
Angles .................................................................................7, 12 .........................
Angola ......................................... 4, 13, 48-50, 55, 58-9, 61, Beaches .......................
............................................65, 67-9, 71, 73, 75, 156 8°S 13°E Beaufort Sea .................
Animals .... 10, 14, 28, 54, 83, 102, 113, 125, 133, 144-5 .........................
Antananarivo ........................ 4, 7, 60-1, 65, 69, 71, 75, 89 18°S 47°E Beijing .........................
Antarctica ......................100-1, 122, 130-1, 133, 145, 152 Belém .........................
Antarctic Circle ......5, 7, 122, 131, 136-41, 144-7, 150-5 90°S 0°E Belgium .......................
Aquaculture ..................................................................67, 151 Belgrade ......................
Arabian Sea Fig .......4,2.44
7, 13,Sample
62, 64-9,of an open
88-95, 137, 139, atlas
141,index. Benin .........................
...................................................... 145, 147, 151, 153 18°N 66°E Berbera ........................
Arafura Sea .................................................................... 98-105 9°S 135°E Bergen .........................
Archipelago ......................................................118, 141, 145 Bering Sea ..................
Arctic Bay ....................................................................... 108-12 73°N 85°W Bering Strait ...............
Arctic Circle .................................5, 7, 78-85, 88-95, 108-17, Berlin .........................
.................................... 131-2, 136-41, 144-7, 150-5 66°N 0°W .........................
Arctic Ocean ......7, 12-13, 88-9, 108-9, 130, 132, 136-8, Biotechnology ..........
51 Bique .........................
............................ 139-41, 144, 146, 148-52, 154-5 90°N 0°W
Argentina ......................12, 118-19, 121, 124-5, 138, 167 37°S 67°W Bird .........................
Asia ................ 3, 67, 86-95, 118, 147, 151, 153, 161-2 77°N 104°E Birth Rate ....................
East Asia ................................................................... 87, 95 Bissau .........................
South Asia ................................................................ 87, 94 Black Sea .......4, 7, 61
Elements of an atlas index 2. (a) Name the seven different ways
The following are the elements of an atlas that can be used to represent
index. relief on topographic maps.
(b) Muhire wants to indicate the
 The atlas index shows various topics height of a specific spot of an
and names of places. area on a map. Suggest two
 The index is at the last pages of the methods that he can use.
atlas. 3. (a) Distinguish between a
 The index lists a summary of the trigonometric station and a spot
specific contents of the atlas. height.
 The index acts as a pointer. It directs (b) Name two types of trigonometric
the reader to specific pages where stations.
given topics can be found inside the (c) Show the symbols used for each.
atlas.
4. (a) Explain the difference between
 The index follows a systematic hachures and hill shading
alphabetical or numerical order. methods of representing relief.
(b) Give the appropriate illustration
Did you know? for each.
5. (a) Define contours.
• No one knows the exact date when
the first map was created. (b) Explain the main characteristics
of contours in map work.
• People who create maps are known
as cartographers. (c) Describe types of slopes and
explain how they are represented
• Some of the first detailed maps were
on topographic maps.
made by armies.
6. Using illustrations, explain how
• It is impossible to create a map with a
the layer tinting method can help
perfect scale.
geographers to represent relief on a
• The first aerial photographs were map.
taken by French map makers in 1858.
7. Explain five differences between a
map and an aerial photograph.
End unit assessment 8. (a) Give the meaning of an atlas
index.
1. (a) Define the term relief.
(b) Describe the characteristics of an
(b) Name six features that are atlas index.
represented on a topographic
map.

52
Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Understanding the earth and
universe
Number of periods: 12

53
 UNIT
The Earth in relation to
3
the universe
Key unit competence Activity 3.2
By the end of this unit, you must be able to Do this individually and share the findings
analyse the impact of the earth’s position with other members of your class.
and movements in the solar system.
Study the pictures shown below.
Unit objectives
By the end of this unit, you must be able to:
(a) identify different components of the
universe
(b) describe the earth and the solar
system
(c) state the earth’s movements and
their consequences
Fig 3.1
(d) show the relationship between
longitude and time
(e) define latitude and longitude.

Components of the universe

Activity 3.1
Dot the following
1. Go outside your classroom home for
five minutes.
2. Observe the sky. Fig 3.2
1. Compare the two pictures showing
3. Write down what you have observed.
the sky at different times.
4. Write down your points.
2. Write down the differences that you
5. Compile your points and share can observe.
them with other members in a class
3. Explain why you think there is a
presentation.
difference in the sky at night and at
day time.

54
4. Share your findings with the rest of (a) Stars
the class. Stars are luminous heavenly bodies that
give out light. In most cases, stars have very
Definition of the universe high temperatures. There are many stars in
The term universe refers all of space the universe. Each star is associated with
including everything that exists in it. This planets and moons.
includes the stars, the galaxies, the planets,
matter and energy. It also has empty space
with particles and interstellar gas. The
term universe refers to all space, including
everything that exists in it. This includes the
stars, galaxies and energy. The universe is
also known as cosmos. Activity 3.3

Activity 3.3
1. Use the Internet, geography Fig 3.3 Stars in the sky at night.
textbooks and photographs to find
(b) The sun
out the elements that constitute the
The sun is one of the stars that are found
universe.
in the universe. Other stars in our universe
2. Write down notes on your findings. reflect light from it. It is located in the
3. Share the findings with other class middle of the solar system. The sun is near
members in a class presentation. the earth’s atmosphere. All the known
planets and other heavenly bodies revolve
around it.
Components of the universe The planets and heavenly bodies revolve
around the sun following specific paths
Activity 3.4 known as orbits. This revolution occurs
Using the Internet and geography because the sun pulls them towards it. They
textbooks, find out other heavenly also use their own gravitational force to pull
bodies found in the universe. towards their centres and end up being in a
circular motion.
The universe is made up of planetary bodies
that move or revolve around the sun. They
include the following.
• Stars • Earth
• The sun • Moons
• Clusters • Asteroids
• Galaxies • Meteors
• Planets • Comets

55
 Fig 3.4 The earth orbits the sun.
(c) Clusters the force of gravity.
Star clusters are a group of stars that share For example, our planet, Earth is found in
a common origin. They are held together by the Milky Way galaxy. It derived its name
the force of gravity. from its milky, appearance of a dim glowing
band arching across the night sky. There are
also other galaxies in the universe.

Fig 3.5 A cluster of stars.

(d) Galaxy Fig 3.6 The Milky Way galaxy.

A galaxy is a large collection of gas, dust (e) Planets

and billions of stars held together by gravity. These are heavenly bodies that revolve
One galaxy can have hundreds of billions of around a star following specific orbits.
stars and be as large as 200,000 light years
across. These stars are still held together by

Fig 3.7 Planets in the solar system.

56
The solar system consists of eight planets referred to as planetoids or dwarf planets.
and the sun. The eight planets are: Mercury, They range in size from tiny particles to
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus large bodies hundreds of kilometres in
and Neptune. The Earth is the only planet diameter. It is not easy to see the smallest
that has been known to support life. asteroids. Since they have little gravity, they
Activity 3.5 are irregular in shape. Asteroids are minor
members of the solar system. They form
1. Go outside the classroom. Describe part of the universe.
what you can see on planet earth that
makes it able to support life.
2. Write down your findings in your
notebooks.
(f) Moons
The moon is another heavenly body that is
found in the universe. It is a natural satellite
of the earth. There is only one moon that
attends to our planet Earth.
Other planets also have satellites that
attend to them. It is estimated that there
are about 179 satellites that attend to all Fig 3.9 Asteroids in space.
the planets and planetoids. These satellites (h) Meteors
form part of the universe. Meteors are fragments of rock and metal
that fall to Earth from space. They are
known to fall as they break away from other
bodies such as asteroids.
They are of different sizes. Some are as
small as a fraction of a millimetre. Others
are as big as a football pitch or bigger.
The Earth’s gravitational force causes the
meteorites to accelerate to over 11.2
kilometres per second.
As they enter Earth’s thick atmosphere,
Fig 3.8 The moon as observed from the earth.
they rapidly slow down due to the friction.
(g) Asteroids They then glow, flashing across the sky like
Asteroids are small, airless rocky bodies fireworks, before finally crashing to the
revolving around the sun between Mars ground.
and Jupiter. They are too small to be called Meteors are popularly known as shooting
planets. This is because they never fully stars. When they enter the Earth’s
developed into planets. They are sometimes atmosphere, they appear as short-lived

57
long thin lines of light. This light suddenly
orbits. They are made up of frozen gases, ice
disappears into vapour or ash. and lumps of rocks. Comets cross the orbits
This happens before the meteors reach the of other planets as they move towards
Earth’s surface. The bright light is formed the sun.
out of friction between the meteor and the
atmospheric air.
Meteors are minor members of the solar
system. They form part of the universe.

Fig 3.11 Comets in space.

When they get closer to the sun, the heat
vapourises the frozen gases. This produces
a glowing head called coma and a tail.
The tail extends for millions of kilometres.
Fig 3.10 Meteors in outer space. This tail points away from the sun. As the
comets move away from the sun, the gases
Meteors that fail to vapourise or burn up condense and the tail disappears.
reach the Earth’s surface as rocks. They
are referred to as meteorites. Some hit the Task 3.1
Earth’s surface with a great impact forming 1. (a) Define the term universe.
craters. (b) Outline the components of the
universe.
Activity 3.6
2. (a) Describe the phases of the moon.
1. Using space photographs, the (b) Explain the meaning of a satellite.
Internet and textbooks, find out what
3. (a) What is an orbit?
would happen to our environment if
meteors hit the Earth’s surface. (b) Why should planetary bodies
revolve around the sun?
2. Come up with appropriate measures
that humans could take to ensure 5. Describe the difference between the
that we protect our environment sun and other stars.
should that happen. 6. (a) With specific examples, define
the term planet.
(i) Comets
(b) Explain the characteristics of the
Comets are small heavenly bodies that
moon that is attendant to planet
revolve round the sun along very elongated
Earth.
58
7. Describe the following terms as used
in geography.
(a) Asteroids (b) Planetoids
(c) Meteors (d) Meteorites
(e) Comets (f) Shooting
stars

Constellations and galaxies

Activity 3.7
1. Using the Internet and geography
textbooks, find out the meanings of
the following: Fig 3.13 Orion.
(a) constellations
(b) galaxies.

Constellations
A constellation is a group of stars that forms
a pattern in the sky. This is as seen when
viewed from the earth.
There are 88 constellations in our solar
system. The Southern Cross commonly
referred to as a Crux is the brightest while
Hydra is the biggest.
Fig 3.14 The Southern Cross.
The following pictures show different
constellations and their appearances in
the sky.

Fig 3.12 The big dipper.

Fig 3.15 Perseus.

59
 Activity 3. 8
1. Go outside the classroom.
2. Using threads and short sticks,
demonstrate the patterns of the
following constellations:
(a) The big dipper
(b) The Southern Cross (Crux)
(c) Orion
Fig 3.16 Andromeda.
(d) Pegasus.

Galaxies
Activity 3.9
Use the Internet, geography textbooks and
journals to do the following.
1. Define the term galaxy.
2. Name and describe different galaxies.
Fig 3.17 Pegasus. 3. Find out whether the Milky Way
galaxy is spiral, elliptical or irredula.

As you learnt earlier, galaxies form part of

the universe. A galaxy is a big collection of
gas, dust and billions of stars held together
by gravity. One galaxy can have hundreds
of billions of stars. It can also be as large as
200,000 light years across.
Fig 3.18 Hydra. (a) The Milky Way galaxy – This galaxy has
a bright central core with a high density
of stars and a flattened disk surrounding
it. Its name “milky” is derived from
its appearance as a dim glowing band
arching across the night sky. This galaxy
contains our solar system.

Fig 3.19 Hercules.

60
 Fig 3.20 The Milky Way galaxy.
(b) The Andromeda galaxy – This galaxy
gets its name from the area of the sky Fig 3.23 The Bode’s galaxy.
in which it appears, the constellation (e) Cartwheel galaxy – Its visual
of Andromeda. It is the closest big appearance is similar to that of a
galaxy to the Milky Way. spoked cartwheel.

Fig 3.21 The Andromeda galaxy.

(c) Black Eye galaxy – It has a spectacular Fig 3.24 The Cartwheel galaxy.
dark band of absorbing dust in front (f) Cigar galaxy – This galaxy appears
of the galaxy’s bright nucleus, giving similar in shape to a cigar.
rise to its nicknames of the “Black
Eye” or “Evil Eye” galaxy.

Fig 3.25 The Cigar galaxy.

(g) Comet galaxy – This galaxy is named
after its unusual appearance, looking
Fig 3.22 The Black Eye galaxy. like a comet.
(d) Bode’s galaxy – This is named
Johann Elert Bode who discovered this
galaxy in 1774.

61
 Task 3.2
1. What is a constellation?
2. Give the names of the following.
(a) The brightest constellation.
(b) The biggest constellation in our
solar system.
3. Give the names of specific examples
of constellations.
Fig 3.26 The Comet galaxy. 4. Define a galaxy.
(h) Tadpole galaxy – The name comes 5. Name any three examples of galaxies.
from the resemblance of the galaxy
to a tadpole. This shape resulted from
tidal interaction that drew out a long
tidal tail.
The earth and the solar system
Activity 3.10

1. Go outside your classroom and

observe the sky.
2. Record what you see in your
notebook.
3. Explain the importance of the
sun to human beings and to the
Fig 3.27 The Tadpole galaxy .
environment.
(i) Whirlpool galaxy – From the
whirlpool appearance this 4 Share your findings in a class
gravitationally disturbed galaxy discussion.
exhibits.
When you go outside, you can see a bright
heavenly body that gives us light. The
heavenly body is known as the sun. We
have already learnt that we have stars in
the universe. The most important star is the
sun. Plants, animals and human beings all
depend on the energy provided by the sun.
The sun is a star that is at the centre of the
solar system.

Fig 3.28 The Whirlpool galaxy.

62
Activity 3.11 The solar system
1. Discuss the importance of the
sunshine. Activity 3.12
2. Explain what would happen to our 1. What is the meaning of the solar
environment if: system?
(a) the sun did not produce light 2. Name the components of solar
(b) the sun gave too much heat. system.
3. Name the heavenly body that holds
planets in the solar system.

The word solar is derived from a Latin word sol that means the sun.

Fig 3.29 The composition of the solar system.

The solar system is a composition of the sun, the eight planets and other heavenly bodies.
In the solar system, the planets and the heavenly bodies revolve around the sun. The eight
planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. They occur
in that order from the sun. Jupiter is the largest planet while Mercury is the smallest. Other
heavenly bodies are smaller than the planets. They include; satellites, meteors, asteroids,
satellites, comets and meteorites, gas and dust. The solar system exists in the universe. It
is one of the components of the universe.

63
The planets They are:

Activity 3.13  Mercury  Earth

 Venus  Mars
1. Go outside your classroom home to (b) The outer planets: They are also called
the playground. Jovian planets. They are:
2. Draw eight different circles on the  Jupiter  Uranus
ground using chalk. The circles should
be inside each other with spaces of  Saturn  Neptune
about 2 metres apart. Jupiter and Saturn are composed of gas
3. Choose some students to run as while Uranus and Neptune are composed
they go round the circles in an of ice.
anticlockwise direction. They should The planets revolve around the sun in
begin at a slow speed and increase an anticlockwise direction along paths
the speed gradually. known as orbits. The orbits are oval or
4. Observe what happens. Explain why elliptical in shape. Different planets take
the above learners did not collide as different lengths of time to make complete
they ran around. revolutions round the sun. This is because
5. What is the geographical name of their various distances from the sun. The
given to the paths that the learners period taken by a planet to make a complete
followed? revolution round the sun is known as a
year. The earth takes 365 ¼ days to make
6. What do you think would happen a complete revolution round the sun. This
if the learners did not have specific period is one year on the Earth. Mercury
paths to follow? takes 88 days to make a complete revolution
round the sun. This is because it is near the
Characteristics of planets sun. This is the shortest time taken by a
A planet is a heavenly body which: planet to go round the sun. While revolving
(a) is made up of rocky solids around the sun, the planets also rotate on
their own axes. The planets and heavenly
(b) is oval in shape
bodies are held in place by the gravity of
(c) is suspended in space the sun.
(d) rotates on its own axis
(e) revolves around the sun. Activity 3.14
The planets are grouped into two: (a) Name the planets in the solar system.
(a) The inner planets: These are also (b) Which planet supports life?
referred to as the terrestrial planets. They (c) Suggest ways that humans can make
are made up of silicate rock mantles. Their planet Earth fit for human habitation.
cores are composed of iron. They are the
planets that are nearer the sun.

64
Table 3.1 The known planets of the solar system.
Planet Key features
Mercury • It is the smallest planet.
• It is the nearest planet to the sun.
• It completes its revolution in 88 days.
• It is has no satellite.
• It is about 70 million kilometres from the sun when it is at its farthest.
When it is closest to the sun , it is at 47 million kilometres away.
Venus • It is slightly smaller than planet earth.
• It is one of the brightest planets in the universe.
• It is almost similar to the earth.
• It is has no satellite.
• It is 108.9 million kilometres from the sun.
• It takes 225days or 0.616 earth years to complete its revolution
Earth • It is the third planet from the sun.
• It is the only planet known to support life .
• It is 149 million kilometers from the sun around the sun.
• It has one moon.
• It takes 365 and 1/4 days to complete the revolution around the sun.
Mars • It is slightly cooler than other planets.
• It is 228 million kilometres from the sun.
• It has 2 moons.
• It takes 686.971 Earth days to complete a revolution around the sun.

Jupiter • It is the largest planet.

• It has 63 moons.
• It takes 12 Earth years to complete one revolution round the sun.
• It is 779 million kilometres from the sun.
Saturn • It has a ring around it making it unique.
• It has 62 moons.
• It is 1.4 billion kilometres from the sun.
• It takes 29.4 Earth years to complete a revolution around the sun.
Uranus • It is the 7th planet in the universe .
• It is the 2.5 billion kilometres from the sun.
• It has 27 moons.
• It takes 84.3 years to complete a revolution around the sun.

65
 Neptune • It is the 8th planet from the sun.
• It is 4.5 billion kilometres from the sun.
• It has 13 moons.
• It takes 164.79 Earth years to complete a revolution around the sun.

(c) Satellites Some planets are moonless meaning they

have no satellites while others have many
Activity 3.15 moons. In total, the solar system has 179
Use internet and geography textbook to do satellites.
the following. There are two types of satellites in our
universe.
(a) Classify the satellites as natural or
artificial. (a) natural satellites
(b) Write down the differences between (b) artificial satellites.
the two in your notebook.
Natural satellites
These are heavenly bodies that float
A satellite is an object that moves around around planets passing through specific
a larger object. The moon is a satellite paths called orbits. They occur naturally
because it moves around Earth. in the outer space. A good example is the
moon. It is a natural satellite.

Fig 3.30 The moon is a natural satellite.

66
Artificial satellites The moon
These are smaller objects in the outer The moon is a natural satellite of the earth.
space made by humans. They move around Moonlight is the illumination of the sun’s
planets or moons. They are mostly used light. The moon does not produce any light
for scientific research, communication, of its own.
weather monitoring and military purposes.
The moon’s diameter is approximately 3,476
kilometres. It is egg-shaped with the smaller
end pointing towards the earth. It rotates
on its axis. It also revolves round the earth
in 27 days, 7 hours and 43 minutes. It takes
29 days, 12 hours and 44 minutes to get to a
new moon. The moon therefore, completes
its rotation and revolution at about the
same time.

Phases of the moon

Activity 3.17
Fig 3.31 An artificial satellite in space.
Activity 3.17 From your own observation, how
would you describe the changing
6Use the Internet and geography textbooks:
appearance of the moon at different
1. Find the relationship between the times ? Write these down in your
solar system and the universe. notebook.
2. State the importance of the solar
system in the universe. Write down The moon has different phases. These
your findings in your notebook. phases refer to the different shapes of the
illuminated part of the moon. These phases
are as seen from Earth. The moon changes
Task 3.3 its phase in relation to the reflected sunlight
1. Explain what a planet is. depending on its position.
2. Distinguish between the inner planets The following are the main phases of the
and outer planets. moon.
3. List examples of terrestrial planets 1. Primary phases.
and explain why they are called so. • New moon
4. With the aid of a diagram, list the • First quarter
planets of the solar system in order of
occurrence. • Full moon
• Last quarter

67
2. Intermediate phases.
• Waxing crescent
• Waxing gibbous
• Waning gibbous
• Waning crescent
New moon
The new moon is completely dark on the
first day. This happens when the side of the
moon that receives sunlight faces away from
the earth. The new moon appears when the
moon is aligned with the sun and the Earth.
During this period, the sun and the moon
rise and set about the same time. The new
moon is usually dark.

Fig 3.33 Waxing crescent moon.

The first quarter moon
Seven days after the new moon, the moon
completes a quarter of its journey around
the earth. This is when we are able to see
the half of it that receives sunlight. This
happens when the moon is at a 90° angle
to the earth and sun. This is the part that is
illuminated. The other half is in the shadow.

Fig 3.32 The new moon.

Waxing crescent moon
Between the 1st and the 6th day after the
new moon, the moon changes. The part
that faces the earth begins showing a
silver bright crescent shape. This happens
to the moon as it moves around the earth.
This shape continues to increase in size as
days go by. Fig 3.34 The first quarter moon.

68
Waxing gibbous moon Waning gibbous moon
This is the moon that appears between This phase appears between 15 to 21 days
day 8 and 13. This phase appears when after the first phase of the new moon. From
the part of the moon that receives sunlight the earth, we see the lit disk of the moon
grows bigger. decreasing or waning. This continues to
decrease as days go by.

Fig 3.35 The waxing gibbous moon. Fig 3.37 Waning gibbous moon.
At this point, we view a bigger bright part
of the moon as illustrated in Figure 3.35. Last quarter
This phase appears three weeks after the
Full moon new moon. From the earth, we see half
Fourteen days after the new moon, the of the moon that is lit and half that is
moon completes half of its revolution completely dark.
around the earth. During this phase, we
see a complete circle of the moon exposed
to sunlight.

Fig 3.38 Last quarter moon.

Fig 3.36 The full moon.

69
Waning crescent
This phase occurs 23 to 28 days after the
new moon. In this phase, the dark part of
the moon is bigger than the lit side. From
the earth, a bright crescent is seen. It keeps
on decreasing until the whole disk of the
moon is dark. This leads to day 0 when
another new moon occurs.

Fig 3.39 Waning crescent moon.

Fig 3.40 A summary of the phases of the moon.

70
Activity 3. 18 that fall on it with great force.
1. Collect a used DVD disk and a torch. (d) Its landscape is made up of rocks and
dust. When other heavenly objects
2. Hold the disk as you face your fall onto the moon, they break the
classmate. rocks on the surface. As they break,
3. Ask your classmate to hold a brightly they are crushed into dust.
lit torch pointing towards the disk. (e) It has no or low gravitation force. On
4. Continue changing the position of the most parts of the moon, there is very
disk as you observe the light. little gravity. On other parts, there
5. Note down your observations. is no gravity at all. The gravitational
6. Discuss your observations with your force of the moon causes periodic
classmate. rising and falling of sea and ocean
7. Compare this to the different phases waters. This causes tides.
of the moon. (f) Its atmosphere is very limited.
This means that there is little air
surrounding it.
Characteristics of the moon
Activity 3. 19
Do research. Use the Internet and other
geographical documents.
Find out the unique characteristics
of the moon as a component of the
universe.

The moon has the following characteristics.

(a) It has a cold surface. Although it
gives out light, the temperatures on
Fig 3.41 The surface of the moon is full of
its surface are so low. It does not craters.
produce its own light. It reflects light
from the sun that is projected onto
planet Earth.
(b) It is a dry globe. It has neither rain
nor water bodies. This means it has
no moisture in its environment.
(c) Its surface is dominated with craters.
Craters are depressions or holes. They
are caused by other heavenly objects

71
Eclipse sun is larger than the earth and the moon.
This results in the formation of zones of
Activity 3.20 shadows. The inner total shadow is called
In group the following: the umbra. The outer partial shadow is
(a) Collect a torch and a football. The ball called the penumbra.
represents a heavenly body while the
torch represents the sun.
Types of eclipse
(b) One of you should hold the ball and There are two types of eclipses.
the other one the lit torch.  The eclipse of the moon (lunar
(c) Hold the lit torch and the ball aligned eclipse).
in a straight line.  The eclipse of the sun (solar eclipse).
(d) Note down your findings.
Eclipse of the moon (lunar eclipse)
(e) One group member should stand in
front of the source of the lit torch. This occurs when the earth comes
(f) Observe what happens to the ball. between the moon and the sun. The
earth blocks the sun’s light from reaching
(g) Write down your observation in your
the surface of the moon. The earth
notebook.
casts its shadow on the moon, making it
(h) Answer the following questions in completely dark.
your group.
During the eclipse, the moon may be visible
(i) What happened to the ball when
but without its bright illumination. The
the torch was lit?
moon remains in darkness for about two
(ii) What happened when an hours. This is because the earth is larger
obstacle came in between the than the moon. It therefore takes a longer
source of light and the ball? period to move the path of the sunlight.
Lunar eclipses take place at night and only
An eclipse is the blocking off of the light during the full moon.
of a heavenly body. This light is blocked by
another heavenly body that passes in front
of it.
An eclipse occurs when the sun or moon
is hidden from an observer on earth. The

72
 Fig 3.42 A photograph showing what happens during the lunar eclipse.

Eclipse of the sun (solar eclipse) It obscures or hides the Earth from the
This eclipse occurs when the moon comes sunlight. Only a small section of the Earth
between the earth and the sun. The moon experiences a total solar eclipse. It lasts for
casts its shadow on the Earth’s surface. about seven and half minutes. The solar
eclipse occurs at daytime.

Fig 3.43 (a) A drawing showing the lunar eclipse.

Earth
Moon

Sun

Fig 3.44 (b) An illustration of the solar eclipse.

73
 moon

The darkest area of the moon’s

shadow, called the umbra is where Earth
The sun the moon is completely blocking the
disc of the sun

Fig 3.45 (c) A photograph of the solar eclipse.

Activity 3.21
The earth is surrounded by a thin layer of
Use the encyclopaedia, the Internet and gases that is called the atmosphere. The
geography textbooks. atmosphere is held into place by gravity.
Carry out further research on the About 71% of the total surface of the Earth
occurrence of the solar and lunar is occupied by water. Only 29% is occupied
eclipses. by land.

Elements of the earth

The characteristics of the Earth Activity 3. 22
The Earth is one of the eight planets in
the solar system. It is the third planet
after Mercury and Venus. It is believed 1. Use the Internet and geography
that the earth was formed about 4,600 textbooks to critically study the
million years ago. It was formed when components of the earth.
hot gaseous material broke away from 2. Compare them with those of other
the sun. When this happened, the denser planets in the solar system.
materials consolidated first. They collected 3. Find out the components that make
at the centre to form a core. The less dense the earth unique.
materials collected around the core to The earth is made up of the following.
form the mantle and the crust. The crust
• The core
cooled at a faster rate than both the mantle
and the core. It therefore hardened. The • The mantle
interior of the earth still maintains very high • The crust
temperatures. • The atmosphere
• The hydrosphere

74
The core The atmosphere
The core of the earth is made of dense This is the thin layer of gases that surrounds
material. This material collected during the the earth. It is held onto the earth by the
formation of the earth. The core consists of force of gravity. It consists of a mixture of
an outer and an inner core. gases like nitrogen, oxygen, water vapour
and carbon (IV) oxide.
The mantle
This part lies between the crust and the The hydrosphere
core. It consists of hot, dense, semi-solid This is composed of all the water on the
rock. It is about 2,900 kilometres thick. earth’s surface. The oceans and seas cover
71% of the earth’s surface. This accounts
The crust for about 97% of the total waters on earth.
It is the outermost layer of the earth. It is
made of a variety of igneous, sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks.

Atmosphere

Crust

Upper mantle

Lower mantle

Outer core

Inner core

Fig 3.46

75
Uniqueness of the earth In the past, the shape of the earth was
thought to be flat. Later on, scientific studies
The earth is the only planet that is known to
showed that it is almost spherical in shape.
support life. This is because it has liquid water
However, the shape of the earth does not
on its surface. The water is in amounts that
make a perfect sphere. It is oblate spheroid
are conducive to life evolving. The earth has
or a geoid. It is flattened along the polar
plates that move over an underlying mantle.
regions and bulges along the equator. It is
It also has an atmosphere. The atmosphere
therefore not an actual sphere.
shelters it from the sun’s rays. These attributes
make it unique among the other planets. The dimensions of the Earth along the
equator, the poles and the meridians give
Activity 3. 23 a hint about the shape of the Earth.
1. Go outside the classroom. Evidence to show that the shape of the
2. Identify evidences of the factors that Earth is not a perfect sphere
support the Earth’s uniqueness. (a) The polar diameter (12,722 km) is
3. Suggest ways in which humans can shorter than the equatorial diameter
conserve the environment to make which stands at 12,762 kilometres.
the Earth remain habitable. (b) The circumference of the polar and
equatorial areas differ. The circumference
at the equator is bigger than that at the
The shape of the earth polar regions.
Activity 3.24 (c) There is great gravitational pull at
the poles than at the equator. This is
Using a pumpkin, follow the instructions because areas along the equator are
given below. After the activity, write down far from the centre of the Earth.
the findings. (d) Modern satellites show that the
1. Cut off the top and bottom parts of the Southern Hemisphere is slightly larger
pumpkin. Name the top part North than the northern hemisphere.
Pole and the bottom part South Pole.
Evidence to show that the earth is not flat
2. Use a thread and ruler to measure
the circumference of the pumpkin. Activity 3.25
Record your findings. 1. Describe the shape of each of the
3. Use your findings to describe the shape following:
of the earth. (a) Eggs
(b) Oranges
(c) Watermelon

76
 Fig 3.47 The sun at various altitudes.
(d) Football
(e) A square wooden board (f) The Earth’s horizon is curved. This is
2. Which one of the above items perfectly evidenced by approaching ships. The
represent the shape of the earth? smoke, funnels and mast appear on
the horizon, before the rest of the
ship is seen from the coast.
The above activity should help you prove
that the shape of the Earth is spherical. The (g) The polar star looks bigger at the
evidence listed below show that the Earth poles and smaller away from the
is not flat. poles.
(h) All the planets in the solar system are
(a) Aerial photographs taken using
spherical. The Earth being one of the
satellites from high altitudes show the
planets has a similar shape.
earth is round.
(b) The shadow cast onto the moon The size of the earth
during the lunar eclipse shows the
Earth is the fifth largest planet in the solar
earth is round.
system. It has a surface area of 510 million
(c) Several voyages taken around the square kilometres. It is a member of the
earth have all proven that the earth terrestrial planets and is the largest in the
is round. Movement on the earth group. It is also the densest planetary body
along a straight path in one direction in the solar system. Table 3.2 shows the
brings you to your starting point from dimensions of the earth.
the opposite direction.
(d) Places on the Earth’s surface do not Table 3.2 Dimensions of the earth.
receive sunshine at the same time. Measurement Kilometres
(e) The sun keeps changing its altitude
Equatorial 12,762 km
at different times of the day. In the
diameter
morning and evening, the sun seems
to be at a low altitude. At noon, the Equatorial 40,075.16 km
sun’s altitude is at a high altitude. This circumference
is illustrated below: Polar diameter 12,722 km
Meridional 40,009 km
circumference
Morning Noon Evening
Surface area 510,000,000 km2

Position of the earth in the solar

system
The ground level As you earlier learnt, the Earth is the third

77
planet in the solar system. It is about Definition of rotation
150,000,000 million kilometres from the
Rotation is the act or process of turning
sun. It lies between Venus and Mars. It is
around a centre or an axis. The earth is
the largest of the four terrestrial planets.
not static. It is always moving around its
Activity 3.26 axis. The earth rotates in an anticlockwise
direction from west to east. It rotates at a
Using the Internet, encyclopaedias and speed of 1680 kilometres per hour or 28
other geography textbooks, describe kilometres per minute.
other characteristics of the earth.
The earth’s axis is an imaginary line believed
2. Write down your findings in your to cut across the centre of the earth. It cuts
notebook. from the North Pole to the South Pole. The
3. Present your findings in a class earth’s axis is inclined at 23° perpendicular
discussion to its orbital plane. The axis has two ends,
namely:
The Earth’s movements and (a) North Pole
their consequences (b) South Pole.
There are mainly two types of the Earth
movements.
(a) Rotation of the Earth.
(b) Revolution of the Earth.

Rotation of the Earth on its axis

Activity 3.27
You will require an orange and a sharp stick.
You can also use a globe if it is available.
1. Hold the orange in your hand.
2. Pierce the sharp stick through it.
Fig 3.48 Rotation of the earth.
Ensure that the stick goes through
both ends of the orange. The earth’s rotation takes 24 hours in which
3. Hold the stick with the orange on it is able to complete 360°. This means that
hand. Rotate it in a west to east for every 1° , the earth takes 4 minutes. This
direction. is calculated practically as shown below.
4. Compare this with the rotation of the 360°=24 hours
earth on its axis. 360
1° =
5. If you use a globe, rotate it to a west 24
to east direction. Observe what 15°= 1 hour
happens.

78
Therefore, the Earth completes one degree You will observe that the side of the ball
in 4 minutes. facing the light is bright. The other parts
15°= 60 minutes facing away from the light are dark.
60
1°= = 4 minutes
15
1°= 4 minutes.

The consequences of the earth’s

rotation
The rotation of the earth has the following
effects.
(a) Day and night.
(b) The rising and falling of ocean tides.
(c) Differences in time between
Fig 3.49 Day and night as a result of the
longitudes.
Earth’s rotation.
(d) The deflection of winds and ocean This is exactly what happens as the earth
currents. rotates.
(e) Variations in atmospheric pressure
The side of the earth that faces the sun
over the earth’s surface.
receives sunlight and thus experiences
(f) It influences the revolution of the daytime. The opposite side of the Earth
moon round the earth. experiences darkness in the form of night.
Day and night
The rising and falling ocean tides
Activity 3. 28 A tide is defined as a rhythmic rise and fall of
the sea level. This is caused by gravitational
You will require a torch and a ball or globe.
forces between the moon, the sun and the
1. One of you should hold the ball or earth.
globe and the other one the torch.
When the earth is rotating, areas facing the
2. The student with the lit torch should sun are pulled by the sun’s gravitational
focus the light to one spot . You can force. However, the solid parts of the earth
focus it to the centre of the ball or do not positively respond to this force. The
globe. mobile elements of the earth respond in
3. The student with the ball or globe particular the hydrosphere or water bodies.
should rotate the ball in a slow It influences the water levels causing sea
motion. levels to rise. When these specific areas
4. Observe what happens and write it move away from the sun, the sea levels go
down. back to normal. These are referred to as
5. Present your findings in a class solar tides.
discussion.
79
Parts of the earth that face the moon time away from the Greenwich Meridian, it
at night are subjected to the moon’s is important to know the time at Greenwich.
gravitational force. This causes lunar tides.
Example
At times, the moon and sun are aligned at
Calculate the time at Alexandria located
the same position in a linear order. At such
at 30° east when the time at Greenwich is
times, strong tides called spring tides are
noon.
formed.
The occurrence of tides can be observed at Solution
a shore. At high tide, the ocean water rises Step 1:
and covers most of the shore. At the low
Determine the difference in degrees
tide, the water flows back into the ocean.
between the two longitudes.
Time differences between longitudes The Prime Meridian and 30°.
Longitudes are imaginary lines drawn on 30°-0°= 30°.
a map from the North Pole to the South
Pole. They are geographic coordinates Step 2:
that specify the east–west position of a Find the time based on the difference in
point on the earth’s surface. Longitudes are degrees between the two longitudes. In
sometimes referred to as meridians. They this case, if the earth takes 360° to make a
are measured in degrees east or west of complete rotation in 24 hours, then:
the Prime or Greenwich Meridian. This is
a line that is marked 0° up to 180° both to 360°= 24 hours
the west and east. 15° = 1 hour
Longitudes are expressed in degrees. They 15°= 60 minutes
cover 360 of the globe. The difference
0
1° = 4 times
between longitudes is 150 which is equivalent
to 1 hour. Therefore, 30° = 30° X 4 minutes
=120 minutes
The major longitudes are:
(a) Prime or Greenwich Meridian Convert the 120 minutes into hours.
(b) International Date Line. 1 hour = 60 minutes
120
How to determine local time using 120 minutes = = 2 hours
60
longitudes
Step 3:
The Prime Meridian is important in
determining the local time. This is in Alexandria is located east of Greenwich. This
reference to the usage of other longitudes. implies that the time there is ahead of that
Calculation of time is in reference to at Greenwich. Therefore;
Greenwich. Therefore, when calculating 2 hours + time at Greenwich
2 hours +12:000 GMT

80
=14:00 hrs (24 hour clock) or 2:00 p.m Each time zone is 15 degrees of longitude
(12 hour clock) wide (with local variations). The local time is
one hour earlier than the zone immediately
The time at Alexandra is 14:00 hrs (24-hour to the east on the map. There are 24 time
clock) or 2:00 p.m (12-hour clock) when it zones in the world.
is noon at Greenwich.
Activity 3.29 The International Date Line
As earlier discussed, the longitudes are
Determine the time of various places using
measured from 0° (Greenwich) to 180° east
the longitudes given.
or 1800 west. International Date Line refers
(a) It is 2:00 pm at Greenwich, what is to an imaginary line of longitude on the
the time at Kinshasa which is located earth’s surface. It is located at about 180
at 15° east? degrees east (or west) of the Greenwich
(b) It is 4:00 am at Greenwich; calculate Meridian. It marks the change from one
the time at Mogadishu which is calendar day to the next. At any moment,
located at 45° east? there are two days on earth with the same
time. A new day begins at midnight on the
The standard time and time zones International Date Line. If one travels across
the International Date Line, the date would
The standard time
change either forward or backward.
This is the time recorded by all the countries
found in the same geographical region. It is At 12:00 a.m at Greenwich on Monday, it
a time that is agreed by all the countries in a will be 12.00 a.m on Tuesday across the
given region. For example, Uganda, Tanzania 180° east longitude. On the other hand,
and Kenya have the same time. Standard the time at 180° west would be 12:00 a.m
time is important for the following reasons: on Sunday. In other words, time does not
change; what changes is the date. When
(a) It helps in making schedules of going to the east, one adjusts the clock by
transport systems. adding 24 hours to the time. When going
(b) It helps in creating schedules of west, one adjusts the time by subtracting
meetings. 24 hours to the time.
(c) It gives a country a standard time that
it is known for internationally. The deflection of winds and ocean
Time zones
currents
A time zone is a region that observes a The earth’s rotation from west to east results
uniform standard time. This is important in winds and ocean currents changing
for legal, commercial, and social purposes. direction. This change of direction is
Time zones follow the boundaries of referred to as deflection. Ocean currents
countries and their subdivisions. This is are streams of water flowing in a horizontal
because it is convenient for areas close to direction. They are usually associated with
each other to keep the same time. seas and oceans.

81
 Maximum deflection at pole
NP

60°N
Northern
Hemisphere Deflection to right
30°N

Equator
No deflection at equator

30°S
Southern
Hemisphere Deflection to left
60°N

SP
Maximum deflection at pole

Fig 3.50 Deflection of winds and ocean currents in the North and South Hemispheres.

Winds and ocean currents change direction The revolution of the moon around
to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. the earth
They deflect to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere. Activity 3.30

Variations in atmospheric pressure Use the Internet, encyclopedias and

over the earth’s surface geography textbooks:

When the earth rotates, it causes the air at 1. Find out why the position of the sun
the poles to move towards the equator. As keeps changing as the day progresses.
this air crosses latitudes that are becoming 2. Relate this to the rotation of the Earth
wider, it spreads out over a larger area. It on its axis.
creates low pressure at latitudes 60° north
and south. The rotation of the Earth around the sun
leads to the revolution of the moon round
Air moving from the equator towards the the earth. As the Earth rotates on its axis,
poles spreads over latitudes which are it produces a centrifugal force which causes
becoming shorter. As the surface area its satellite to move in a circular motion.
reduces, the air molecules contract hence This leads to revolution of the moon around
having contact with each other. This builds the Earth.
high pressure at latitudes 30° north and
south of the Equator.

82
The revolution of the earth around This happens in a normal year. A leap year
the sun occurs once after four years where the earth
takes 366 days to complete one revolution.
Activity 3.31 The earth is inclined at an angle of 66½°.
1. Take a globe and rotate it to fully The consequences of the earth’s
cover 360° in a west to east direction.
revolution
2. Observe what happens.
The earth’s revolution results in the
3. Compare this to the revolution of the
following.
earth round the sun.
(a) The occurrence of the four seasons.
Definition of revolution (b) Varying lengths of day and night.
Revolution refers to the motion of the (c) Changes in the position of the
earth on its orbit around the sun. The earth overhead sun.
revolves round the sun from west to east.
The earth takes one year or 365 ¼ days to
complete its revolution round the sun.

Fig 3.51 Earth’s revolution round the sun.

83
The four seasons This is summer time in the Southern
Hemisphere and winter in the Northern
Activity 3.32ur.
Hemisphere.
(a) Analyse and discuss the climate of On 21st March and 23rd September the sun is
Rwanda. overhead at the equator. During this period,
(b) Note down the rainy and dry periods. days and nights are equal. This is called the
(c) How many climatic seasons does equinox.
Rwanda experience? The summer season is characterised by
(d) If you lived in Europe, write down the warm to hot temperatures because of the
seasons you are likely to experience. long durations of sunlight.
The winter season is characterised by cool
Seasons are climatic changes that occur in to cold temperatures because nights are
different zones of the earth. They occur due longer.
to temperature changes that result from
Spring and autumn are short seasons that
the earth’s position as it revolves around
mark the changes between winter and
summer.
the sun. The earth’s axis is tilted at an angle
of 23½°. The order of seasons is such that autumn
comes before winter and spring before
This tilt brings about variations in the
summer.
sunlight received at different latitude areas
on earth. The revolution of the earth also
brings variations in the sunlight received
at different latitude areas. The seasons are
mostly experienced in high and mid-latitude
regions of the world. They are:
(a) Summer (c) Winter
(b) Autumn (d) Spring
On 21 March, the sun is overhead at the
st

equator. This time is the start of the spring

season in the Northern Hemisphere. During
the same period, it is autumn season in the
Southern Hemisphere.
On 21st June the sun is overhead at the
tropic of cancer. This time is the start of
summer in the Northern Hemisphere.
During the same period, there is winter in
the Southern Hemisphere.
On 22nd December, the sun is at the
overhead position at the tropic of Capricorn.
84
 northern spring
earth’s orbit around the sun

southern fall

northern summer 21 March equinox northern winter

southern winter

85
southern summer

22 December solstice
21 June solstice
southern fall

southern spring

23 September equinox

Fig 3.52 The four climatic seasons in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
 Table 3.2: Description of seasons

Season Description
Winter • Very low temperatures
• Severe cold
• Land mostly covered by snow in some areas
Spring • Occurs after winter
• Temperatures begin to increase leading to summer
conditions
Summer • A lot of sunshine
• High temperatures
Autumn or Fall • Occurs when summer is ending
• Temperatures start falling and decreasing towards very cold
conditions

Task 3.4 experienced during winter .

1. What is the meaning of the term This means that in summer there are more
season? days of sunshine than darkness. It also
2. Name the seasons experienced in means that in winter, there are more days
Europe. of darkness than days of sunshine.
3. On which date(s) is the sun overhead For example, in December, hours of darkness
at the equator? increase in the Northern Hemisphere. At the
4. Mention the date(s) when the sun is same time in the Southern Hemisphere,
overhead at the Tropic of Cancer and hours of sunshine increase. As one goes
Tropic of Capricorn. beyond the Arctic circle 66° north, there are
days of total darkness.
5. Explain the meaning of equinox.
Changes in the position of the
overhead sun
The varying lengths of days and nights The sun’s altitude is the height of the
The earth’s revolution leads to differences sun above its nearest horizon. The sun
in the lengths of days and nights. During changes its altitude in relation to the earth’s
summer, longer hours of sunshine are revolution as seen in Figure 3.52.
experienced. Longer hours of darkness are

86
 Fig 3.53 Changes in the position of the overhead sun.

Task 3.5 Latitudes and longitudes

1. List and explain the effects of the
Activity 3.33
earth’s revolution round the sun.
2. Define the following terms: You will require a globe or a ball, thread of
(a) axis (b) tides. different colours and a ruler.
3. What is the difference between 1. Tie a red thread round the globe or
standard time and time zone? ball. The thread should run vertically
4. Give the meaning of International from the top to the bottom.
Date Line. 2. Make 24 other vertical runs of
5. What are ocean currents? thread of different colours round the
globe or ball. Ensure that the space
6. Differentiate between the earth’s
between one thread and the next
revolution and earth’s rotation.
is equal. Use a ruler to obtain exact
7. State and examine the effects of the measurement. You can use sellotape
earth’s revolution. or glue to ensure that the threads
stick in place.
3. Get a strand of the red thread that

87
 you had used before. Determine Latitude
the centre of the ball or globe using A latitude is the angular distance of a
the ruler. Tie the thread horizontally place north or south of the earth’s equator.
across the ball or globe. Latitudes range from 0° at the equator to
4. Use threads of a different colours 90° north or south at the poles. They are
and pass them horizontally round measured in degrees, minutes and seconds
the globe. Ensure that the spacing north or south of the equator. On a map,
between one thread to the other is latitudes are drawn horizontally from west
equal. Use the ruler to ensure this. to east. Lines of latitudes are referred to as
You can use sellotape or glue to parallels.
ensure that the threads stick in place.
5. Differentiate between the vertical and
the horizontal threads.

Fig 3.54 A map of the Great Lakes countries showing latitudes and longitudes.

88
Longitude How to determine the longitude of a place
A longitudes is the angular distance of using time
a place east or west of the Greenwich It is also possible to determine the longitude
Meridian. Longitudes are measured in of a given place using time.
degrees, minutes and seconds east or
Activity 3.35
west of the Greenwich Meridian. They
are imaginary lines drawn on a map, from Do this individually. Make reference to a
north to south. Lines of longitudes are also globe, a map or an atlas.
referred to as meridians. They help us to
1. Determine the longitude of Taipei in
determine the time of a given place and
Taiwan whose local time is 8:00 p.m
locations of different places.
when the local time in London is
Latitudes and longitudes are used together 12 noon.
on a map. They help in finding the exact 2. What is the longitude of Nairobi
locations of places and features easily. whose local time is 8:00 a.m, when it
Activity 3.34 is 5:56 a.m in Accra?
3. Mr. Kamari took a flight from London
Use an atlas to do the following. at 12 noon to Honiara Island that is
1. Distinguish between latitudes and located at 159°E. What time did he
longitudes. arrive at Honiara?
2. Find the location of Kigali City on a 4. It is noon at Manaus in Brazil which is
map of Rwanda using latitudes and situated at 60°W. What would be the
longitudes. time in Dhaka located at 90°E?
3. Determine the coordinates of the
location where you were born on a This is done in reference to the time at
map of Rwanda. Greenwich and the specific area. Study the
4. Find the location of Kigali City on example shown below.
a world map using latitudes and Example
longitudes.
Calculate the longitude of place X whose
5. Present your work to your teacher.
local time is 10:00 p.m when the local time
at Greenwich is 1:00 p.m.
Earlier in this unit, you learnt that the
Step 1:
rotation of the earth causes differences in
time between longitudes. You learnt how to Find the difference in time between two
determine time using given longitudes. This longitudes.
is in relation to the Greenwich Meridian. Time at Greenwich is 1:00 p.m.
In this sub-topic, you will learn how to
determine the longitudes of different Time at location X is 10:00 p.m
places. This is done using time in relation 10:00 p.m- 1:00 p.m.= 9 hours
to the Greenwich Meridian.

89
Step 2:
For every hour, the earth rotates through 15°. Therefore, in 9 hours the earth will have
rotated through 15 × 9 =135°
Step 3:
The time at Greenwich is behind that of location X. This means that location X is east of
Greenwich by 135°. Therefore location X is 135° east of Greenwich.

Did you know?

• A huge part of the universe is made up of things we cannot see.
• The solar system was formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago.
• The formation of the solar system was by the collapse of a giant cloud.
• 99.86% of the solar system’s mass is found in the sun.
• A person would weigh much less on the moon than on earth.

End unit assessment

1. (a) What is the universe?
(b) List the components of the universe.
2. Using examples, distinguish between a constellation and a galaxy.
3. Describe the composition of the solar system.
4. List four characteristics of the moon.
5. (a) Name two earth movements.
(b) Discuss the consequences of the rotation of the earth.
(c) Discuss the consequences of the revolution of the Earth.
6. Distinguish between a latitude and a longitude.
7. With the use of well-labelled diagrams, describe the main types of eclipses.

90
Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Understanding the earth and
universe
Number of periods: 4

91
 UNIT
The structure of the
4
earth
Key unit competence 3. What will happen to this
neighbourhood if the trees, grass and
By the end of this unit, you must be able
vegetation were all removed?
to describe the geographical structure of
the earth. 4. Suggest ways in which the people who
live in this neighbourhood can protect
Unit objectives and conserve the environment.
By the end of this unit, you must be able to: Figure 4.1 shows us that the earth is
composed of solid materials. They include
(a) explain the external components of soil, rocks, vegetation and the air that
the earth surrounds us.
(b) describe the internal structure of the
earth. It is important to note that both living
and non-living things constitute the
environment. They form part of what makes
The components of the up the external structure of the earth. They
earth are the things that we can see and touch.
Activity 4.1 The structure of the earth is made up of
two components, namely the external and
Study the picture below and answer the internal structures.
questions that follow.
The external structure is made up of:
• the atmosphere
• the hydrosphere
• the lithosphere
• the biosphere.
The internal structure is made of:
• the crust
• the mantle
Fig 4.1
• the core.
1. Mention the natural features that you
can see in the picture.
2. Discuss the importance of the things
that you have listed.

92
External structure of the earth (c) Biosphere
This is the biological component of earth’s
(a) The atmosphere systems. It includes all living organisms
The atmosphere is a thin layer of gases that on earth, together with the dead organic
surrounds the earth. It is held onto it by the matter that they produce. Living things are
force of gravity. It is a mixture of gases like divided into plants and animals. The plants
nitrogen, oxygen, water vapour and carbon are referred to as flora and the animals as
dioxide (co 2). The earth’s atmosphere fauna.
extends out to 10,000 kilometres. The
atmosphere is important since it determines (d) Lithosphere
the climate. The atmosphere has to be This is the solid, rocky crust that covers the
protected since it influences human entire planet. This crust is composed of
activities and wellbeing. minerals. It is inorganic. It is this part that
supports plant life. It includes land or soils
(b) Hydrosphere and rocks.
The hydrosphere is made up of water. It is all EARTH SPHERES
the water on the surface of the earth. 71% of
the earth’s surface is covered by water. The Lithosphere Atmosphere
solid earth the gases that
oceans hold 96.5% of the earth’s water. The surround the
rest of the hydrosphere includes the fresh earth (its air)
water found in the streams, rivers, lakes, Hydrosphere all Earth system science
Biosphere all
glaciers, ice sheets, underground water water found on,
under, and over
life on earth

and water vapour. Water moves from the the surface of

oceans and seas to the atmosphere, then earth Earth system science
to the land and into the sea in a continuous Interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere, biosphere and
hydroshpere
process called the hydrological cycle. Water
bodies on earth play a role in maintaining Fig 4.3 A summary of the external structure of
our environment. Human activities such as the Earth
agriculture and fishing depend on water Activity 4.2
found on the earth’s surface.
You visit two different locations in the
neighbourhood of your school. One location
has fertile soil, trees and vegetation. The
second location has rocks and bare soil.
1. Observe the external components
of the earth that can be observed in

Fig 4.2 Fishing on Lake Kivu in Rwanda.

93
 both locations. Internal structure of the earth
2. Record your observations of the two
locations separately. Activity 4.4
3. In a question and answer session, Do this in groups of three. You will need an
answer the following. avocado fruit and a knife.
• State the factors that make the 1. Cut the avocado into two using a
two locations different in their knife.
appearance. 2. Carefully study the parts of the cut
• Explain what can be done to avocado.
conserve the environment in the 3. (a) How many layers can you see?
second location.
(b) Name them
• Explain the importance of
conserving the environment.
• Explain how plants and animals Earth’s interior is made up of three parts:
benefit from the first location.  the crust
 the mantle
 the core.
Task 4.1
1. Explain why it is important to
conserve our environment.
2. Describe the composition of the
external structure of the earth.
3. Explain how the earth’s external
structure is important to humans.
Activity 4.3
Fig 4.4 The internal structure of the earth.
1. Discuss the importance of each of the (a) The crust
components of the earth’s external This is the outermost layer of the earth’s
structure. structure. It measures about 30 kilometres
2. Explain the importance of each at the continents and 5 kilometres under the
component as observed in your home oceans. 1% of the earth’s mass is made up
area. of its crust. The crust rests on the mantle.
3. Suggest ways in which each of the It is divided into two sections, the sial and
external components of the earth sima. These are the continental and oceanic
can be protected. crusts.
4. Show how plants and animals benefit
from the hydrosphere, atmosphere
and lithosphere.

94
The sial (continental crust) (b) The mantle
This zone makes the outermost layer of This is the layer that is found below the crust.
the crust. It forms the continents and is It is the largest part of the earth’s interior. It
composed of granitic rocks. makes up about 84% of the earth’s volume.
It is dry and has a thickness of between The mantle is a silicate rocky shell with an
35 and 40 kilometres. This layer has huge average thickness of 2,886 kilometres. It
quantities of silica and aluminium minerals extends inwards to a depth of about 2,900
hence the name sial. kilometres. In the mantle, temperatures
The density of this layer averages about range between 500 and 900 °C at the upper
2700 – 2800 kg/m3. The rocks found here boundary with the crust to over 4,000°C at
are bright in colour. The sial is solid and firm. its boundary with the core.
It holds the biosphere. It is divided into two parts, namely the
upper mantle and the lower mantle.
The sima (oceanic crust)
This is the inner layer of the crust which The mantle is separated from the core by a
forms the oceanic beds. It has an average zone of discontinuity. This zone is referred
thickness of between 7 to 10 kilometres. to as the Gutenberg discontinuity. It occurs
Sima derives its name from the component at a depth of 2900 kilometres beneath the
minerals silica and magnesium. Sima occurs surface.
beneath the sial. It is more dense than the
(c) The core
sial with a density of about 2800 to 3300
This the innermost part of the earth’s
kg/m3. The rocks are dark in colour.
interior. It is composed of iron and nickel.
The upper part of the sima consists of It extends from below the mantle to the
sediments deposited by rivers and sea earth’s centre, a depth of about 6,400
waves. It also has volcanic lava derived kilometres.
from the eruption of volcanoes on the ocean
It is about 7,000 kilometres in diameter and
beds. The lower layer is made up of basalt
3,500 kilometres in radius. Temperatures
rocks. The rocks result from the spreading
in the core are about 6,000°C. The core is
of lava on ocean beds. This layer is thicker
divided into two parts. They are the inner
than the upper layer.
and the outer core.
The crust is separated from the mantle by
a transitional zone called the Mohorovicic
discontinuity. It is also referred to as the
Moho discontinuity. This is a zone of sharp
change in rock density between the crust
and the mantle. It is between 5 and 10
kilometres with an average of 8 kilometres
beneath the ocean floor. It is about 20 to 90
kilometres with an average of 32 kilometres
beneath the continents.

95
 Fig 4.5 An illustration of the earth’s structure
Activity 4.5 • The outer crust of the earth is broken up
into regions known as tectonic plates.
Using images from the Internet:
End unit assessment
1. Identify the parts that make up the
internal structure of the earth. 1.(a) Name the components of the
2. Describe their characteristics. external structure of the earth.
3. Draw well-labelled diagrams to aid (b) Describe the components of the
your explanation. external structure of the earth.
2. With the aid of a well-labelled
diagram, name different parts of the
Did you know? earth’s structure.
3. Explain why the inner core of the
• The average density of the earth as
earth is in a solid state.
whole is about 5.51gms/cc.
4. Name the main minerals that form
• The total mass of the earth is about
the following.
5.9736 x 1024 kgs.
(a) Sial
• The earth is mostly iron, oxygen and
silicon. (b) Sima.
• The earth’s molten iron core creates a 5. Distinguish between the Mohorovicic
magnetic field. and the Gutenberg discontinuities.

96
Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Relief
Number of periods: 6

97
 UNIT
Forms of relief
5

Key unit competence 3. Name the physical features that you

have seen on the landscape.
By the end of this unit, you must be able to
determine the relationship between relief 4. Write them down in your notebook.
and human activities. 5. Present your findings in a class
discussion.
Unit objectives
By the end of this unit, you must be able to: Slope, altitude & contours
(a) identify different forms of relief Activity 5. 2
features
Carry out a field visit to an area around your
(b) state the relationship between relief school/home.
and human activities.
1. Keenly observe the relief of the area.
Relief 2. Describe the nature of the relief of
the area.
Relief refers to the character of the land
surface of the earth. It comprises a wide 3. Name the types of slopes accordingly.
variety of landforms. These landforms are
located between the lowest and the highest
elevation points on the land surface. Relief Slope
is also known as terrain. Slope is the rise or fall of a relief feature. It
A relief map shows the topography of an is a measure of the degree of inclination of
area. Topography is the lay of the land, the a feature in relation to the horizontal plane.
relief of a region taken as a whole. The angle of elevation determines the type
of slope.
Activity 5.1 The following are four main types of slopes.
1. Go outside your classroom and • Convex slope
observe the landscape of the area. • Concave slope
2. Describe the appearance of the • Steep slope
landscape.
• Gentle slope

98
(a) Convex slope
This is a slope, or slope element, that
gets progressively steeper downhill. It
may be determined by structure. Convex
slopes may result from weathering and
transportation of debris.

Fig 5.3 A steep slope.

(d) Gentle slope

This is a relief feature that is almost flat.
Its elevation is flat when compared to the
convex, concave and steep slopes.
Fig 5.1 A convex slope.
(b) Concave slope
This is a terrain feature that is rounded
inward like the inside of a bowl. It goes
from more steep to less steep. It declines in
steepness with movement downslope. It is
also known as a waning slope.

Fig 5.4 A gentle slope.

Altitude
This is the height or elevation of a point above
a given reference point. In geography the
reference level is the sea level. Sometimes,
the ground level is used as the reference
point. Altitude is expressed in feet or
metres. Altitude is thus defined as the
Fig 5.2 A concave slope. height above the sea level. Relief features
are found at different altitudes.
(c) Steep slope
This is a relief feature that has an almost
vertical slope or a relatively high gradient.

99
Contours A landscape that is nearly flat is shown by
A contour is a line connecting points of contours that are far apart. On the other
the same altitude on a topographic map. hand, contours that are close together
Contours show the type of relief on the indicate a steep slope.
earth’s surface.

Fig 5.5 Contour lines on a topographic map.

Fig 5.6 A topographic map with physical features marked by contours.

100
Activity 5. 3
Study the topographic map extract below.

Fig 5.7
1. Describe the nature of the slopes in the landscape shown by the map.
2. Which side of the landscape has the highest altitude?
3. Write down your findings and present them in a class discussion.

Forms of relief The main forms of continental relief include

the following.
Relief forms are classified into two main
categories. These are continental and (a) Mountain
marine relief features. A mountain is a large landform that rises
above the area surrounding it. It usually
Continental relief features has a peak. Mountains are formed through
These are landforms that are found on tectonic forces or volcanism. Mountains
the earth’s surface. The relief features may appear as a single landmass or in a
of continents are varied. Some of the chain called a range. Mountains erode
relief features are caused by the internal slowly through the action of rivers, weather
forces of the earth. These forces include conditions and glaciers.
tectonic plate movements, earthquakes
and vulcanicity. Other features are caused
by external agents including wind, rain,
temperatures, rivers, groundwater, ice and
human activities.
The internal forces are responsible for
the elevation of topography. The external
agents cause erosion and modification of
the earth’s relief. Fig 5.8 Mt Kilimanjaro.

101
An elevation is referred to as a mountain (e) Valley
when it is 600 metres and beyond above A valley is a sunken land or depression
sea level. surrounded by mountains or ridges. Rivers
(b) Hill may flow along the valleys.
A hill is a landform that extends above the
surrounding terrain. It is however smaller
than a mountain.

Fig 5.9 Hills of Gatare. Fig 5.12 A valley in Karongi District.

(c) Plain (f) Ridge
A plain is an extensive tract of flat land or A ridge is a linear, steep-sided upland. It
a gently undulating terrain. There are no is a relief feature that consists of a chain
prominent hills or depressions. of mountains or hills. These mountains or
hills form a continuous elevated crest for
some distance. Ridges are usually referred
to as hills or mountains depending on
their size.

Activity 5.4
1. Go outside your classroom / home.
Fig 5.10 Plain at Akagera National Park.
2. Observe the landscape in the
(d) Plateau surrounding area.
A plateau is an elevated tract of relatively 3. Name and list the landforms that you
flat land with a steep slope falling abruptly can see.
to a lower land on one or either sides. A
plateau is higher than a plain. 4. Identify the characteristics of the
landforms you have identified.
5. Discuss the importance of the relief
features you have identified to the
area.

Marine relief features

These are landforms that are found on the
oceanic crust. The oceanic crust is bordered
Fig 5.11 The Central Plateau in Rwanda.
102
by a coast. A coast is a broad area of land Ocean surface
Continental shelf
that borders the sea. It has a variety of
landforms. They include beaches, gulfs, Continental slope
cliffs and capes.
Abyssal plain
The main relief features of the ocean bed
include the following. Sediment base
Continental
(a) Continental shelf rise Ocean floor
The continental shelf is an underwater
landmass. It extends from a continent and Fig 5.14 Continental slope.
results in an area of relatively shallow water.
(c) Oceanic ridge
This area is known as a shelf sea. Most of This is a continuous submarine mountain
the shelves were exposed during glacial chain extending approximately 80,000
periods. The width of the continental shelf kilometres through all the world’s oceans.
varies. It is wide in Japan, Canada and U.S.A It is formed from magma that rises from
but narrow in Africa. the mantle to occupy spaces formed as
The continental shelf allows sunlight to the sima rocks drift away from each other.
penetrate to the sea bed. This encourages An example of an oceanic ridge is the Mid-
the growth of planktons. Continental Atlantic Ridge in the Atlantic ocean.
shelves are rich fishing grounds. This is due
to the availability of planktons which are
food for fish.
Continental margin

Fig 5.15 Satelite image of the Mid-Atlantic

Fig 5.13 Continental shelf. Ridge.

(b) Continental slope (d) Oceanic trench

This is a steep slope that extends from the This is a long narrow steep-sided depression
edge of the continental shelf to the deep in the Earth’s oceanic crust. It is the deepest
sea plain. A continental slope is typically part of the ocean floor. Examples of oceanic
about 20 kilometres wide. It consists of mud trenches are the Mariana and Atacama
and silt, and is often cross cut by submarine trenches. They are located to the West and
canyons. East of the Pacific Ocean respectively. The
Mariana Trench is about 10,994 metres
deep. It is the deepest part of the world’s
oceans. The Atacama Trench is about 8,065
metres deep.

103
 Ascension, St. Helena, Bouvet and Gough.
All these islands rise from the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge in the Atlantic ocean.

Fig 5.16 (a) Location of the Mariana Trench on

the Pacific Ocean.

Fig 5.18 An oceanic island in the South Pacific

Task 5.1
1. (a) Define continental relief features.
(b) Name two ways by which
Fig 5.16 (b)The Mariana Trench. continental relief features are
(e) Deep sea plain (Abbysal plain) formed.
An abyssal plain is an underwater plain (c) Name three continental relief
on the deep ocean floor, usually found at features found in Rwanda.
depths between 3000 and 6000 metres. It 2. (a) What are oceanic relief features?
lies between the foot of a continental rise
(b) Name three examples of oceanic
and a mid-ocean ridge. Abyssal plains cover
relief features.
more than 50% of the earth’s surface.
Relationship between relief and human
activities
Activity 5.5
Carry out a field visit.
1. Observe the relief features present in
the area.
2. Find out from a resource person
or the people how the features
Fig 5.17 Abbysal plain.
influence their day to day activities.
(f) Oceanic islands Ask for both the positive and negative
An island is an area of land that is completely influences.
surrounded by water. Oceanic islands are 3. Recommend activities that are
those that rise to the surface from the friendly to the forms of relief found in
floors of the ocean basins. Examples of the area.
oceanic islands include Iceland, the Azores,

104
The relief features in an area determine the soils hence attracting settlements.
human activities carried out in a place. The The landscape is also suitable for
main activities that are influenced by relief construction of houses.
features include transport, agriculture and (ii) Steep slopes have few settlements
settlement. because it is difficult to construct
houses on them. The soils on such
(a) Effects of relief on transport slopes are thin and discourage farming.
(i) Type of relief in an area influences
(iii) Very flat areas that are covered
the establishment of transport and
with marshes and swamps have no
communication networks. Roads,
settlements. This is because they are
railway lines and airports are mainly
unsuitable for construction of houses.
constructed on relatively level
They are prone to flooding and disease-
ground. This is because level ground
causing insects such as mosquitoes.
is convenient and easy to break during
construction of transport networks. (iv) As much as 80% of the world’s
population lives on plains.
(ii) Landscapes that are highly dissected
have transport routes constructed (c) Effects of relief on agriculture
along the valleys. This is because
valleys are relatively gentle and easy Activity 5.6
to construct transport infrastructure Using a topographic map of Rwanda.
on.
1. Identify the relief features on the
(iii) Roads constructed on steep slopes will map.
ascend in a zigzag manner. This is done
2. Find out the human activities that
to reduce the gradient.
take place in the areas with the relief
(iv) Wide river channels on relatively level features.
land are suitable for navigation.
3. Relate the features to the human
(v) Plains allow for the expansion of activities that take place in the
infrastructure. This is because they various areas.
have even surfaces. Such a surface
4. Suggest human activities that you
favours the building of roads and
think are friendly to the forms of
airports and laying of railway lines.
relief identified.
(b) Effects of relief on settlements
The type of relief in an area influences the
distribution of settlements.
(i) Gently sloping or undulating landscape
(i) Gently sloping areas are suitable for encourage farming activities. This is
agriculture. This is due to the deep due to the presence of deep, well-
drained soils.
(ii) Very steep slopes discourage farming
because of the thin soils.

105
(iii) Very high altitude discourages farming increase in the national production
and settlement because of extremely and per capita income. Since the
low temperatures. The moisture plains are heavily populated, plenty
in the soil is frozen and therefore of labour is available for the intensive
unavailable for plant growth. cultivation. The population also
(iv) Highlands that experience lower supplies the work force needed for
temperatures and high rainfall have industries.
adequate pasture. Dairy farming is (d) Effect of relief on other human activities
common in such areas.
(i) Mountainous areas are usually
(v) The suitable climate and fertile soils forested areas. The presence of
of the plateaus are helpful for animal forests in such areas encourages
- rearing and agriculture. lumbering which is an important
(vi) Pe re n n i a l r i ve rs a r i s i n g f ro m economic activity.
mountains are important sources of (ii) Plateaus are useful because of the
water. They help in promoting the presence and easier way of extracting
irrigation and provide water for many minerals. They also favour generation
other uses. of hydropower.
(vii) The rivers from the high mountains (iii) Large resources of minerals are
carry silt along with water to the lower usually found in mountains. This
valleys. This helps in the formation of encourages mining activities.
fertile plains for agriculture.
(v) Hydroelectricity is generated from
(viii) Plateaus have large grassland areas the waters of perennial rivers in the
that are suitable for rearing sheep, mountain regions.
goat and cattle. They provide a variety
(vi) The pleasant climate and the beautiful
of products such as wool, milk, meat
scenery of the mountains have led
and hides and skin.
to their development as centres of
(ix) The lava plateaus are preferred for tourist attraction. The tourist and
agriculture since their soils are very hotel industries get an additional
fertile. encouragement in such regions.
(x) Plains generally have deep and fertile An example is found at the Birunga
soils. Since the plains are flat it is easy Mountains of Rwanda.
to practise irrigation. These factors (vii) Most of the minerals in the world are
have made the plains agriculturally found in the plateaus. For example tin
important. They are often called ‘food and wolfram are found in the central
baskets of the world’. plateau of Rwanda.
(xi) The rich agricultural resources of (viii) Rivers falling down the edges of
alluvial plains have helped in the plateaus form waterfalls. These
growth of agro- based industries. This waterfalls provide ideal sites for
has given employment to millions of generating hydroelectric power. They
people. It has also registered a marked

106
 are also good tourist attraction sites. End unit assesssment
(ix) The easy means of transport on plains
favour the growth of agriculture 1. (a) Define relief.
and industries. This has resulted in
(b) Identify forms of relief.
the expansion of cities and towns.
The most developed trade-centres 2. Name the relief features found in
and ports of the world are found Rwanda.
in the plains. They include Rome, 3. Differentiate between slope, altitude
Tokyo, Calcutta, Yangoon (Rangoon), and contours.
Varanasi, Paris and other famous 4. Discuss the importance of the relief
cities are situated in the plains. features of Rwanda to the country.
(x) The plains have been the centres of 5. Explain how the relief features of
many modern and ancient civilisations. Rwanda influence human activities in
The major river valley civilisations of the country.
the world have flourished in them. 6. Suggest four ways through which
Hence, they are referred to as the Rwandans can preserve the relief
cradles of civilisation. features in the country.
Activity 5.7
1. Use an atlas to identify the relief
features in various parts of the world.
2. Find out the dominant human
activities in the areas with the relief
features.

Did you know?

• Some of the highest mountains are at
the bottom of the sea.
• The largest range of mountains is in
the Atlantic Ocean.
• The deepest parts of the sea are
found close to the margins of
continents.
• The abyssal plain is among the flattest
portions of the earth’s crust.
• Plateaus also form in the ocean.

107
Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Rocks, weathering and soils
Number of periods: 5

108
 UNIT
6
Rocks

Key unit competence a natural inorganic substance possessing

a definite chemical composition. Minerals
By the end of this unit, you must be able to
are found below the earth’s surface. The
differentiate among types of rocks and their
scientific study of rocks is called petrology.
economic uses.

The unit objectives Types and characteristics of

By the end of this unit, you must be able to: rocks
(a) define rocks Activity 6. 2
(b) state the types and characteristics of
Individually, study the photograph below
rocks
and answer the questions that follow.
(c) outline the importance of rocks.

Definition of rocks
Activity 6.1
1. Go outside your classroom/home
and collect different types of stones.
2. Observe the stones you have
collected.
3. Describe their shape, colour and
texture. Fig 6.1
4. Write your findings in your 1. Are the rocks shown on the
notebooks. photograph similar?
5. Share your findings with other class 2. If your answer is no, identify the
members in a class discussion. differences seen in the rocks.
A rock is a naturally occurring solid made 3. Why do you think the rocks are
up of one or more minerals. Rocks form the different?
solid part of the earth’s crust. A mineral is

109
There are different types of rocks. Rocks Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling
are classified based on three main and solidification of magma or lava. Rocks
characteristics. in the interior of the Earth are in a molten
(a) chemical composition - mineral form. This is due to very high temperatures
composition and pressure. Magma is forced out of the
interior of the earth through cracks in the
(b) physical properties such as earth’s crust. The cracks through which
permeability, texture and the size magma passes are also referred to as
of the mineral particles fissures or vents. The magma then cools
(c) mode of formation. and solidifies into hard rock. These rocks
Based on the above characteristics, there are called igneous rocks.
are three main types of rocks. They are When magma that is on the earth’s crust
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic cools, it forms rock crystals. Magma that
rocks. cools slowly forms large crystals while
magma that cools quickly forms small
Igneous rocks crystals.
The word igneous comes from Latin word
The chemical composition of igneous
‘ignis’ that means fire. There are two types
rocks varies. This variation depends on the
of igneous rocks. They are intrusive and
proportion of silica and basic oxides. There
extrusive igneous rocks.
are four classes of igneous rocks based on
Activity 6.3 their chemical composition. They are acidic,
basic, intermediate and ultrabasic igneous
Study the photograph below and use it to
rocks. Table 6.1 below shows the chemical
answer the questions that follow.
composition of the different classes of
igneous rocks.

Table 6.1 Chemical composition of igneous

rocks
Type of rock % silica % basic oxides
Acidic >65 35
Fig 6.2 Intermediate 55 – 65 35 - 45
1. Tell your freind what you can see in Basic 45 – 55 45 - 65
the photograph. Ultrabasic <45 >55
2. Suppose you were staying in this area,
There are two types of igneous rocks. They
which type of rock would you see?
are intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks.
3. What happens when the hot magma
cools down? Intrusive igneous rocks
4. Name the type of rocks found when
They are also known as plutonic rocks. They
the magma cools from within the
form from magma that cools and solidifies
earth’s crust.
inside the earth’s crust. The magma
110
cools and solidifies slowly leading to the Gabbro.
formation of large crystals. Landforms of
intrusive igneous rocks are sometimes seen
on the surface of the earth. This happens
when the overlying rocks of the earth’s
crust are removed by erosion. Examples
of intrusive igneous rocks includes diorite,
granite, gabbro, syenite and peridotite.
Peridotite.

Diabase.
Diorite.

Dolerite.
Porphyry.

Granite.

Lamprophyre.
Fig 6.3 Igneous rocks.
Rocks that cool and solidify near the surface
of the earth are known as hypabyssal rocks.
Since they form at shallow depth, the rate
of cooling is moderate. As a result, medium

111
sized crystals are formed. Examples of
hypabyssal rocks are porphyry, dolerite,
porphyrite, diabase, lamprophyre and
granophyre.

Extrusive igneous rocks

These rocks are also known as volcanic
rocks. They form from lava that cools and Pumice.
solidifies on the earth’s surface. The lava
cools and solidifies rapidly leading to the
formation of small crystals.
There are two types of extrusive igneous
rocks formed by lava flows and volcanic
ejecta.

(a) Extrusive igneous rocks formed by

lava flows
During volcanic eruptions, lava is ejected
onto the earth’s surface. The lava flows Tuff rock.
for a long distance on the earth’s surface.
This happens before it cools and solidifies
to form extrusive igneous rocks. Examples
of extrusive igneous rocks include basalt
and obsidian.

(b) Extrusive igneous rocks formed by

volcanic ejecta
During volcanic eruptions, solid ash and Basalt.
semi-liquid materials are ejected out of the
earth’s crust. This happens with great force.
The materials are pushed high up into the
atmosphere. They then cool and solidify as
they fall back onto the earth’s surface.
They form extrusive igneous rocks of
various sizes and shapes. Volcanic ash and
dust settle on the earth’s surface. They
are compressed and hardened over a long Obsidian.
period of time to form a rock called tuff. Fig 6.4 Extrusive igneous rocks.
Figure 6.4 shows examples of extrusive
rocks.

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Sedimentary rocks (c) chemically formed sedimentary rocks.

Activity 6.4 (a) Mechanically formed sedimentary

rocks
Use the Internet and geographical
documents. These rocks are formed when eroded rock
materials are transported by agents of
1. Define sedimentary rocks. erosion. They are then deposited in layers
2. Research on the formation of either on land or in the sea. The rock
sedimentary rocks. materials are derived from pre-existing rocks
3. Identify three examples of such as igneous or metamorphic rocks.
sedimentary rocks. The rock particles are consolidated and
4. Name some of the places where hardened into hard rocks by pressure from
sedimentary rocks are found. overlying layers. Examples of mechanically
formed sedimentary rocks include the
following.
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the (i) Sandstone and gritstone – composed
deposition of materials on the earth’s of rock particles, mainly sand.
surface and on the beds of water bodies. (ii) Conglomerate, breccia and boulder
They are formed through the process clay – composed of rock particles
of sedimentation. Sedimentation is the larger than 2mm in diameter.
process that causes mineral and other (iii) Claystone, siltstone, shale, loess,
organic particles to settle and accumulate. mudstone – composed of very small
It also causes minerals to precipitate from rock particles.
a solution.
The sediments that form sedimentary rocks
are derived from the pre-existing rocks
through weathering and erosion. The
sediments are transported and deposited
in layers by wind, water or moving ice.
After a long period of time, the sediments
are compacted to become hard rocks. Claystone.
This is due to pressure from the overlying
sediments and other materials.
Sedimentary rocks are classified according
to their mode of formation and appearance.
The classifications are:
(a) mechanically formed sedimentary
rocks Conglomerate.
(b) organically formed sedimentary rocks

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 Breccia.
Gritstone.
Fig 6.5 Mechanically formed sedimentary
rocks.
(b) Organically formed sedimentary
rocks
These rocks are formed from the remains of
organic materials. They are formed when the
remains of plants and animals accumulate
over time. They accumulate in layers on land
Boulder clay. or in the sea. Other materials accumulate
over these organic remains. The weight
of overlying materials exerts pressure on
the organic materials. Eventually, they are
consolidated and hardened to form rocks.
Organically formed sedimentary rocks
are classified based on their composition
and mode of formation. Table 6.2 below
summarises their classification.

Sandstone.

Table 6.2 Classification of organically formed sedimentary rocks.

Classification
Examples of rocks Composition
Calcareous Limestone, chalk, coral Skeletons of tiny marine creatures e.g.
reef coral polyps.
Ferruginous Iron stone Hydrated iron oxide.
Siliceous Diatomite Remains of diatoms rich in silica.
Carbonaceous Coral (lignite coal, Remains of plants.
bituminous coal, brown
coal, anthracite coal)
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 Limestone . Chalk.

Iron stone. Diatomite.

Coral base rock. Lignite coal.

Bituminous coal. Brown coal.

115
 accumulate in layers. Soluble minerals such
as salts, lime and other chemicals result
from complicated chemical processes. They
are then deposited on the lakes or ocean
beds. High evaporation in areas with low
rainfall also results in accumulation of salts.
The salts accumulate on the lake beds.
Anthracite coal. The mineral salts accumulate in layers over
long periods of time. The overlaying layers
Fig 6.6 Organically formed sedimentary rocks.
exert pressure on the lower layers. The
Chemically formed sedimentary mineral particles are eventually consolidated
rocks and hardened into rocks.
These rocks are formed when minerals are Chemically formed sedimentary rocks
precipitated. They are also formed when are classified based on their mineral
solutions of salt evaporate and particles composition.

Table 6.3 Classification of chemically formed sedimentary rocks.

Classification Examples of rocks Composition
Carbonates Travertine, trona, dolomite Calcium carbonate compounds
Sulphates Gypsum Calcium sulphate
Chlorides Rock salt Sodium chloride
Silicates Flint Silica
Iron stones Limonite, hematite Iron oxides

Travertine. Trona.

Dolomite. Gypsum.

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 (c) Metamorphic rocks
Activity 6.5
Make use of the Internet and geographical
documents.
1. Define metamorphic rocks.
2. Research on their formation.
3. Get some clay and mix it with some
Rock salt. water. Mould a small ball out of it. Put
the clay ball in fire and observe what
happens.

These rocks are formed when pre-existing

rocks are subjected to great heat or pressure.
Sometimes the rocks are subjected to both
heat and pressure.
The pre-existing rocks are either igneous or
Flint rock. sedimentary. The process of metamorphism
leads to physical or chemical changes in the
original rocks.

Table 6.4 Types of metamorphic rocks.

Original rock Metamorphic
Classification Type of rock rock
Igneous Granite Gneiss
Augite Hornblende
Sedimentary Shale Schist
Limonite. Clay Slate
Sandstone Quartzite
Limestone Marble
Coral Graphite
Mudstone Slate

Hematite.
Fig 6.7 Chemically formed sedimentary rocks.

117
 Gneiss. Quartzite.

Hornblende.
Marble.

Schist.
Slate.
Fig 6.8 Metamorphic rocks.
Activity 6. 6
Use the Internet, geography textbooks and
journals for your research.
Find out the characteristics of each
Slate. of the types of rocks that you have
studied in class.

118
Activity 6.7 Granular rocks are made up of grain-like
minerals as seen in sandstone.
1. Your teacher will take you to a field
near your school. (d) Mineral composition of rocks
2. Collect rock samples that fit the This refers to the chemical composition of
characteristics that you found out. the minerals that form a rock. It determines
the origin of the rock. The original materials
3. Take them to class.
of volcanic rocks are identified as basic
4. Touch and feel them with your hands. or acidic. Those with high silica content
5. Classify the rocks according to are acidic while those that contain little
their types by observing their silica are basic. Sedimentary rocks have a
characteristics. chemical composition similar to the rocks
from which they are derived. The chemical
Characteristics of rocks composition of a rock can be determined
through laboratory tests.
(a) Rock colour
The colour of rocks gives a hint about its (e) Rock hardness
mineral composition. For example, gold is This is the level of resistance of a rock to
yellow and copper is reddish brown. The being broken or scratched. Rock hardness
individual minerals that form these rocks gives a clue to how a rock may have been
have the same colour as the rocks. formed. Generally, metamorphic rocks are
more resistant than sedimentary rocks.
(b) Rock texture and grain size
The hardness or resistance of a rock may
This refers to the size of the individual grains
be tested through different ways. They
that form the rocks. Rocks with very small
include scratching the rock with a fingernail,
grains have a very fine texture. Others are
another rock, a knife or hitting using a
either medium or coarse grained.
hammer.
(c) Rock structure
(f) Rock density
This refers to the arrangement of the
This refers to the weight of rocks. This can
minerals that form the rocks. Minerals
be determined by weighing the rock, tossing
have different shapes which determine
it or placing it in water. A heavy rock will
the nature of rock formation. For example,
sink in water and settle at the bottom of a
quartzite crystals are hexagonal in shape
container. A light rock of the same mass may
and fluorite crystals are cube shaped.
float on water. For example, pumice rock will
Non-crystalline rocks like sedimentary float on water while a granite rock will sink.
rocks have a compact appearance. This is
Rocks which form oceanic beds are heavier
because they are made up of dense and
than those that form the continental crust.
solid minerals.

119
(g) Mineral luster The importance of rocks
Luster refers to the brightness of rocks. The
brightness is determined by the way light Case study
is reflected from the rock surface. There Do this individually.
are two types of luster, metallic and non-
metallic. Minerals with a metallic luster Read the passage below and answer the
shine like metal. Examples of such minerals questions that follow.
include gold, silver and lead. Hirwa and his younger sister Muteteli were
excited that they were closing school. They
(h) Cleavage were to begin their long vacation. On their
This refers to the way a rock mineral breaks. way home from school, they saw a road
Some rocks have a uniform cleavage. These under construction. Beside the road was a
ones break in one direction forming thin quarry where stones were being dug out.
sheets. An example of this is mica. Other The stones were rectangular in shape. They
rocks break into irregular shapes as is the were being loaded onto trucks that were on
case with granites. standby. Some rocks were being put into a
large machine to crush them into smaller
(i) Rock Permeability
pieces.
Rocks can either be porous or impervious.
Porous rocks have pore spaces which allow When they reached home, their father was
water to pass through them. Hence such waiting to take them to town for shopping.
rocks are permeable. On their way, they saw a group of tourists
taking photographs. They were standing
Impermeable rocks do not allow water around a rock that had a round top and
to pass through them. This is because narrow base.
they have very tiny pore spaces. Clay is
impermeable despite the fact that it is
porous. Its pore spaces allow water to After they passed the river, they saw some
collect and remain within. goats and cows licking some rocks. Their
father told them that the rock contained
(i) Rock solubility salt.
Some rocks such as limestone, chalk and
trona easily dissolve in water. As they neared town, they saw some
buildings that were under construction.
Task 6.1 Hirwa and his sister saw a blue lorry that
they had seen at the quarry. The lorry was
Discuss the distinguishing characteristics parked next to one of the buildings that
of the following. was under construction. Some young men
were offloading the rectangular blocks from
(a) Igneous rocks.
the lorry. There was another lorry that was
(b) Sedimentary rocks. full of bags of cement. Muteteli asked his
(c) Metamorphic rocks.

120
father where the cement was from. Their and tin. Other rocks are sources of
father told them that the cement was from gemstones which are used to produce
a factory. He also told them that it was ornaments.
made by crushing limestone into powder. (d) Some rocks are extracted and used in
They then continued with their journey to art in the making of carvings. These
the city of Kigali. carvings are sold to earn income. An
(a) From the above story, give some of example of such rocks is soap stones.
the uses of the rocks that Hirwa and (e) Some rocks such as coal are a source
Muteteli saw. of energy.
(b) Apart from the uses identified in the (f) Some rocks such as rock salt is used
story above, state other uses of rocks. as a healthy substitute of common
Rocks are of great significance to any salt. This is because it is rich in
country. minerals.
(a) Some rocks provide raw materials for (g) Some rocks when weathered produce
industries leading to industrialisation. fertile soils which are suitable for
Coral limestone is used in the agriculture. Limestone when ground
manufacture of cement. Cement produces lime which can be added
is also exported and this earns the to soils to improve them. Phosphates
country foreign exchange. Rock chalk are used as fertilisers.
is used to produce chalk which is (h) Some rock formations like granitic
used on chalkboards. Diatomite is a tors and coral reefs are tourist
filtering agent in food industries. attraction sites. They earn foreign
(b) Some rocks such as trachyte and exchange.
limestone are extracted to provide (i) Some rocks store underground water.
building and construction materials. The water can be extracted and used
Phonolite, sandstone and flint are for domestic, industrial or agricultural
also used for building. Gabbro and purposes.
granite can be crashed to provide
Activity 6.8
road chippings. Marble and gneiss
are used to decorate buildings. Slate Carry out a field visit to a quarry.
can be split into thin sheets for
1. Observe how the rocks are extracted.
roofing. Loess can be cut into blocks
used for building. Clay provides the 2. Find out how they are used.
raw materials for brick making and 3. Find out their importance to the
pottery. Kaolin which is a type of people who use them and to the
clay is used in the manufacturing of people who extract them.
ceramics and porcelain. 4 Observe and point out how some of
(c) Some rocks contain valuable minerals. the rocks have been used within your
They are mined and exported to school compound.
earn foreign exchange. Minerals
include gold, diamonds, copper, silver
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Did you know?
• The earth’s crust is made up of rock.
• Ninety-five percent of the earth’s crust is made up of igneous rocks.
• Sedimentary rocks are extremely important resources that give us clues about the
earth’s past.
• Metamorphic rocks are so called because they always begin as another type of
rock.
• Rocks have been used by humans for millions of years.

End unit assessment

1. Define a rock.
2. (a) Give the characteristics of igneous rocks.
(b) Give three examples of intrusive igneous rocks.
(c) Describe how extrusive igneous rocks are formed.
3. Explain how sedimentary rocks are formed.
4. (a) Classify sedimentary rocks based on their mode of formation and composition.
Give examples of rocks in each class.
(b) Give the characteristics of sedimentary rocks.
5. (a) What are metamorphic rocks?
(b) Describe three ways in which metamorphic rocks are formed.
(c) Give four original rocks to match the metamorphic rocks that result after
metamorphism.

122
Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Weathering and soils
Number of periods: 10

123
 UNIT
7 Soils

Key unit competence surface on which plants grow. Soil consists

of rock and mineral particles mixed with
By the end of this unit, you must be able
decaying organic matter, water and air.
to determine the relationship between
different types of soils and human activities. Soil can also be described as a naturally
occurring thin layer of loose materials. The
Unit objectives loose materials overlie crustal rocks.
By the end of this unit, you must be able to: Soils are important for the existence of
(a) define soils many forms of life on earth.
(b) state factors responsible for soil
Soil formation processes
formation
(c) identify soil properties and constituents Naturally the earth’s surface is made up of
hard rock, for the soil to be formed it needs
(d) identify types of soils
to go through some processes which in-
(e) state the importance of soils clude:
(f) outline the effects of soils on human
activities. (a) Weathering of rocks
Activity 7.2
Definition of soil
Activity 7. 1 Study the photographs in Figure 7.1 and
answer the questions that follow.
1. Go outside your classroom/home.
2. Collect soils from different parts of
the school compound.
3. Observe and describe the soil
samples collected.
4. In your own words attempt to give a
definition of soil.

Soil refers to the top layer of the earth’s

(a)

124
 down. They are broken into smaller particles
through mechanical or chemical processes
hence forming soils.

(b) Leaching
This is the process by which water removes
minerals and other soluble constituents
from the soil.
The minerals are usually removed from the
upper to the lower horizons of soil. This
happens when the water percolates into
the soil.
(b)
(c) Eluviation
This is the process that involves the washing
through of solid materials from the upper
soil horizons as a result of leaching. This
process encourages the formation of
different soil horizons.

(d) Illuviation
This process follows eluviation. It involves
the accumulation of materials into the lower
layers of the soil.
(c)
Fig 7.1
1. Describe what you can see in each
picture.
2. Identify the weather conditions that
lead to the condition observed in
pictures (a) and (c).
3. Give the importance of the process
that is taking place in picture (a).
4. Why do you think there are different
colours on picture (c)?

Weathering is the process through which

the rocks of the earth’s crust are broken
Fig 7.2 The eluviation and illuviation
processes.

125
(e) Salinisation
It is a process by which water soluble salts
accumulate in the soil. This accumulation is
caused by high rates of evaporation on the
earth’s surface.
The salts in the lower horizons are carried
upwards towards the surface by capillary
action.
This process occurs in areas with high
temperatures and low rainfall such as the
deserts. Fig 7.4 Soil that has undergone podzolisation.

(g) Calcification
The dissolved calcium carbonate is then
carried downwards to horizon B where it
is deposited.
Plants transpire
This process occurs in dry climates. Calcium
carbonate is dissolved in horizon A during
the periods of rainfall or snowmelt.

Water evaporates

Salt remains
behind

Water and salt

move upward from
a high water table

Fig 7.3 Salinisation process.

Fig 7.5 Soil that has undergone calcification.
(f) Podzolisation (h) Laterisation
This process involves the decomposition This process occurs in warm humid climates.
of vegetative matter that results in the During the wet season, mineral salts
formation of humic acids. Minerals like in horizon A dissolve in rain water. The
calcium, iron, magnesium, aluminium, salts minerals that dissolve are mainly silica and
and bases and carbonates are dissolved the bases. The dissolved minerals percolate
from one horizon to another. This leads to downwards to the lower layer. Insoluble
the formation of acidic soils. This process minerals such as iron and aluminium
occurs in the cool temperatures.. accumulate in the top layer. They form a

126
crust of laterite. The top layer is reddish in is aided by the micro-organisms that are
colour. found within the soils. The decomposed
organic matter form humus. The humus
(i) Humification mixes with the soils to form fertile layers of
When plants and animals die, their remains soil as shown in Figure 7.5.
decompose in the soil. This decomposition

Weeds

Dry leaves
Decomposed
Half decomposed material humus

Cow dung Soil poor in

organic matter
Fig 7.6 Transformation of organic matter into humus.
Task 7.1 Factors influencing soil
1. Define leaching. formation
2. Give the conditions that make it Soils are formed through the interaction of
possible for leaching to occur. five major factors. These are parent rock,
3. Using specific examples, explain the climate, topography (also referred to as
effects of leaching in the soil. relief) time and living organisms.

Activity 7.3 (a) Parent rock

This refers to the original material that
Use the Internet, geography textbooks and
forms the rock that weathers into soils.
journals.
The parent rock determines the chemical
1. Find out other soil formation and physical characteristics of the soil. The
processes. nature of the parent rock influences the rate
2. Discuss the processes with the help of weathering. Soft rocks are weathered
of well labelled diagrams. faster thus enhancing the soil formation
process. Hard rocks on the other hand are
127
weathered slowly. This slows down the soil soils. A process that takes a shorter period
formation process. of time forms immature soils.
The parent rock also determines the soil (e) Living organisms
texture. Large grained rocks are weathered
When plants and animals die, they decay to
to produce coarse grained soils. Fine grained
form humus. Micro-organisms in the soil aid
rocks produce fine grained soils. The type of
in plant and animal decomposition to form
minerals and colour of the parent rock are
humus. These organisms include bacteria,
also transferred to soil during formation.
fungi, vegetation and animals. Their major
(b) Climate influence is the effect on the chemical and
The climate of an area determines the physical environment of the soils.
way in which weathering of the rocks Roots of plants penetrate into the rocks
takes place. facilitating weathering of the parent rocks.
The main elements of weather that influence This process forms soils.
soil formation are temperature and rainfall. Human activities like ploughing and
Rainfall provides water. This water makes harrowing break up the rocks into small
it possible for decay and disintegration of particles to form soil.
rocks that form soil.
(f) Nature of vegetation
(c) Topography or relief Natural vegetation reflects the combined
The topography of an area influences the effects of relief and climate. The formation
process of soil formation in many ways. The and development of soil is very much
most important being the slope of land. influenced by the growth of vegetation.
Steep slopes encourage erosion. The areas The decayed leaf material adds much
of low relief or gentle slope experience needed humus to soil thereby increasing
deposition and have deep, well drained its fertility. The densely forested areas
soils. The degree of slope also largely contain some of the best soils. There is a
determines the fertility of soil. close relationship between the vegetation
types and soil types.
(d) Time
Different types of soils require different
durations of soil formation processes to
reach maturity. A soil formation process that
takes a long period of time forms mature

128
Figure 7.7 below shows a summary of the factors responsible for soil formation.

Human
Parent material activities
Fig 7.7 Factors that influence soil formation.

Activity 7.4
Task 7.2
Use the Internet, geography textbooks
and journals. 1. Define the following terms.
(a) Parent rock
1. Find out other factors that influence
soil formation. (b) Climate
2. Analyse the factors by way of group (c) Topography
discussion. (d) Living organisms
3. Make notes on your findings. 2. Describe how each one of the
4. Present your findings in a class factors in Question 1 influences soil
presentation for input from other formation.
class members.

129
Soil properties and Soil is made up of the following
constituents components.
(a) Inorganic particles
Constituents of soil (b) Organic matter
Activity 7.5 (c) Water (moisture)
(d) Air (gases)
Collect the following apparatus.
(a) Inorganic components
• A shovel
These are particles that are obtained from
• A clear bottle or jar the parent rock through weathering. These
• Water particles vary in shape and size.
• Soil They include the following.
• Funnel (i) Rock particles such as sand, gravel,
Carry out the experiment below. silt and clay.
(ii) Metallic and non metallic minerals
Follow the steps below
such as calcium, iron and potassium.
1. Dig up soil from different parts of
Inorganic matter provides important plant
your school compound.
nutrients, determine soil aeration, soil
2. Carry the soil samples in paper bags texture and drainage. It also gives support
and take them to the class. to the plants. Inorganic matter makes up
3. Pour the water into the bottle until it 45% of the soil.
is half full.
4. Add the soil into the bottle. (b) Organic matter
Organic matter in soil consists of small
5. Stir the mixture and leave it to settle
animals, bacteria, fungi, animal waste and
for 30 minutes.
plants. Organic matter makes up 5% of the
6. Observe the mixture and record your soil.
findings.
The breakdown of organic matter leads to
Answer the questions below. the formation of humus. Humus is black or
(a) Draw a diagram showing the dark-brown in colour. It provides the soil
appearance of the mixture in the with important benefits. They include the
bottle. following.
(b) As you stirred the soil in water, did (i) It enhances the soil’s ability to hold
you observe any bubbles? Explain and store water.
why you think the bubbles formed.
(ii) It provides essential minerals to the
(c) Explain the distribution of materials soil.
as the soil settled in the water.
(iii) It improves the soil structure.
(d) Give the reason why the water in the
(iv) It reduces eluviation of soluble
bottle changed its colour.

130
 minerals from the top soil. Activity 7.6
(v) It helps in soil aeration.
Use the Internet, geography textbooks and
(c) Soil water journals.
Soil water (or moisture) makes up 25% of
the soil. The water occupies the pore spaces 1. Find out more information on the
in the soil. components of soil.
2. Analyse the importance of each of
Significance of soil water.
the components by way of discussion.
(i) It dissolves various substances for 3. Make notes on your findings.
example salts that are derived from
4. Present your findings in a class
plant or animal remains forming
presentation for input from other
solutions.
class members.
(ii) It helps plants to absorb minerals
from the soil. Properties of soil
(iii) It washes away highly soluble
minerals from the upper to the lower Activity 7. 7
layers (leaching).
(iv) It brings soluble minerals from the Use the Internet, geography textbooks and
lower to the upper horizons of soil journals.
through capillarity. 1. Find out the properties of soil.
(d) Soil air 2. List and discuss each property.
Air or gases make up 25% of the soil. The
air occupies the pores in the soil. Properties of soil refer to the physical and
Importance of air in the soil. chemical characteristics of soil. Different
types of soils have different properties.
(i) It facilitates plant growth by supplying
oxygen to the root hairs. The physical properties of soil include
texture, structure, colour, depth, density,
(ii) Air supports micro-organisms which
porosity, permeability and consistence.
are found in the soil.
(iii) Air helps in the oxidation process. (a) Soil texture
This process is responsible for Soil texture refers to the proportions of the
breaking down rocks to form soils. various soil aggregates that make up the
soil. These soil aggregates include gravel,
Task 7.3 sand, silt and clay. The proportion of each
1. Name the components of soil. of the aggregates is used to determine the
2. Give three ways through which type of soil. The soil texture is often defined
humus is important to soil. as the roughness or the smoothness of the
3. Explain the significance of moisture in soil particles.
the soil.

131
There are three classes of soil particles. Activity 7.8
These are sand, silt and clay. The proportions
of the aggregates of sand, silt and clay in a 1. Collect samples of soil from the
soil add up to 100%. Soil texture is important school garden or around the school.
due to the following reasons. 2. Make the soils wet and rub each of
the soils between your fingers.
(i) It determines the amount of soil
water available within the soil. Silt 3. Tell your partner what you feel when
and clay soils have a high water you rub each soil type between your
holding capacity. Sandy soils have a fingers.
low water holding capacity. (b) Soil structure
(ii) It determines the ease with which The term soil structure refers to the physical
plant roots penetrate the soil. arrangement of the soil aggregates.
(iii) It determines the soil’s ability to retain
humus away.
(iv) It determines the aeration of the soil.

Granular: Resembles cookie Prismatic: Vertical columns of

crumbs and is ussually less soil that might be a number of
Blocky: Irregular blocks that
than 0.5 cm in diameter. cm long. Usually found in lower
are usually 1.5 – 5.0 cm in
Commonly found in surface horizons
diameter
horizon where roots have been
growing

Columnar: Vertical column of Single grained: Soil broken

Platy: Thin, flat plates of soil into individual particles
soil that have a salt “cap” at that lie horizontally. Usually
the top. Found in soils of arid that do not stick together.
found in compacted soil Always accompanies a loose
climates
consistence. Commonly found
in sandy soils

Fig 7.8 Summary of soil structures.

132
It is the arrangement of primary soil They include red, yellow, black, grey, white
particles into compound structures referred and brown. A soil that is black or dark brown
to as aggregates. The soil aggregates cluster has high organic matter content. Soils that
together into structural units called peds. are reddish brown are well drained whereas
Between the peds are spaces which are grey soils are infertile.
occupied by water and air. Therefore, For example, in well aerated soils, the
different aggregates are found in different presence of oxidised iron is responsible for
soil horizons. They are also in different the colours seen in the soils. The colours are
shapes. In most cases, soil structure is brown, yellow, and red.
commonly defined in terms of the shapes
of the soil aggregates. When the iron is removed, the soil becomes
grey.
Types of soil structures
(i) Granular - composed of rounded Activity 7.10
particles. 1. Visit your school garden/home.
(ii) Platy - composed of thin sheets of 2. Observe the soil colour in different
particles arranged in a horizontal parts of the garden and explain the
manner. findings.
(iii) Prismatic - composed of vertical
prism-like particles.
(d) Depth
(iv) Columnar - similar to prismatic but
the particles are rounded at the top.
(v) Blocky - irregular angular particles Activity 7.11
that are arranged to form a block.
Visit your school garden/home garden.
Activity 7.9 1. Using a hoe, dig holes in various areas
of the school garden.
1. Under the guidance of your teacher,
visit your school garden/home 3. Observe the depth of each soil by
garden. looking at the depth of the dark soil
rich in organic matter.
2. Dig holes using a hoe in different
sections of the school garden. 4. Use a tape measure to measure each
soil depth and discuss the findings.
3. Observe the soil layers in the different
sections that you have dug.

(c) Soil colour

This property of soil is easily identified
through seeing. Soils have different colours.
Soil colour is influenced by the parent
rock, organic matter , moisture content and
minerals. Soils have a variety of colours.
133
Soil depth indicates how thick the soil cover to the portion of the soil space occupied
is. Soils are either shallow or deep. Shallow by air and water. This is determined by
soils have the parent rock material lying the arrangement of the soil particles. Soils
close to the surface level. vary in porosity. Soils with large pores,
The parent rock material is found much for example sand are porous while clay is
deeper in deep soils. non-porous. Soil porosity is expressed as a
percentage. This percentage is of the total
(e) Soil density volume of a sample of soil.
The density of soil is the mass per unit Porosity =
Amount of water added to soil × 100%
volume of soil particles. It is expressed Total volume of soil sample
in grams per cubic centimetres (g/cm3).
Most soils have a particle density of about (g) Soil permeability
2.6 g/cm3. The presence of organic matter Activity 7.13
decreases the density of soil. The presence
of iron compounds increases the density 1. Visit to your school garden/home
of soil. garden.
2. Dig some holes in different parts of
(f) Soil porosity the garden.
Activity 7.12 3. Pour water to fill the holes.
4. Observe the reaction.
1. Under the guidance of your teacher,
collect samples of soil from different Soil permeability refers to the ease with
sections of your school garden/home which water or gases pass through soil.
garden. Permeability is influenced by the size and
texture of particles. Sandy soils are more
2. Put the small amounts of about
permeable than clay soil.
150 ml of the soil samples in a clear
container. (h) Soil consistency
3. Using a marked cylinder, measure
100 ml of water and pour in each soil Activity 7.14
sample. 1. Collect samples of different types
4. Do this slowly until the water is of soil from different parts of your
slightly above each soil sample. school garden.
5. Record the amount of water that has 2. Make the soil wet. Soil can also be
been poured into each soil sample. collected after heavy rains.
6. Calculate the porosity of each soil 3. Press a small amount of each soil
sample using the formula provided sample between the thumb and
below . forefinger.
4. Open the fingers slowly and verfy
Soil porosity refers to the number of pore whether the soil is sticky, slightly
spaces in the soil. The pore spaces relate sticky or non-sticky.

134
Soil consistency refers to the ease with moderate pressure between the thumb
which individual particles of soil can be and forefinger. However, the resistance is
crushed. This is done by the fingers or a noticeable.
cultivation tool. Soil consistency depends
on the soil moisture content. The degree (ii) Wet soils
of soil consistency can be determined using Activity 7.16
moist, wet or dry soil.
Testing for plasticity of wet soil
The consistency of wet soils is determined
by its stickiness and plasticity. Plasticity is 1. Take a sample of each wet soil that
the extent to which the soil can be moulded. you have collected.
2. Roll it between the palms of your
(i) Moist soils hands to form a ribbon.
Activity 7.15 3. Rate the soil as being non-plastic,
slightly plastic, plastic or very plastic.
1. Collect samples of different types
of soil from different parts of your
school compound. The soil is non-sticky if there is no soil that
2. Make the soil moist. Ensure that it sticks to your fingers. It is slightly sticky
does not get wet. when the soil sticks to your fingers slightly
then comes off. It is sticky when the soil
3. Press a small amount of each soil
sticks to your forefinger and thumb.
sample between your forefinger and
the thumb. You can squeeze the soil
in your palm as shown in Figure 7.9.

Non-sticky soil Slightly sticky soil

Fig. 7.9 How to press soil using fingers or the

palm
4. Rate each soil sample as being loose,
friable or firm.
Sticky soil Very sticky soil
Moist soil consistency can be measured as
loose, friable or firm. Loose soils do not hold Fig. 7.10 Images illustrating stickiness of
together in a mass when moist. Friable soils soil.
are crushed easily under gentle pressure
between the thumb and forefinger when Soil is non-plastic when no ribbon is formed
moist. Firm soils can be crushed under when it is rolled. The soil is slightly plastic

135
when a ribbon is formed. It can also be The chemical properties of soil include:
broken easily and the soil returned to its • Soil pH
original state. The soil is plastic when a • Salinity
ribbon is formed. It can also be broken down
and then rolled back to its original form. • Nutrient status
(i) Soil pH
(iii) Dry soils
Soil pH is an indicator of the acidity or
The consistency of dry soils is loose
2 when alkalinity of a soil. It is also known as soil
the soil can be broken with little pressure. reaction.
It is hard when the soil is broken with a lot
of force. Soil pH refers to the concentration of
hydrogen ions in the soil. Soil pH affects the
Activity 7.17 availability of nutrients in the soil. Soil
1. Collect different soil samples and air- acidity is increased when the carbon dioxide
dry the soil. reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
2. Try to break each soil sample by Alkalinity of the soil increases when too
pressing it between the thumb and much lime is applied to the soil. The pH scale
forefinger. You can also break it in is used to determine the level of alkalinity
your palm. or acidity of soil. The soil pH scale ranges
3. Rate the soil as loose, soft or hard. from 0 to 14.

Table 7.1 Soil pH colour chart.

Less than pH 5 pH 5-6 pH7 pH8-10 Over pH9
Soil is very Slightly Neutral(green) Slightly Alkaline (purple)
acidic(red) acidic(pink) alkaline(blue)

136
Acidity of the soil increases as you move Procedure
from pH 7 to 0. Alkalinity of the soil 1. Collect soil samples from different
increases from pH 7 to 14. Most crops grow parts of your school compound.
well at a pH of 6.5. 2. Put the soil sample out to dry. Ensure
that they are completely dry.
Activity 7.18
3. Crush the soil using the pestle and
Do the experiment given below. mortar. You can also use a stone to
crush the soil until there are no soil
Materials aggregates left.
• Different soil samples
4. Add water to the soil and shake the
• Distilled or rain water container thoroughly for about 2
• Container with a lid minutes.
• Litmus paper 5. Let the mixture settle for a minute.
The ratio of soil to water should be
Procedure
1:5.
1. Collect different soil samples from
6. Filter the water and pour it out into
different locations in your school
the evaporating tin. Heat the mixture
compound.
until all the water evaporates.
2. Mix two parts of a given sample of
7. Weigh the residue that is left in the
soil with one part of rain water.
tin. This is to determine the amount
3. Put them in a container with a lid. of salt available in the soil sample.
4. Allow the mixture to settle. 8. Repeat this procedure using different
5. Dip a litmus paper into the mixture soil samples.
and observe the colour change. 9. Present your findings in class.
6. Repeat this procedure using soil
samples from different areas of your Soil salinity refers to amount of salt present
school compound. in soil. Salts occurs naturally within soils and
water. Salination can be caused by natural
(j) Salinity processes such as mineral weathering or
Activity 7.19 by gradual withdrawal of an ocean. It can
also come about through artificial processes
Do the experiment given below. such as irrigation.

Materials Salts in the soil also come from fertilisers,

compost and manure. Introduction of water
• Different soil samples
into the soil can reduce the amount of salt
• Distilled or rain water
in the soil through leaching.
• Pestle and mortar
• Evaporating basins/tins
• Source of heat
• Weighing equipment

137
Soil profile and soil catena A soil horizon refers to the layer of soil
which lies parallel to the land surface. Each
Soil profile horizon differs from the others in terms of
This is the vertical arrangement of the soil colour, structure and mineral composition.
in layers from the surface to the bedrock. The horizons are identified by capital letters
The layers of soil are called horizons. O, A, B, C and D.

Mature soil has four horizons. They are 1. Horizon O – This layer is also known
horizons A, B, C and D. Horizon A is as the superficial layer. It is the thin
composed of the top soil and horizon B the layer of dry, decaying and partially
sub-soil. decomposed organic matter. It mainly
consists of decomposing leaves and
Horizon C is composed of partially weathered roots of plants.
rock and Horizon D the parent rock. The
2. Horizon A – This horizon is also known
horizons have distinct structures, colours,
as the topsoil. This layer of soil is found
textures, porosity and minerals.
beneath the superficial layer. It is a
Activity 7. 20 dark coloured horizon that is rich in
humus. The layer has good aeration
Use the Internet, geography textbooks and and contains active living organisms.
journals. 3. Horizon B – This horizon is also referred
to as the subsoil. It lies immediately
1. Find out the meaning of soil profile. below Horizon A. The soil particles are
2. Name the horizons into which soil closely packed together. The soil in
profile is categorised. this layer is poorly aerated. It also has
3. Record your findings and present fewer living organisms and is rich in clay
them in class by way of discussion. deposits.
4. Horizon C – This is the zone of deposition.
It forms the parent rock. It is also referred
to as sub-stratum. It is the deepest and
Major horizons
the thickest of all the layers.
Activty 7.21 5. Horizon D – This horizon resembles
Visit a site near your school where the ground the C-horizon. It is made of the hard
has been excavated to at least about 3 metres rock which is resistant to weathering.
in depth.
1. Observe and note down the main Note
characteristics of each layer and soil. Not all of the five horizons may be
2. Name the horizon or layer that is present in every soil. This depends
important for plant growth. on the conditions under which the
3. Give reason(s) why the layer is soil was formed.
important.

138
Fig 7.15 Soil profile

139
 Activity 7.22 Activity 7.24
1. Go to your school garden. Visit sloppy area in the neighbourhood of
3. Dig small holes and observe the soil your school.
layers. 1. Study the soils on the different
3. Record the different characteristics heights of the slopes.
of the soil layers that you are able to 2. Name some of the factors that
see. Describe aspects such as texture, you think are responsible for the
colour and particle sizes of the soil differences in soils.
layers.

Soil catena Soil catena refers to the sequence of

different soil profiles that occur down a
Activity 7.23 slope.
The soil down a hill slope is rarely uniform.
Use the Internet, geography textbooks
Soil eroded from the top of the slope tends
and journals.
to accumulate near the bottom. Runoff
1. Find out the meaning of soil catena.
water tends to infiltrate more in the flatter
2. Name the factors responsible for soil areas at the foot of the slope. This water
catena. encourages more plant growth there than
on the steep part of the slope.

Consequently, the factors forming the soil differ from top to bottom. Different soils thus
develop. The steep slopes have thin soils while the valley bottoms have deep soils.
Soil catena is therefore influenced by relief, drainage, leaching and transportation of soils
during erosion.

Fig 7.16 Soil catena.

140
Task 7.3 Loam soil is a combination of sand, silt
and clay. Loam will vary depending on how
Use well-labelled diagrams to illustrate and much of each component is present. It holds
explain: moisture and also allows for good drainage.
(a) soil profile
Activity 7.26
(b) soil catena.
Do this in pairs.
Types of soils Using the soil samples that you had
Activity 7.25 collected;
1. Classify the soils according to their
characteristics.
1. Go outside your school and collect
2. Present your findings in class by way
soils from different parts of the
of discussion.
compound.
2. Observe the soil samples focusing on
their appearance and characteristics. Importance of soils
3. Classify the soils into different types
based on the knowledge that you Activity 7.27
have.
1. Observe the environment around
your home or school.
There are four types of soils. Three are basic
while the fourth one is a combination of the 2. Note the different uses of soil.
three. They are: 3. Discuss the uses of each type of soil
that you identified in the activity
• Sand • Clay
above.
• Silt • Loam soils
Sand is composed of small particles of
Below are some of the ways in which soils
weathered rock. Sand is fairly coarse and
are important:
loose so water is able to drain through it
easily. While this is good for drainage, it is 1. Soil has vital nutrients which support
not good for growing plants. This is because the growth of plants.
sandy soil will not hold water or nutrients. 2. Soil supports animal biodiversity, above
Silt can be described as fine sand. It however and below ground.
holds water better than sand. 3. Soil is important in providing an
adequate water supply and maintaining
Clay is very fine-grained soil. Its particles are
quality vegetation.
even smaller than those of silt. This means
that there is little space between the grains 4. The water absorption property of
for air or water to circulate. Therefore, clay soil helps in reducing pollution from
does not drain well. chemicals in pesticides.
5. Soil holds the key to the earth’s history.

141
 It contains and preserves artifacts of 2. Discuss and present your findings in
the planet’s past. For example dinosaur class.
fossils were discovered in the earth.
6. Clay soils are commonly used in pottery,
The type of soil found in a region determines
ceramics, bricks and other clay works.
the human activities in that area. For example.
7. Ordinary soil when mixed with water where there is a lot of sandy soils, there
forms earth blocks that are used in is extraction of the soil for building and
building houses. construction.
8. M u r ra m s o i l s a re u s e d i n t h e
• Clay soil supports.
construction of roads.
– crop production of specific crops
9. Some soils contain valuable minerals
which are mined and sold to earn – pottery and ceramics
income. – building and construction
10. Some soils contain minerals that are activities
used by animals as salt lick. – medicinal uses.
11. Some soils are used to make medicine • Loam soil supports agricultural
and beauty products. For example, activities.
soils rich in clay can be used to make • Alluvial soil supports agricultural
facial masks. Some other soils are used activities. It is also used in the
to make skin ointments. manufacture of fertilisers.

Activity 7.28 Activity 7.30

Work in groups of four. Using the Internet, geography textbooks,

1. Observe your surroundings at home journals and personal experience, answer
and in school. the following questions.
1. How is soil related to agriculture and
2. Identify some of the human activities
mining as human activities?
that take place around the area.
2. Which soil types support the
3. Identify the specific soil types that are
activities?
used for the different activities.
3. Discuss and record your findings.

Relationship between soil types

and human activities
Activity 7.29
Use the Internet, geography textbooks and
photographs;
1. Relate specific soil types to different
human activities.
142
 (c) State the type and characteristics
Activity 7.31
of soils on the following parts of
After finding out how soil relates to a slope.
various human activities: (i) upslope (ii) steep slope
1. Suggest ways in which soil can be (iii) lower slope.
conserved. 6. Explain how the soils shown in the
2. Give reasons why you think it is table below are used for different
important to conserve soil. human activities.
3. Why is agriculture an important Type of soil Human activity
activity? Black cotton Suitable for cotton
soil growing/crop farming
Sandy soil ___________
Did you know? Clay soil ___________
• Soil is a living system Silty soil ___________
• Soil hosts a quarter of the total Loam soil ___________
planet’s biodiversity.
• There are more micro-organisms in a
handful of soil than there are people
on earth.
• Soil is a non-renewable resource.
• Soils help to combat and adapt to
climate change.

End unit assessment

1. Identify three soil formation
processes.
2. Discuss the factors that influence soil
formation.
3. (a) List the components of soil.
(b) Briefly describe any three
properties of soil.
4. (a) Define soil profile.
(b) Draw a well-labelled diagram
showing detailed sub-divisions of
the horizons in a soil profile.
(c) Briefly describe the
characteristics of each horizon.
5. (a) What is soil catena?
(b) State the conditions which
influence soil catena.
143
Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Weather and climate
Number of periods: 23

144
 UNIT
Weather and climate
8

Key unit competence (n) define sunshine

By the end of this unit, you must be (o) outline factors influencing climate
able to recognise the importance of the (p) outline the relationship between
atmosphere, differentiate weather from climate and human activities.
climate and classify major climatic types.
Definition of atmosphere,
Unit objectives
weather and climate
By the end of this unit, you must be able to:
(a) state the difference between weather Activity 8.1
and climate Use the Internet and geography
(b) identify layers of the atmosphere and textbooks to find out the composition
state its importance of the atmosphere.
(c) outline the elements of weather and
climate
(d) identify weather instruments at a In Unit 3, you learnt that the atmosphere
weather station is one of the elements of the earth. You
(e) state the factors influencing defined the atmosphere as the thin layer
temperature variation of gases that surrounds the earth. It is a
(f) identify how to measure temperature mixture of gases like nitrogen, oxygen, water
vapour, carbon dioxide (co2) and others. It is
(g) state the major processes of the water
held onto the earth by the force of gravity. In
cycle
simple terms, the term atmosphere refers to
(h) identify different types of precipitation the envelope of air surrounding the earth.
(i) state different types/forms of rainfall
(j) explain the factors influencing
atmospheric pressure variation
(k) identify the factors influencing
humidity and how to measure
humidity
(l) identify different types of winds
(m) state different types of clouds

145
Activity 8.2
1. Go outside the classroom and
observe the nature of the day.
2. Study the wind, sunshine,
temperature and clouds.
3. Write down the observations in your
notebooks.

Weather refers to the day to day conditions (b)

of the atmosphere. It is described in terms
of temperature, wind, rain, moisture,
atmospheric pressure, humidity, sunshine
and clouds.
The weather of the day can be described
as: windy, rainy, sunny or cloudy. This
depends on the elements of weather. The
element that dominates the day describes (c)
the weather.

Activity 8.3
Use the following photographs to describe
the weather conditions shown. Do this
individually.

Fig 8.1
Climate refers to the weather conditions
prevailing in an area over a long period of
time.

Activity 8.4
Your teacher will take you to a field visit to
(a) a weather station.
1. Observe the weather records kept in
the station for the last one year.
2. Describe the weather conditions
observed.

146
4. Identify the dominant activity carried • Atmospheric pressure also falls with
out by the people who live in the increase in height.
area. • The speed of wind increases with
5. Find out how the climate of the area increase in height.
influences the activity. • It is the only life supporting layer.
• The transitional zone between the
troposphere and the stratosphere is
Atmosphere known as the tropopause.
You learnt about the atmosphere earlier in Stratosphere
this unit. You defined the atmosphere and
• This is the second layer of the
the gases that make the atmosphere.
atmosphere.
• The bottom of the stratosphere is
The structure of the atmosphere
around 10 kilometres above the about
The atmosphere is divided into four major at middle latitudes. The top of the
distinct zones or layers. These distinctions stratosphere occurs at an altitude of 50
are based on changes in temperature with kilometres. The height of the bottom
increase in altitude. The zones are separated of the stratosphere varies with latitude
by transitional boundaries. and with the seasons. The lower
(a) Troposphere (c) Mesosphere boundary of the stratosphere can be as
high as 20 kilometres near the equator.
(b) Stratosphere (d) Thermosphere
It can also be as low as 7 kilometres at
Troposphere the poles in winter.
• This is the lowest layer of the • In this zone, temperature increase with
atmosphere. increase in altitude.
• It is also the site of all weather on • It is in this zone where the ozone layer
earth. It is thus the most important is found. The ozone layer is the oxygen
layer to meteorologists. isotope whose concentration is 25 – 30
• It contains about 75% of the kilometres above the sea level.
atmosphere’s mass and 99% of its
water vapour. The ozone layer
• It has an average depth of about The ozone layer is important due to the
17 kilometres in the mid latitudes. following reasons.
It is deeper in the tropics about 20 (a) The sun’s insolation has dangerous rays
kilometres and shallower towards the called ultra-violet rays. These rays are
poles about 7 kilometres. dangerous to humans. The ozone layer
• This is the zone where temperatures filters the sun’s insolation by removing
reduce with increase in altitude. The these rays.
higher one goes the cooler it becomes. (b) The ozone layer regulates temperatures
Towards the end of this zone temperature in the lower atmosphere. This prevents
reduce to almost – 67°F (–20°C).
147
 the melting of ice and effects of global Activity 8.5
warming.
Study the photograph below and answer
Ozone layer depletion the questions that follow.
Ozone layer depletion refers to the damaging
of the ozone layer by air pollutants.

Fig 8.3
1. What could have caused these crops
to look like this?
Fig 8.2 Smoke from industries containing
gases that destroy the ozone layer. 2. Analyse the effects of drought on the
This happens due to the impact of some environment.
gases like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and 3. Suggest ways in which drought can be
methane gas. These gases eat up some parts prevented.
of the ozone layer creating holes in it. The
holes are called atmospheric windows. Mesosphere
The destruction of the ozone layer has led to • This is a part of the atmosphere that
serious effects which include the following. is above the stratosphere.
(a) Increase in temperatures resulting in • It is separated from the stratosphere
many of the glaciers melting. by a line of transition called the
(b) Rise in the sea level due to the Srotopause.
incoming melt water . • It is the third layer in the zonation
(c) Diseases like skin cancer. within the atmosphere.
(d) Extinction of some plant and animal • Its extends from about 50 – 85
species due to the harsh climatic kilometres above the earth.
conditions. • This the coldest layer in the atmosphere.
(e) Prolonged droughts and global Temperatures fall to between – 90°C
warming in general that results to to -101°C at the mesopause. This is the
environmental degradation. upper limit of the mesosphere.
The lower boundary of the stratosphere • The area has the strongest winds
is called the tropopause. The upper nearly 3000km/hour which hardly
boundary is called the stratopause. allow temperatures to increase.
• The transitional zone between the

148
 mesosphere and the thermosphere is • Gases in the thermosphere separate
known as the mesopause. into different layers as follows;
Thermosphere (a) Oxygen zone – lower layer
• This layer starts from the mesopause (b) Helium zone – middle zone
– a line of transition that separates (c) Atomic hydrogen – uppermost
the thermosphere from mesosphere. layer
It then continuously reaches up to the • This mesosphere and thermosphere
upper limit of the atmosphere. form one layer called ionosphere.
• It extends from about 90 kilometres This region is named so for its
to between 500 and 1,000 kilometres relatively large concentrations of ions.
above our planet. • The transitional zone between the
• Here temperatures increase with thermosphere and the exosphere is
altitude because of the absorption of known as the thermopause.
solar energy.
Exosphere
• Temperatures in this zone rise to
• This is the uppermost region of
nearly 15000C and above.
earth’s atmosphere as it gradually
fades into the vacuum of space.

Fig 8.4Layers of the atmosphere.

149
• Air in the exosphere is extremely thin. • The atmosphere shields the earth
In many ways it is almost the same as from ultra-violet rays which are
the airless void of outer space. harmful to all life forms on earth.
• It extends to a distance of about 1000 • The atmosphere facilitates wireless
kilometres above the earth’s surface. communication. This is due to the
It extends into interplanetary space. ionosphere where there are electro-
• It is distinctively dark. magnetic waves. These waves are
• It is a zone of low density. Atoms fly reflected back to the earth’s surface.
into space because they are freed • The atmosphere regulates the
from the earth’s gravity. temperatures experienced along the
earth’s surface where life exists (flora
Activity 8.6 and fauna).
Using the Internet and other geographical • The atmosphere and its associated
documents. winds are utilised to increase
generation of electricity-wind energy.
1. Describe each layer of the
atmosphere and its characteristics. Activity 8.7
2. Record your findings. Work in groups of three.
3. Discuss your findings in a class Use the Internet and Geography
discussion. textbooks.

Composition of the atmosphere 1. Find out other importance of the

atmosphere.
The atmosphere consists of gases such as
2. Discuss how Rwanda benefits from
nitrogen, oxygen, water, carbon (IV) oxide,
the atmosphere.
water vapour and ozone. Nitrogen and
oxygen gases occur in larger volumes than 3. Record your findings.
other gases. 4. Present your findings in a class
discussion.
The importance of atmosphere
• The atmosphere facilitates the Elements of weather and climate
formation of rainfall hence raising the Activity 8.8
operation of the water cycle.
• The atmosphere provides air which
is necessary for plant, animal and 1. Describe the weather condition this
human life. morning on your way to school.
• The atmosphere provides case 2. Look outside your classroom and
studies for research, especially the describe the weather outside.
meteorologists. 3. Write down your findings and
present them in a class discussion.

150
Activity 8.9 2. Describe the weather changes
through the week.
Use the environment in your school
or home, the Internet and geography 3. Find out the reason why the weather
textbooks. keeps changing.

Describe other elements of weather and Task 8.1

climate. 1. (a) Define the term weather.
(b) Differentiate between weather
The weather conditions experienced at and climate.
different times of the day are referred to 2. State the elements of weather.
as elements of weather. These are aspects 3. (a) Define the term atmosphere.
that describe the atmospheric conditions. (b) With the help of a diagram,
Humans depend on these elements to describe the major layers or
interpret the weather and climate of a given zones that form the atmosphere.
place. The following are the elements of 4. (a) Define the term ozone layer.
weather and climate. (b) Explain the importance of the
ozone layer to humans and
• Sunshine • Wind
wildlife at large.
• Temperature • Humidity 5. (a) Explain the meaning of the ozone
• Atmospheric • Cloud cover layer depletion.
pressure • Precipitation (b) Analyse the causes depletion of
the ozone layer.
• Visibility
6. (a) What are atmospheric windows?
The weather and climatic conditions of any (b) State and explain the effects of
given place can be influenced by one or atmospheric windows on the
more of these elements. The elements can environment.
be observed, measured and recorded daily 7. Discuss the importance of
in a weather station. atmosphere to humans and to the
- Temperature environment.
- Precipitation
- Atmospheric pressure
The weather station and its
- Humidity
instruments
- Wind Activity 8.11
- Sunshine
1. Show how the following elements
- Cloud cover of weather are measured using local
- Visibility resources.
(a) Temperature
Activity 8.10
(b) Rainfall
1. Observe the weather around your (c) Wind speed
school and home for about a week. (d) Sunshine

151
A weather station is a place where observation, measurement and recording of elements
of weather is done. These activities are carried out on a daily basis. The information
obtained is used to describe the weather of a place.
At a weather station, different instruments are found. Each instrument is used for collecting
specific data on given elements of weather.
Table 8.2 shows elements of weather and the instruments used to measure them.

Table 8.2 Weather instruments.

Element Instrument Lines drawn on a map
showing each element

Temperature Thermometer Isotherms

Rainfall Rain gauge Isohyets
Wind speed Anemometer Isotachs
Wind direction Wind vane Isogons
Atmospheric pressure Barometer/aneroid barometer Isobars
Humidity Hygrometer Isohumes
Sunshine Sunshine recorder Isohels
Cloud cover Ceilometer/ceiling light (height Isonephs
of cloud), cloud cover radiometer
(CCR)

Thermometer Barometer
A t h e r m o m ete r m e a s u re s t h e a i r A barometer measures air pressure. It tells
temperature. Most thermometers are one whether or not the pressure is rising or
closed glass tubes containing liquids such falling. A rising barometer means sunny and
as alcohol or mercury. When air around the dry conditions. A falling barometer means
tube heats the liquid, it expands and moves stormy and wet conditions.
up the tube. A scale then shows what the
actual temperature is.

Fig 8.5 Weather thermometer.

152
 open on the other.
Fig 8.6 Barometer.
Rain gauge
A rain gauge measures the amount of rain
that has fallen over a specific time period.

Fig 8.9 A windsock.

Anemometer
An anemometer measures wind speed. The
cups catch the wind, turning a dial attached
to the instrument. The dial shows the wind
speed.

Fig 8.7 A rain gauge.

Wind vane
A wind vane is an instrument that determines
the direction from which the wind is
blowing.

Fig 8.10 An anemometer.

Hygrometer
A hygrometer measures the water vapour
content of air or the humidity.

Fig 8.8 Wind vane.

Windsock
It also shows the direction and relative
speed of wind. It determines the direction
that the wind is blowing towards. It consists
of a bag like cloth closed at one end and
Fig 8.11 A hygrometer.
153
Sunshine recorder houses thermometers and the hygrometer.
A sunshine recorder is a device that records This is to protect the instruments from
the amount of sunshine at a location. The dew and rainfall. Rain and dew interfere
results provide information about the with and damage the thermometers. The
weather and climate of a geographical area. thermometers that are found inside a
Stevenson screen include the following.
• Maximum thermometer
• Minimum thermometer
• Wet-bulb thermometer
• Six’s thermometer

Fig 8.12 A sunshine recorder.

Ceilometer
This is a device that is used for measuring
and recording the height of clouds.

Fig 8.14 A Stevenson screen.

Important points to note about a Stevenson
screen
(a) It is made of wood. This is preferred
to prevent the external heat. Wood is
a bad conductor of heat.
(b) All the sides of the Stevenson screen
have louvres to allow proper aeration.
This is to allow free circulation of air. It
is also to safeguard the thermometer
Fig 8.13 A ceilometer.
from direct sun’s rays.
A Stevenson screen (c) The Stevenson screen is painted white.
This is a special box in which the main This is purposely to reflect heat. This
delicate weather instruments are kept. It implies that the sun’s insolation is

154
 reflected back. This prevent it from Activity 8.12
influincing the temperatures inside the
box. Do this individually.
(d) Stevenson screen is placed on a Study Figure 8.15.
grass-covered ground. This is done 1. Identify some of the instruments in
to prevent the radiated heat from the photograph.
influencing the temperatures inside 2. Why do you think it is necessary for
such stations to be built in various
easily determined.
parts of the country?
(f) It is located far away from obstacles
3. Does your school have a weather station?
such as buildings, trees or concrete
fences. This is to avoid disturbing the 4. If it does, how important is it?
free movement of air. It also allows Activity 8.13
air to enter the Stevenson screen
through the four louvred sides. Carry out a field Visit to a weather station.
(g) The Stevenson screen has a double 1. With the help of a resource person,
boarded roof. This prevents direct go round the station and identify the
rays from the sun from influencing instruments available.
the temperatures inside the box. 2. Record them in your notebooks.
the Steven screen. 3. The resource person at the station
(e) The Stevenson screen is placed on a will show you how to:
stand, about 121 cm above the ground. (a) measure temperature using a
This enables the air temperatures to be thermometer
(b) check for the wind direction using
a wind vane
(c) measure air pressure using a
barometer.
4. Ask him or her to show you how to
use any other weather instrument
available at the station.
5. Record the measurements of the
different elements of weather at the
Fig 8.15 A weather station with weather station.
instruments.
In Rwanda, there are several weather
stations. An example is the Nyamirambo
weather station in Nyarugenge District,
Kigali City.

155
Importance of a school weather station an inner passion in the learners to pursue
(a) A school weather station enables careers like meteorology and climatology.
the school administration and
learners to save time and money. Task 8.2
These resources would otherwise be 1. (a) Describe a Stevenson screen.
spent on the distant field studies on (b) Explain the main features of a
weather stations. Stevenson screen.
(b) It provides a platform for practical 2. Analyse the importance of a school
studies to the learners. Learners are weather station.
able to use the instruments to measure
3. (a) Explain the main features of a
various elements of weather.
good Stevenson screen.
(c) The school weather station can
(b) With the help of a diagram, name
enable learners know the weather of
and describe the conditions
their school environment.
that should be considered while
(d) The school weather station acts as a installing a Stevenson screen.
laboratory for geography lessons. In
(c) State the importance of the
practical lessons, learners are involved
following on a Steveson Screen.
in collecting data on various elements
of weather. This make them understand (i) wood
what is studied in classrooms. (ii) louvred sides
(e) The practical studies facilitated (iii) double roof
by such stations enable learners (iv) height of 121 cm above the
to acquire various skills. The skills ground.
include measuring, recording and 4. Name the instruments kept inside the
analytical skills. Stevenson screen.
(f) The school weather station provides 5. Study the table below and fill in the
evidence on what certain specialists or necessary missing information
professionals do. This helps in creating

Element Instrument Lines drawn on a map

showing each element
__________ Thermometer __________
Rainfall __________ Isohyets
Wind speed __________ Isotach
Wind direction Wind vane Isogon
__________ Barometer/aneroid barometer __________
__________ Hygrometer __________
Sunshine __________ __________
__________ Ceilometer/ceiling light(height of __________
cloud), cloud cover radiometer (CCR)
156
Temperature The minimum thermometer
This thermometer is responsible for showing
Activity 8.14 the lowest temperature reached in a day.
1. Go outside the classroom. Describe It does not use mercury but instead uses
the temperature of the air. alcohol. When temperatures decreases, it
causes the alcohol in the tube to contract.
2. Compare day temperatures to night It then pulls along the index to the actual
temperatures. lowest point. To determine the lowest
temperature, we use readings at end of the
Temperature is defined as the degree of index near the surface of the alcohol.
hotness and coldness of a given place. -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100oC

Temperature is one of the elements of

weather. It is measured by an instrument
bulb metal index
called a thermometer. There are essentially
three types of thermometers. Fig 8.17 (a) A diagram of a minimum
thermometer.
(a) Maximum thermometer
(b) Minimum thermometer
(c) Six’s thermometer
The maximum thermometer
The maximum thermometer is used to Fig 8.17 (b) A minimum thermometer.
determine the highest temperature reached The Six’s thermometer
in a day. This thermometer has a small This type of thermometer is used to measure
constriction in the tube just above the maximum and minimum temperatures
bulb. When the temperature increases, in a day. One of its sides has a maximum
the mercury in the bulb expands upwards thermometer and the other minimum
beyond the constriction. When there is a fall thermometer.
in temperature, the fluid threads break. The minimum maximum
end of the mercury column is positioned at conical bulb

the maximum temperature.

-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 oC
°C °C
alcohol
-70 60
v -60 50
-50 metal index
bulb glass tube mercury metal index vacuum 40
alcohol -40 30
-30 20
Fig 8.16 (a) A diagram of a maximum -20 10
thermometer. -10 0
0 -10
metal index
10 -20
20 -30
30 -40
40 -50
mercury

Fig 8.16 (b) A maximum thermometer.

Fig 8.18 (a) Diagram of Six’s thermometer.
157
 and record your findings.
3. Measure the maximum and minimum
temperature outside your classroom
and record your findings.

Fig 8.18 (b) Six’s thermometer

How it works Factors influencing variation of
1. It has two scales namely the temperature
minimum and the maximum scale.
(a) Nature of the atmosphere
2. The maximum scale is progressive
Solar radiation passes through the
while the minimum scale is
atmosphere. As it passes, it collects various
retrogressive .
gases and aerosols which are impurities.
3. When temperature increases, alcohol These impurities interfere with radiation by
and mercury expand towards the scattering, reflecting and absorbing part of the
maximum side. insolation. Eventually, the temperatures rise.
4. Some of the alcohol in the maximum
thermometer vapourises and (b) The solar altitude
occupies the empty space on top. The noon sun is much more intense than the
5. This flow pushes the index upwards rising or setting sun. Therefore, at noon time,
up to the highest temperature. temperatures become higher than those
6. When temperature reduces, there experienced in morning and evening hours.
will be a reverse flow.
(c) The distance away from the sun
7. The maximum index will stay still at The longer the distance covered by solar
the maximum temperature. This time, radiation, the lower the temperature will
the vapour that was in the vacuum be. The shorter the distance, the more the
turns back to liquid. radiation and the higher the temperatures.
8. The mercury and liquid contract and
the constriction forces the metal (d) Latitudinal location
index in the minimum thermometer This refers to the position of a place on the
upwards. earth in relation to the equator. The areas
9. As it continues upwards, it reads near the equator have higher temperatures
lower and lower temperature on the than areas far from the equator. The polar
scale. It then stops on the lowest regions have lower temperatures.
temperatures of the day.
(e) Altitudinal location
Activity 8.15 This is the location of an area measured
from the sea level. Areas whose altitudes
1. Using samples of the maximum, are high tend to have lower temperatures.
minimum and Six’s thermometers. Areas of low altitudes tend to have high
2. Measure the maximum and minimum temperatures.
temperature inside your classroom
158
(f) Nature of prevailing winds (k) Cloud cover
Winds carry temperature and moisture from The presence of clouds reduces both
one place to another. Onshore winds cause incoming and outgoing radiation. Thick
lower temperatures on land. Winds which clouds prevent solar radiation from
come from dry areas e.g. Hammatan winds striking the earth’s surface. This lowers
cause high temperatures in the places they temperatures of the land surface during
blow towards. the day.

(g) The revolution of the earth round the (l) Vegetation

sun Fo re ste d a re a s u s u a l l y h ave co o l
As the earth revolves around the sun, the temperatures. This is because the canopies
solar altitude and the length of the day of the trees act as an umbrella. They prevent
change. Hence, the intensity of the solar solar radiation from striking the floor of the
radiation (temperature) on the earth forest.
changes seasonally.
(m) Human activities
(h) Distance from the sea Human activities may influence temperature
There is always a very powerful interaction patterns which may cause global warming
between land and sea. This interaction or cooling.
involves movement of air and transfer of Temperatures are higher in built-up areas
temperature. This happens through land like urban centres.
and sea breezes.
• Industries and motor vehicles also
(i) Ocean currents release a lot of carbon dioxide in
Ocean currents are streams of water the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide
moving from specific areas, in particular absorbs a lot of terrestrial radiation
regions with definite temperatures. Ocean raising the air temperature.
currents are majorly of two types, warm • Burning large forests releases a lot of
and cold currents. Warm currents carry
warm temperatures from the equator to carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide
areas they bathe. Cold currents originate absorbs heat thus raising atmospheric
from the polar regions and transfer cold temperatures.
temperatures. • Clearing of forests also increases
the amount of carbon dioxide in the
(j) Slope atmosphere.
Aspect in this case refers to the degree to
which an area is exposed to the sun. Some
slopes are more exposed to the sun while
others are shielded from the sun. Areas
that are exposed to the sun will have higher
temperature than those which are shielded.

159
Activity 8.16 diurnal range temperature will be:
= 24–14=10°C
Use the Internet and other geographical
documents. (b) Mean daily temperature
Mean daily temperature
Find out and explain other factors daily maximum daily minimum
that cause variations in temperatures = temperature + temperature
of different places.
2
Using the example in (a),
24+14 = 38 = 19°C
Calculations involved in
2 2
determining the temperatures
of a given area (c) Mean monthly temperature
The mean monthly temperature is the sum
Temperature is calculated in different ways.
of mean daily temperatures divided by the
We can calculate:
number of days in a month.
• diurnal range temperatures
Suppose the total sum of the mean daily
• mean daily temperature temperature of the month of June is 246.
• mean monthly temperature
The mean monthly temperature
• mean annual temperature
• mean annual range = 246 = 8.2°C
30
(a) Diurnal range temperature
Diurnal range temperature = daily maximum (d) Mean annual temperature
temperature – daily minimum temperature. The mean annual temperature equals the
For example: sum of mean monthly temperatures for a
year divided by the number of months in
- If the maximum temperature of a year.
a day = 24°C and the minimum
temperature of a day =14°C, then the

Table 8.3 Mean monthly temperatures.

Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Mean 20 18 21 25 25 28 28 27 20 20 21 23
monthly
temp 0C
From Table 8.3, the mean annual temperature is = 276
12
= 23°C

160
(e) Mean annual range
The mean annual range = the highest mean
monthly temperature – the lowest mean
monthly temperature.
Using Table 8.3:
The highest mean monthly temperature
= 28°C
The lowest mean monthly temperature Fig 8.19
= 20°C 1. Describe the weather condition of the
day shown in Figure 8.19.
Therefore the mean annual range
2. Why is rain important to humans?
= 28–20 = 8°C.
Precipitation is the deposition of moisture
Activity 8.17 in liquid or solid form. The moisture falls
1. Calculate the diurnal range temperature from the clouds in the atmosphere onto
when the highest temperature is 30°C the earth’s surface. Moisture falls in the
and the lowest temperature is 10°C. form of rainfall, dew, mist, fog, sleet, snow,
haze, and frost.
2. Calculate the mean daily temperature of
a place whose maximum temperature
Forms of precipitation
is 30°C and minimum temperature is
10°C. Activity 8.19
3. Calculate the mean annual temperature
of the year 2014 from the Table 8.4. 1. Observe the weather conditions in
your home area in the morning on
Table 8.4 your way to school for a month.
J F M A M J J A S O N D 2. Identify the forms of precipitation
17 17 18 17 16 14 13 14 15 16 16 16 that your area experiences. You can
also state if it is a sunny month.
(e) Calculate the mean annual range of
temperature from Table 8.4.
(a) Rainfall
Precipitation
This form of precipitation is made up of
Activity 8.18 liquid water droplets. The droplets fall from
the sky after condensation. Condensation
Study the photography below and use it to refers to the process by which water
answer the questions that follow. changes its state from vapour to liquid.
The moisture rises into the atmosphere,
cools down and forms water droplets.
These droplets form clouds. They then get
heavy and yield water droplets.

161
The water droplets are pulled towards the earth’s surface by gravity and falls as rain.

Cloud formation
Condensing water vapour
Snow Precipitation
Evaporisation
Surface runoff
Ocean contributes about
80% of total water vapour
Lake in air
Ground water
Ocean
Salt water
Impervious layer intrusion

Fig 8.20 Formation of rainfall.

(b) Dew (c) Frost

During the night temperatures near the When the temperatures are too low, the
earth’s surface drop drastically. This makes dew freezes. Frozen dew is called frost.
moisture to condense near the surface of
the earth.
The water droplets are formed on cold
surfaces such as objects and vegetation.
These droplets are called dew.

Fig 8.22 Frost.

(d) Hoar-frost
In situations whereby the dew-point is
below the freezing point, water moisture
condenses directly. It then forms tiny
ice particles on the cold surfaces. The
ice particles are formed without passing
through the liquid state. The process is
Fig 8.21 Dew. known as sublimation.

162
 precipitation that is formed by sublimation
of water vapour. When air temperatures
fall below 0°C, the moisture in the air
condenses. It then forms small ice crystals
known as snowflakes. The crystals are then
deposited on the ground as snowfall.

Fig 8.23 Hoar-frost.

(e) Rime
This refers to super cooled droplets frozen
on the surface of telephone poles, wires,
and trees. Rime has a white opaque form
because of the air confined in ice particles. Fig 8.26 Snow.
(h) Sleet
This is made up of a mixture of rain and
snow or partially melted snow. The mixture
then falls on to the surface of the Earth.
Usually, this is formed when the surface of
the earth is at or just above freezing point.

Fig 8.24 Rime.

(f) Fog
This refers to the cloud of visible aggregates
of minute water droplets. They are usually
suspended in the atmosphere near the
surface of the earth.

Fig 8.27 Sleet.

(i) Hail
This is frozen raindrops that build into
spherical ice particles. It usually forms in the
high clouds due to the uplift by convectional
currents. As the raindrops are lifted higher
by the rising air currents, they attract ice.
Fig 8.25 Fog. They then begin to fall downwards due to
(g) Snow the increased weight.
This is frozen water particles from the
higher atmosphere. It is a form of solid
163
 Fig 8.30 Mist.
Haze is the term used when the visibility is
limited to between 1km and 2km as a result
of dust or smoke.

Fig 8.28 Hail.

(j) Thunderstorm
This is a form of precipitation that is
Fig 8.31 Haze.
accompanied by thunder and lightning.
Smog refers to a mixture of fog and smoke.
Thunder is the explosion or bomb-like sound
It is very common in industrialised countries
which occurs in the sky where there are
like Germany and the Unites States of
thick clouds.
America.
(k) Mist, fog, and haze
These terms have a direct relationship in
terms of mode of formation. The difference
is in the variations of how they affect the
visibility of a given area.
Fog is used when the visibility is less than
one kilometre.
Fig 8.32 Smog.

Task 8.3
1. Define the term precipitation.
2. List and describe various forms of
precipitation.

Fig 8.29 Fog.

The water cycle
Mist is used when visibility extends to one Activity 8.20
kilometre.
1. Collect sauce pans, water and a
charcoal stove or any other source of
heat.
2. Put water in a sauce pan to boil.
3. When it starts boiling, get a cold lid
and hold it above the sauce pan.

164
The water cycle is a continuous cycle where Under the influence of gravitational pull, the
water evaporates into the air, forms clouds water droplets fall down onto the earth’s
and falls down as precipitation. It then surface.
evaporates again and repeats the same It falls in the form of precipitation.
cycle. It is a never ending cycle. Water
keeps moving and changing its state from When the dew-point is below freezing
solid to liquid to gas over and over again. point the water vapour turns directly into
This process is also referred to as the ice crystals. The crystals fall in the form of
hydrological cycle. snow. The snow is formed by sublimation.
This is the process through which moisture
The water cycle process freezes without changing into liquid.

Stage 1: Evaporation Stage 3: Infiltration, percolation and

The sun heats the surface of the earth. This over-land flow/run off
heat makes water from the earth’s surface Activity 8.21
and plants to rise into the atmosphere.
Water rises in the form of moisture or vapour 1. Go outside your classroom. Pour some
through evaporation and transpiration. water on the ground and observe what
happens after 10 minutes.
Stage 2: Condensation and sublimation 2. Move to a rocky area or an area that
The rising moisture reaches the upper parts has concrete. Pour water on the
of the atmosphere where temperatures are ground and observe what happens.
low. It then condenses forming tiny water 3. Relate your observation to different
droplets that result in the formation of types of soils that you learnt about.
clouds.

Fig 8.33 A summary of the water cycle.

165
When the water droplets reach the earth’s The water ends up into water bodies such
surface, part of it infiltrates and percolates as swamps, rivers, lakes, and oceans.
into the ground. This forms underground Part of the infiltrated water is taken in
water. The water finds itself back to the by vegetation. When the sun releases its
water bodies in springs and wells. insolation it energises the processes of
When the soils are highly saturated, the evaporation and transpiration. Moisture
water starts flowing onto the earth’s surface then rises back into the atmosphere. This
in form of run-off. whole process repeats itself. It is continuous.
Activity 8.22
Study Figure 8.34 and answer the questions that follow.
Vapour transport
40

Precipitation Precipitation
111 385
Evaporation + transpiration 71

Evaporation
Surface
425
runoff

Percolation River
Ocean
Lake
Land

Ground water flow

Fig 8.34
1. Describe what happens at every stage.
2. Explain what you think would happen if one process is omitted.
3. Suggest ways in which humans can maintain the water cycle in its normal state.
4. Record your findings and discuss them in a class presentation.

166
Types of rainfall across, making the air moist.
2. The moist air is forced to rise over
Case study mountains and hills.
Read the passage below and aswer the 3. This forces the air to cool and
questions that follow. condense, forming clouds.
Manzi, Kasime and Shema are very good 4. The air continues to be forced over
friends. The three friends come from the mountains and so it drops its
different areas but study together in a moisture as relief rain.
boarding school in the Eastern Province 5. On the top of the mountain, the
of Rwanda. Manzi comes from Musanze air drops down the other side. It
District where there are many mountains. warms as it drops. This means it has
Kasime comes from Rubavu District near a greater ability to carry moisture.
Lake Kivu. Shema’s home is near Nyungwe There is therefore little rain on the
Forest. far side of the mountain. This area is
1. In pairs, identfy the types of rainfall called the rain shadow.
experienced in each of the areas Note
where the students come from. (i) The side of a mountain that receives
2. Explain the formation of the types of rainfall is called the windward
rainfall identified in (1) above. side. The side that does not receive
3. Mention and describe the formation rainfall is known as the leeward
of type of rainfall that is expirienced side. It is sometimes known as the
in any of the areas mentioned above. rain shadow side.
4. Advice the communities living in the (ii) The leeward side remains dry
areas mentioned on how to conserve because it is bathed by a dry
the environment in order for them to downslope wind. The moisture in
continues receiving rainfall. the downslope wind is trapped and
5. Discuss your finding in a class. dropped on the windward side.

Areas in Eastern Africa where such rainfall

As you studied earlier, rainfall is one of the
is received include:
forms of the precipitation. There are 3 types
of rainfall.  The highlands of Rwanda – Northern
and Western provinces
 Relief (orographic) rainfall
 Western side of Mt. Ruwenzori in
 Convectional rainfall
Uganda
 Cyclonic (frontal) rainfall
 Mt. Elgon
The relief (orographic) rainfall  Kenyan highlands

Formation of relief rainfall

1. The prevailing winds pick up moisture
from water bodies as they travel
167
 Condensation Clouds
Cyclonic (depression or frontal) rainfall
level
Formation of frontal rainfall
Leeward
1. Two air masses meet, one a warm air
Rain Warm dry air mass and one a cold air mass.
descending
Windward 2. The lighter, less dense, warm air is
Warm moist
air rising
forced to rise over the denser, cold air.
Sea 3. This causes the warm air to cool and
begin to condense.
Fig 8.35 Formation of relief rainfall. 4. As the warm air is forced to rise
Convectional rainfall further, condensation occurs and rain
is formed.
This type of rainfall is very common in areas
where the ground is heated by the hot sun. 5. Frontal rain produces a variety of
It mostly occurs in the tropics. This is why clouds, which brings moderate to
these areas experience heavy rainfalls most heavy rainfall.
afternoons. Clouds

Condensation level
Formation of convectional rainfall
1. The surface of the earth is heated by
the sun. Rain

2. The warm surface heats the air above

it. Hot air always rises so this newly Warm moist air rising

heated air rises.

3. As it rises, the air cools and begins to
condensate. Warm moist air Cold dense air

4. Further rising and cooling causes

a large amount of condensation to Front
occur and rain is formed. Fig 8.37 Formation of frontal rainfall
5. Convection produces towering
clouds, which produce heavy rain and Activity 8.23
possible thunder and lightning.
1. Describe the type of rainfall that
Clouds
Condensation level
occurs in your home and school
neighbourhood.
2. Using a well-labelled diagram,
Warm moist
air rising
Warm moist
air rising
describe how it is formed.
Rain 3. Suggest ways in which the
environment should be cared for to
ensure reliable rainfall.
Ground

Fig 8.36 Formation of convectional rainfall.

168
Measuring rainfall of this water collected in the jar can
evaporate. This will happen when the
Activity 8.24 temperatures are high.
Using internet Reseach
1. Find out how to make a rain gauge.
2. Make one for use in your school .
3. Place it in an appropriate location
within your school compound.
4. Measure the amount of rainfall that is
collected daily for two months.
5. Calculate the daily rainfall totals and
the mean monthly rainfall.

Rainfall is measured using a rain gauge.

A rain gauge has an outer cylinder within
which there is a funnel that drains into a
collecting bottle. A part of it is buried in the
ground while the top part remains above
the ground.
Fig 8.38 The structure of a rain gauge
The following important conditions should
Measuring rainfall
be observed when placing a rain gauge in
a place. Rainfall can be measured as:

 It should be situated in an open space • Daily rainfall

where there are no trees, houses or • Total monthly rainfall
buildings. The place should also be free • Mean monthly rainfall
of surface run off. This is to ensure that • Total annual rainfall
the rain to be measured is as actual as • Mean annual rainfall
possible. If it is placed under trees or
in front of houses, it will give wrong Daily rainfall
readings. This is because more water This is the amount of rainfall collected in
will collect in it. a rain gauge at a weather station in a day.
 Part of the rain gauge (about 30 cm)
should be left above the ground. This is Total monthly rainfall
to prevent the run-off and splash water This is obtained by adding the figures of
from entering the measuring jar. the daily rainfall for a period of one month.
 The bottom part of the rain gauge
should be partially buried. This is
to reduce or stop any evaporation
from the jar. If this is not done, part
169
Table 8.5: Daily rainfall totals in April for Nyamirambo.
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Rainfall 10 12 TR TR 10 2 0.1 TR 20 40 15 15 8 5 6 TR TR 30
Day 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Rainfall 29 10 TR TR 20 5 4 TR 5 10 10 TR

TR = traces

From Table 8.5 the rainfall total for the month of April in Nyamirambo is 266.1 mm.

Mean monthly rainfall

Mean monthly rainfall is calculated by adding all monthly rainfall totals for the year and
dividing by 12.

Total annual rainfall

This is the mean annual rainfall totals for the 12 months in a year added together.
See Table 8.6.
Table 8.6 Total annual rainfall.
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D Total
Mean 26 10 61 202 322 107 88 65 56 84 94 60 1,181
monthly
rainfall in
mm

Mean annual rainfall

This is the average rainfall of a place. It is calculated after a period of years such as 15
years. The annual rainfall totals are collected for a period of 15 years. They are then added
and the sum divided by 15.

Task 8.4 3. (a) Explain how rainfall is measured.

1. With help of appropriate illustrations, (b) State reasons to why it is
describe the major types of rainfall. necessary to measure rainfall.
2. Study the table below, showing 4. Explain the factors responsible for
areas which receive rainfall. Fill in the formation of rainfall.
the appropriate types of rainfall
experienced. Atmospheric pressure
Type of rainfall The area Activity 8.25
Mountainous areas
Around Lake Kivu 1. Define atmospheric pressure.
Highlands 2. State and explain the factors that
influence atmospheric pressure.

170
Atmospheric pressure refers to the weight (c) The earth’s rotation
exerted by the atmosphere over the Earth’s During the rotation of the earth, air is
surface. Atmospheric pressure is greater thrown from the equator towards the
on the ground surface and greatest at the poles. As the air moves towards the poles,
sea level. It decreases with an increase in it crosses over latitudes which are reducing
altitude. Atmospheric pressure varies from in size. This leads to high pressure.
place to place.
On the other hand, air blowing from
Factors that influence atmospheric pressure the polar region crosses over widening
Atmospheric pressure is influenced by three latitudes. This leads to low pressure.
factors.
 Altitude  Rotation of the
 Temperature earth.

(a) Altitude
This refers to the height of a given place
in relation to the sea level. Areas closer to
the sea level support a high column of air
above them. This air exerts much pressure.
Hence, atmospheric pressure is higher in
areas near the sea level and lower on the
mountains.
Fig 8. 40 Global pressure belts.
Small column of air
(Less weight-LP) Locate zones of high and low pressure
 
on the earth’s surface on the map shown
High pressure
below.
(A larger
column of air) Great NP
weight Mountain 60°

30°

Fig 8.39 Differences in atmospheric pressure.

(b) Temperature 0°
High temperatures cause low pressure while
low temperature cause high pressure. In hot
warm regions, heated air becomes lighter 30°
and rises. This causes low pressure. 60°
In areas with low temperature, air is cold SP
and dense. The air sinks and exerts pressure
Fig 8.41
on the surface. This causes high pressure.

171
Measurement of atmospheric The mercury barometer
pressure A glass tube graduated in centimetres or
inches and closed at one end is filled with
Activity 8.26 mercury. The tube is then inverted and the
open end immersed into a dish of mercury.
Study the diagram representing a mercury
The mercury flows out of the tube into
barometer and answer the questions that
the bowl. It does so until the weight of its
follow:
column is balanced by the pressure of the
Vacuum atmospheric pressure exerted on it. This
means the mercury adjusts itself until its
weight in the column is equal to the weight
Glass tube
of the air pressure.
760 mm When the pressure of the atmosphere
(29.92) increases, it exerts weight on the mercury in
Atmospheric
the dish. The mercury in the tube rises. The
pressure
atmospheric pressure is obtained by reading
the level of the mercury on the graduated
tube. When the pressure decreases, the
height of the mercury in the tube drops. The
Mercury length of the column of mercury indicates
the air pressure.
Fig 8.42
1. Explain why the arrow shown on the
diagram points down wards.
2. What is the atmospheric pressure
experienced in the area where the
above mercury barometer was used?
3. State the units used in measuring the
atmospheric pressure.
4. Explain how the above instrument
operates.

Atmospheric pressure is measured using

an instrument called a barometer. It is
measured in millibars.
There are two kinds of barometers. These Fig 8.43 Mercury barometer
are: The aneroid barometer
(a) the mercury barometer This is a smaller and more portable
(b) the aneroid barometer. barometer. It consists of a vacuum metal box

172
or capsule with a spring inside. This spring Task 8.5
prevents it from collapsing. One end of the
spring is firmly fixed to the frame of the Use the diagram below to answer the
barometer. The other end is free to move questions that follow.
with changes in atmospheric pressure. A North pole
X 60°N
lever is fixed to the movable end of the
spring. The lever moves a pointer over a
dial graduated in millimetres. 30°N

Y 0°
Sub-tropical high pressure 30°S

Sub-tropical low
30°S
pressure zone
Z 60°S
South pole
Fig 8.45
1. .(a) Name the pressure belts marked
X, Y and Z.
Fig 8.44 An aneroid barometer. (b) Explain the reason for the
occurrence of the atmospheric
The metal bar or capsule is sensitive to pressure at location Y.
pressure changes. It compresses when
(c) Why are polar regions associated
pressure increases and expands when
with high pressure cells?
pressure decreases. The spring in the box
or capsule correspondingly moves. It allows 2. State and explain any three factors
the pointer to indicate the pressure of the that influence the atmospheric
atmosphere on the dial. The atmospheric pressure of a given area.
pressure is obtained by reading the figure 3. Explain the effects of atmospheric
indicated by the pointer. pressure on temperature and winds.
On some aneroid barometers, pressure is 4. Study the diagram below and answer
automatically and continuously printed on the questions that follow
a revolving drum. This drum is inside the
barometer. The pressure is printed on a
graph known as a barograph.

Fig 8.46

173
 (a) Name the instrument. (a) What were the tiny water droplets?
(b) State the element of weather (b) As a geography student, explain what
measured using the above was taking place when water droplets
instrument. started rolling down from Miss
(c) Explain how the above Batamuliza’s forehead.
instrument works. (c) Which element of weather caused
Miss Batamuliza’s agony on her
Humidity journey to school?
(d) What was limiting Miss Batamuliza’s
Case study visibility?
Read the short story below and answer the
questions that follow. Humidity refers to the amount of water
Miss Batamuliza is a day scholar in one of moisture in the air that surrounds the earth.
the secondary schools in Musanze district. Humidity displays the degree of wetness
She walks for five kilometres every day to of the atmosphere. It is one of the major
school. She passes through the rocky slopes influences of the atmospheric weather.
that decorate the beautiful landscape of Humidity is expressed either as absolute
the region. She struggles to see what is humidity or relative humidity.
ahead of her as she walks because of a
cloudy substance that blurs her vision. This (a) Absolute humidity
condition is a common occurrence in her
area. Activity 8.27

One day she woke up earlier than usual. She Your teacher will take you for a field visit to
wanted to go to school to do her assignment. a weather station near your school.
After walking for two kilometres, she was 1. Ask the resource person at the
covered by the tiny water droplets that station to show you how to measure
stuck to her hair. humidity using the instrument at the
Despite the cold and the dampness, she still station.
went on with her journey. In a few minutes, 2. Measure the humidity in the
several droplets of water began rolling down atmosphere at the station.
her face. She thought it was drizzling. Her
bag and sweater became damp.
She soon reached school. She observed that Absolute humidity refers to the actual
some of her classmates who arrived after amount of water vapour present in a certain
her were cold and damp. Later that day volume of air at a given temperature. The
when she went home, she requested her absolute humidity is expressed in grams
parents to take her to a boarding school. per cubic metre (g/m3). Absolute humidity
She wanted to become a medical doctor is high when temperature is high. This is
like her brother. during the day and in summer. Areas that
experience high temperatures throughout
174
the year have high absolute humidity. Such water vapour.
areas include the equatorial zones. This Air temperature
happens in areas with large water bodies
This determines the rate of evaporation
and heavy rainfall.
and transpiration. When the temperatures
(b) Relative humidity increase, evaporation and transpiration
This is the ratio between the actual amount increase too. These processes steadily supply
of water vapour present in a given mass of the atmosphere with water vapour. The
air to the maximum amount of water vapour opposite happens when the temperatures
that the same air can hold at the same decline.
temperature. It is expressed as a percentage. The prevailing winds
Relative humidity Winds which are warm and moist carry a lot
of water vapour to the areas they blow to.
Actual humidity
RH = x 100% Cold and dry winds limit the level of humid
saturation humidity
conditions.
Suppose the actual vapour density is 47 and the Plant cover
saturation vapour density is 98. Calculate the
relative humidity.
Forested areas with dense vegetation cover
have high humidity. This is due to intense
Then, the relative humidity will be calculated transpiration and other related geographical
as follows: aspects that increase water moisture. Areas
= 47 x 100% with little vegetation cover have less humidity.
98
= 47.96 % The presence and size of water bodies
The relative humidity in this case is 47.96%. Water bodies of reasonable sizes enable
This implies that the same mass of air at the areas where they are located to have humid
same temperature still requires 47.96% to conditions. This is due to evaporation that
reach saturation. continuously supplies water vapour to the
atmosphere. Regions that have few or
Factors that influence the amount of
lack water bodies have less humidity due
humidity to limited supply water moisture.
The amount of humidity varies from time to
time. It also varies from place to place. This Latitude
variation occurs due to the following factors. The amount of water vapour in the
atmosphere is higher at the equator and
Precipitation
the tropics. It is lower at the temperate and
This plays a great role in determining the polar regions.
quantity of humidity in the atmosphere.
Areas that receive heavy rainfall regularly Atmospheric pressure
have more water moisture hence creating The higher the atmospheric pressure, the
humid conditions. On the other hand, areas lower the amount of water vapour in the
with arid conditions will have little or no air. The lower the atmospheric pressure, the

175
higher the amount of water vapour. There is a modern instrument also used to
measure humidity. It has a self-recording
Activity 8.28 system and it is called hygrograph.
Use the Internet and geographical Wet-bulb and dry-bulb hygrometer
documents.
This has a muslin bag (wet-bulb hygrometer)
Explain other factors that influence that is kept wet all the time. When the
humidity. moisture reduces through evaporation,
latent heat also lowers. It cools the wet- bulb
and as a result mercury contracts showing
Measurement of humidity
the readings. The dry-bulb hygrometer has
Humidity is measured by an instrument no muslin bag. It is entirely affected by the
known as a hygrometer. Though there are moisture in the surrounding air.
a variety of hygrometers, the commonly
used is the psychrometer. It is often known
as the wet-bulb and dry-bulb hygrometer.

dry bulb wet bulb

°C 45
°C 40 40
35 35
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
-15 -15
-20 -20
-25 -25
-30 -30

cotton cloth

water

Fig 8.47 A simple hygrometer.

Humidity levels are therefore derived from the difference existing between the two
readings. This is when the air has not reached saturation levels.
176
Table 8.7 Interpretation of the readings of
the psychrometer.
Nature of the Description of
readings humidity levels
A very big difference Very low
between the humidity.
readings of the wet
bulb and dry bulb
hygrometers.
A very small Humidity is high. (b)
difference
The same readings The air is
saturated.

Winds
Activity 8.29
Go outside your classroom.
1. Observe trees and hanged clothes.
2. Cut small pieces of leaves and put
them down.
3. Observe what happens to them.
4. Throw chalk dust into the air.
5. Record your observations. (c)
Fig 8.48
Activity 8.30 1. Describe the photographs (a), (b) and
Use the photographs provided below to (c) while relating them to weather
answer the questions that follow. conditions.
2. In which photograph is air calm?
3. Why do you think there are calm
conditions in photograph (a)?
4. Examine the effects of the element of
weather identified in photographs (b)
and (c).

Wind is defined as moving air. Winds range

(a) from a gentle breeze to the fastest and most
damaging winds. Wind plays a great role

177
in influencing weather as well as climate. If  Katabatic and anabatic winds
there were no winds, it would be hard for  The Chinook/Fohn winds
water vapour to reach the upper layers of
 The monsoon winds.
the atmosphere. Therefore, condensation
would not take place and no clouds and (a) Land and sea breezes
rainfall could be formed. Wind moves from These are air circulations which occur locally
a zone of low pressure to a zone of high along the shores of water bodies such
pressure. It moves in a horizontal manner. lakes and oceans. They are influenced by
variations in temperatures between land
Types of winds and sea respectively.
There are essentially two types of winds.
Sea breeze
• Local winds During the day, the land warms up faster
• Global winds. than the neighbouring water body. The
air over the land gets heated. It expands,
Local winds
becomes light and rises. Low pressure
Local winds are associated with specific develops over the land surface. The water
areas. They are also directly influenced by surface which takes a longer time to warm,
the local environment. Such winds cover a remains cooler than the land surface. The
small area. They include the following. low temperature over the water surface
 Land breeze leads to the development of a high pressure.
 Sea breeze Wind therefore blows from the water body
to the land.

Sea breeze

178
 SUN

rising warm air

warm land surface

sea breeze

cool water
surface
SEA

Fig 8. 49 Development of a sea breeze.

Characteristics of a sea breeze Land breeze

• The wind is fairly strong. At night, the land cools faster then the
• It blows in the afternoon from sea. This leads to low temperature over
a water body towards the land. the land. The air molecules over the land
This is because by this time both becomes heavy leading to development
the land and the water body have of high pressure. The warmer and lighter
been heated. This creates a distinct air over the water rises. This results into
pressure difference. low pressure over the water body. Wind
• The wind is relatively cool. therefore blows from the land to the sea
forming a land breeze.

Land breeze

179
 ris
ing
wa
night rm
air
descending cool air
cool land
surface high p
ress
ure
land breeze
low pressure
warm water surface
LAND
SEA

Fig 8.50 Development of a land breeze.

Characteristics of the land breeze valley bottoms.
• It is a light wind.
This creates a high pressure zone on the
• It blows at night.
upper slopes and a low pressure cell within
• It is weak compared to a sea the valley.
breeze. This is because the pressure
difference between the water and the The cold air from the upper slopes descends
land surface is small. towards the valley. This air descends under
the influence of gravity. The descending cold
Areas that experience these breezes include
wind is called the katabatic wind. It is also
the areas near Lake Kivu, Lake Victoria and
sometimes known as the mountain breeze.
Lake Tanganyika.
night
Weather conditions associated with land Terrestrial radiation
and sea breezes
(a) Sea breezes have cooling effects on hill slope
mountain breeze
the adjacent coasts on hot afternoons
in the tropical regions.
accumulation of very cold air at valley bottom
(b) Sea breezes also lead to formation of
convetional rainfall on the land in late
afternoons. This is common in areas
around Lake Victoria and the coastal
regions.
(c) Land breezes lead to the development
of heavy rainfall accompanied by
thunderstorms and strong winds. This
occurs on water at night.
Fig 8.51 Development of a mountain breeze
Katabatic winds (katabatic winds).

At night, the upper parts of mountains lose Characteristics of mountain breeze

heat faster than the lowland areas such as • It is cold and dense.
• It blows at night down a mountain slope.

180
• It is gentle. Fig 8.52 Development of a valley breeze
(anabatic winds).
Weather associated with mountain breeze Within the valley, the sun’s rays are not
(a) It creates a temperature inversion in intense. The cool conditions lead to the
the valley. The air above the valley formation of a high pressure zone. The
bottom is warmer than the surface. warm air is therefore forced to rise by the
(b) It leads to formation of fog or mist adjacent cooler denser air in the valley.
in valleys in the early morning This allows cooler air from the valley to
hours. These weather conditions start rising against the slopes. The air rises
are common in highland areas and to replace the warm air that expanded and
escarpments bordering highlands. rose. This is sometimes known as the valley
(c) It causes frost and chilly conditions in breeze.
the valleys.
Characteristics associated with the anabatic
(d) It is associated with dry conditions. wind
Anabatic winds • It is a warm light wind.
• It blows upslope during the day.
During the day, the sun’s rays reach the
mountain slopes more than valleys. This Weather conditions associated with
results into a low pressure zone along upper anabatic winds
slopes. The air continues heating up and (a) They lead to the formation of
expands eventually rising into atmosphere. cumulo-nimbus clouds. These clouds
day time yield heavy rainfall accompanied by
anabatic wind thunderstorms on the mountains.
incoming solar (b) The valley remains without mist or
hill slope radiation fog.
The Chinook or Fohn winds
These winds are formed when the warm
moist winds blow against the mountain. As
they blow, they drop the moisture in form
of precipitation on the windward side. After
moisture is dropped, winds descend on the
leeward side. They begin to warm up due to
adiabatic compression.
These winds are dry and warm leading to
dry conditions along the leeward side of
the mountain. The chinook is an American
word which means “snow eater”. This is
because the wind is associated with rising
temperatures that result into snow melt.

181
When these winds are still on the windward side they are not yet chinook.
These winds are common on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains in the USA and
in the Alps Mountains in southern Europe. They are called the Fohn winds in the Alps and

Chinook in the Rocky Mountains.

Clouds
Windward side
Leeward side
Condensation level

Rain Mountain Fohn wind-warm

and dry wind
Warm moist air mass with it a different kind of weather.
Monsoons cause wet and dry seasons
Sea throughout much of the tropics. They are
often associated with the Indian Ocean.

Fig 8. 53 Fohn wind descends the mountain as a warm dry wind.

The monsoon winds
A monsoon is a seasonal shift in the prevailing wind direction. It usually brings

Fig 8.54 The direction of the monsoon winds in summer and in winter.
Monsoons always blow from cold to warm regions. The summer monsoon and the winter
monsoon determine the climate for most of India and Southeast Asia. It blows from the
southwest in summer and from the northeast in winter. In India and nearby lands, the
season during which the southwest monsoon blows has heavy rains.

182
The harmattan wind
This wind originates from the Sahara desert. It is associated with a lot of dust. It usually
results into a decrease in temperatures due to the dusty haze created. When it occurs,
visibility is reduced to a kilometre or even less.
North pole
60°N

30°N

0°

30°S
Fig 8.55 The harmattan wind.
60°S
Sirrocco winds
South pole
These are hot winds carrying large quantities
of dust in North Africa. They usually blow
between February and June. They share Fig 8.56
similarities with the harmattan winds. 3. Present your work for marking.
Activity 8.31
These winds operate between latitudes and
1. Use the Internet and geography cover a huge area or region. They include
textbooks to find out other examples the following.
of local winds.
 The trade winds
2. Describe their characteristics and
 The westerlies
effects on land where they occur.
 The polar easterlies
The global winds As earlier mentioned, global winds cover
a larger region and interplay between
Activity 8.32 latitudes.
1. Describe the different types of global
winds. Trade winds
2. Locate the global winds by filling The trade winds are the easterly surface
in the names of the winds in the winds found in the tropics. They are found
diagram Figure 8.56. within the lower portion of the earth’s
atmosphere near the earth’s equator. The
trade winds blow predominantly from the
northeast in the Northern Hemisphere.

183
They form the North-east trade winds. westerly winds in the middle latitudes occur
They also blow from the south-east in the between the 40 and 50 degrees latitudes.
Southern Hemisphere. Here they form the The westerlies carry the warm, equatorial
south-east trade winds. They strengthen waters and winds to the western coasts
during the winter and when the Arctic of continents. This happens more in the
region is in its warm phase. Southern Hemisphere because of its vast
They blow from the subtropical high oceans.
towards the equatorial trough. They
migrate with the pressure belts north and
south of the equator.

Fig 8.58 Westerlies.

The polar easterlies

Fig 8.57 Trade winds. The polar easterlies are the dry, cold
prevailing winds that blow from the high-
The westerlies pressure areas of the north and south
These are prevailing winds that blow from poles towards low-pressure areas. Cold
the west toward the east in the middle air subsides at the poles creating the high
latitudes. They blow between latitudes pressure. This pressure causes air to flow
30 and 60 degrees. They originate from outward towards the equator. The outflow
the high-pressure areas in the subtropical is then deflected westward by the coriolis
latitudes and blow towards the poles. effect. This results in the easterlies.
The westerlies are strongest in the Western
Hemisphere and at times of low pressure
over the poles. They are weakest in the
Southern Hemisphere and when pressures
are higher over the poles. The westerlies
are particularly strong in areas where land
is absent. This is because land intensifies
the flow pattern, making the current to
flow in a north – south direction. This
action slows down the winds. The strongest
Fig 8.59 Polar easterlies.

184
Table 8.8 below shows a summary of the Table 8.8 Global winds
global winds.

Wind Description
system
The polar • Their origin is in the polar regions.
easterlies • They blow towards the temperate areas 60° north or south of the
equator.
The • They originate from the sub-tropical high pressure zone.
westerlies • They move towards the temperate low pressure belts.
• They begin as south westerlies but deflect hence generally named
westerlies.
The • They begin from the sub-tropical high pressure zone.
northeast • They move towards the equatorial low pressure areas.
trade winds
• They are only found in the Northern Hemisphere.
• They are situated within 30°N.
The • They originate from the sub-tropical high pressure zone.
southeast • They blow towards the equatorial low pressure areas.
trade winds
• Their latitudinal location is within 300S.

90°N

Polar easteries

Prevailing westeries

Tropical easteries
NE trade winds
The doldrums
Tropical easteries
SE trade winds

Prevailing westeries

Rising air Polar easteries

Sinking air 90°S

Fig 8.60 Global winds.

185
Measurement of wind east is always defined as west wind.
Wind is measured in terms of direction Modern wind vanes are electronically
and speed. The instruments used in these connected to a calibrated dial. The dial has
measurements are: degrees and compass directions, as shown
below:
 wind vane for wind direction
 cup anemometer for wind speed  East wind is specified as 90°
 wind sock for the wind strength and  South wind is specified as 180°
direction.  West wind is specified as 270°
 North wind is specified as 360°
Wind vane
Cup anemometer
Activity 8. 33
This is the most accurate instrument used in
1. Use local materials from your measuring the speed of wind. It is accurate
environment to make a wind vane. especially in measuring the horizontal wind
2. Place it in a place where wind speed. The cup anemometer has cups which
direction can be determined. when blown by the wind, generate a weak
3. Read the direction of the wind. electric current. The current drives the
pointer that is connected to standardised
readings on a dial. The readings are in
This is an instrument used to show wind metres per second, kilometres per second
direction. It has a pointer that looks like an or miles per second.
arrow with a broad base. The head always
points to the direction of the wind. The more the wind speed, the more the
rotations and generation of electric current.
Hence, the pointer will point on high metre
readings.
Cups
Freely
rotating arm

Metre
Compass
direction
10 metres

Fig 8.61 A wind vane.

Fig 8.62 Cup anemometer.
The direction of wind is always determined
as the direction from which the wind blows.
For example, wind blowing from west to

186
Activity 8.34 5. Use the findings in class discussions.
Visit a weather station near your school. Task 8.6
1. Identify a cup anemometer at the 1. Define wind.
station. 2. (a) Explain how winds influence the
2. Ask the resource person to show you climate of a given area.
how to read the speed of wind. (b) With the help of diagrams,
3. Read the wind speed at the weather describe how the following are
station. measured.
The windsock (i) Wind direction
The windsock measures the strength and (ii) Wind speed
direction of wind. When the wind’s strength (iii) Wind strength
is weak, the sock points downwards. When 3. Distinguish between the following.
it is great, it blows out almost at right angle.
(a) Land breeze and sea breeze.
Windsocks are mostly used in airports.
(b) Hamattan and Sirocco winds.
Direction of wind (c) Katabatic and anabatic winds.
4. (a) With the help of a diagram,
describe how the chinook winds
are formed.
(b) Examine the effects of Chinook
winds in areas where they occur.
Cloth

Clouds
Activity 8.36
Mast Go outside the classroom and look up into
the sky. What do you see?
Fig 8.63 Windsock.
1. Note down the colour and
Activity 8.35 characteristics of the sky above you.
2. Write down the findings.
1. Tie a paper bag onto a long pole or
3. Draw and colour the sky that you
stick.
have observed.
2. Place it firmly in a good place where
the winds can reach.
Clouds are tiny water droplets or ice
3. Determine the wind direction using a
particles suspended in the air. They form
compass.
when water vapour condenses into water
4. Observe its behaviour and record droplets or ice crystals.
down your observations.
187
They condense around particles such as smoke, dust or salts that are found moving in
the atmosphere.

Types of clouds
Clouds are classified according to their height, appearance, shape and altitude. They are
generally classified into four.
 High clouds – 6,000 to 12000 metres
 Middle clouds – 2,100 to 6,000 metres
 Low clouds – below 2,100 metres
 Clouds of great vertical extent – 1,500 to 9,000 metres

High clouds
Clouds Characteristics
Cirrus • They are made of
crystals that give them
an appearance of white
colour.
• They are the highest
clouds in the
atmosphere.
• They are thin and
detached. Fig 8.64 Cirrus clouds.
• They are feathery with tail filaments.
• They yield no precipitation.

Cirrocumulus • They are made of ice

crystals.
• They are white in colour.
• They look like soap foam.
• They are made of thin
layers and rows of
rounded masses with a
ripple appearance.
• They yield no
precipitation. Fig 8.65 Cirrocumulus clouds.

188
Cirrostratus • They are made of ice crystals which give the clouds a milky
appearance.
• They are thin veil-like sheets or layers that cover much or all the sky.
• When the sun or moon shines through them they form a ring of
light around (halo).

Fig 8.66 Cirrostratus clouds.

Middle clouds

Altocumulus • They consist of water droplets and some ice crystals.

• They are whitish-grey in colour.
• They form waves of lumps separated by patches of blue sky.
• They look like piled up cotton wool.
• They have flattened bottoms.
• They yield small amounts of precipitation.

Fig 8.67 Altocumulus clouds.

189
Altostratus • They consist of water droplets and some ice crystals.
• They are grayish in colour.
• They form uniform sheets of watery-looking clouds. These sheets
partly or totally cover the sky, reducing the brightness of the sun
or the moon.

Fig 8.68 Altostratus clouds.

Low clouds
Stratocumulus • They mainly consist of water droplets.
• They are dark grey or smoky in colour.
• They are large globular and bumpy looking with an appearance
of long rolling rows.
• They occasionally yield showers.

Fig 8.69 Stratocumulus.

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Stratus • They consist of water droplets.
• They form a low uniform layer resembling fog.
• They are greyish white in colour.
• They are associated with dull weather and drizzle.

Fig 8.70 Stratus clouds.

Nimbostratus • They consist of water droplets.

• They are thick and dark grayish-black in colour.
• They are shapeless and may have darker patches beneath them.
• They yield continuous rain.

Fig 8.71 Nimbostratus clouds.

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 Clouds of great vertical extent
Cumulus • They consist of water droplets.
• They are thick white clouds.
• They have a flat base and sharp outlines.
• They occur as isolated heaps. They look like cauliflower or heaped
cotton wool.
• They develop into a thick vertical extent because they are
convectional in type.
• They are associated with intermittent sunshine and occasionally
short-lived showers.

Fig 8.72 Cumulus clouds.

Cumulonimbus • They are made of water droplets at the lower levels and ice crystals
at the highest levels.
• They have a great vertical extent rising from a height of about 2100
metres to 9000 metres above the ground.
• They are big, heavy and black in colour with a flat base.
• The top of the cloud spreads out assuming the shape of an anvil.
• Cumulonimbus clouds are associated with convectional currents
which create rapid movement and mixing of air particles, leading
to very heavy rainfall accompanied by thunder and lightning.
• They are associated with rain showers and hail. The showers are
heavy and violent.

Fig 8.73 Cumulonimbus clouds.

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 Fig 8. 74 Clouds at different altitudes.
Activity 8.37
1. Go outside your classroom.
2. Look up into the sky.
3. Identify the different types of clouds that are up in sky.
4. Give the correct characteristics of the clouds that you identify.
5. Draw and colour the clouds identified.

Sunshine
Activity 8.38
Your teacher will take you for a visit to a weather station.
1. Identify a Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder.
2. Ask the resource person at the station to show you how to measure sunshine.
3. Measure the sunshine at the station at that particular time.
4. Explain how you can measure sunshine in your school using a Campbell-Stokes
sunshine recorder.
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This is the light or solar radiation that
is received on the earth’s surface from
the sun. The amount and duration of
sunshine received on the earth’s surface is
determined by:
• cloud cover
• aspect
• latitude.
Thick cloud cover reduces the amount of
sunshine and consequently its duration. The Fig 8.75 A Campbell Stokes sunshine recorder.
sunshine is more intense when the sky is
The glass is put in a position where it is
clear. In the Northern Hemisphere, the south-
possible for the sun’s rays to focus on the
facing slopes receive more sunlight than the
sensitised paper. When the sun shines, the
north-facing slopes. Places near the equator
paper is burnt and produces a burnt line.
get more sunlight than polar regions. The
In case the sunshine is continuous, a line
amount of sunshine in a place is recorded as
a mean of sunshine hours per day. will be completely burnt. If there are some
variations, some gaps will be shown. All
Sunshine is measured using an instrument
parts of the burnt line are then added up to
called the Campbell-Stokes recorder.
determine the number of hours of sunshine.
Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder
This is a glass which has a sensitised Factors that influence climate
calibrated paper on a metal frame.
Activity 8.39
Glass sphere
Use the geographical knowledge that you
Support have so far gained about climate.
screw
1. Find out and give factors for the
Semicircular variation of the following elements of
metal weather and climate in the area near
Cardholder Card your school.
• Rainfall
Sub base
Levelling • Pressure
screws
Main base • Temperature
• Humidity
• Rainfall
• Sunshine
• Wind
2. Write a detailed report on the factors
given.
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Some of the factors that influence climate the rate of evaporation and rainfall is
include the following: formed. Areas far away from the sea may
experience less rainfall.
(a) Latitudinal location
The latitude of an area determines the (f) Human activities
amount of the sun’s insolation received Human activities greatly influence the
in the area. The movement of the sun is climates of different regions. Activities such
specific. When it is overhead in a given as mining, deforestation and lumbering
area the temperatures increase. It is for have negative effects on climate.
this reason that the equatorial regions
are warmer than the temperate and polar (g) Ocean currents
areas. Warm ocean currents carry warm conditions
to the neighbouring areas. The currents are
(b) Altitude associated with warm, wet winds that lead
This has a direct influence on temperature, to wet conditions. On the other hand, cold
precipitation and atmospheric pressure. ocean currents cause cold temperatures.
Areas that are mountainous and hilly have They are usually are associated with cold,
a cool climate. The atmospheric pressure at dry winds that increase the arid conditions
high altitudes is also low. of the areas.

(c) Presence and absence of water bodies (h) Relief

These two factors modify the climatic The nature of the land has a direct
conditions of areas. Areas that are near influence on climate. For example, hilly
water bodies are humid. On the other hand, and mountainous areas are associated with
areas which lack water bodies are less orographic rainfall. However, it is only on
humid thus have unreliable rainfall. This is the windward side that constant rainfall is
with the exception of mountainous areas. experienced. The leeward sides experience
dry conditions. These conditions are due to
(d) Vegetation the warm, dry descending winds.
Areas with dense vegetation such as the
Amazon and Congo Basins, experience Activity 8.40
heavy rainfall and humid conditions. This
1. Observe the area around your home
is due to the steady supply of water vapour
and school.
due to transpiration. On the other hand
areas with no vegetation experience arid 2. Identify the human activities going on
conditions. It is for this reason that it is in the areas around your home and
important for us to conserve our forests . school
3. Explain how the human activities
(e) Distance from the sea influence the climate of the areas.
Regions neighbouring the sea experience 4. Explain how the climate influences
maritime climate. When the sea water is the human activities that are carried
warm, the coastal areas also experience out in the two areas.
warm conditions. These conditions increase
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5. Use geography textbooks, journals Climatic zones of the world
and the Internet to find out other
factors that influence weather and Activity 8.42
climate. (a) As a class, go out for a field study
Activity 8.41 under the guidance of your teacher.
(b) Climb a hilly area and note down the
Project work. climatic conditions experienced at
Design a project that will assist the every stage of the slope.
communities around your school to
conserve and protect the environment.
Climate zones are areas with distinct
climates. They occur in the east-west
direction around the Earth. These areas
Task 8.7
are classified using different climatic
1. Outline the factors that influence characteristics. Climate zones are belt-
humidity in a given area. shaped and circular around the poles.
2. Explain the following types of In some areas, climate zones can be
precipitation: interrupted by mountains or oceans. The
(a) rainfall (b) sleet world has different climatic characteristics
in different regions. These variations in
(c) snow (d) frost
climatic patterns makes it possible to divide
3. Describe the characteristics of the the world into different climatic zones. The
following types of clouds: classified zones are not perfect but they
(a) cirrus work. Basing on the climatic differences,
(b) stratus there are four major climate zones of the
(c) cumulus nimbus. world.
4. Differentiate between mist, fog and • Tropical zone
hail stones. • Temperate zone
5. Explain the type of rainfall received at: • Polar zone
(a) the equator (b) Mt. Karisimbi. • Mountain zone
Tropical zone
This is the zone between latitudes 0° and
23.5°. This is between the tropics.
The region between the equator and the
tropics is known as the equatorial region.
In this region, solar radiation reaches the
ground vertically at specific times daily
throughout the year. It is therefore very
warm in these regions. Due to the high
temperatures, more water evaporates and
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the air is often moist. The resulting frequent the radiation in these regions decreases
and dense cloud cover reduces the effect of significantly. It can temporarily be very cool
the solar radiation on ground temperature. and moist.

Characteristics of the tropical climatic zone Characteristics of the subtropics climatic

• It is in the area around the equator, zone
from 23.5° farther north to 23.5° in • It lies in the area between the tropical
the southern latitude. and the temperate zones (25° to 40°
• The sun is at its zenith (90°) at least North and South latitudes).
once per year. It is never lower than • The sun’s angle is at 9° to 27° above
43°. the horizon, according to place and
• The average temperatures are season.
between 20°C and 30°C. • The average temperatures range
• The minimum temperature is 0°. between 20°C and 35°C.
There is no frost. • Its minimum temperature is – 5°C.
• The maximum temperature is more • Its maximum temperature reaches
than 40°. +66°C in areas like Libya, Iran and the
• The radiation is positive. Death Valley.
• The day length is between 10 and • Its radiation is neutral.
13.5 hours. • The day length ranges between 9 and
• The rains are defined by the trade 15 hours.
winds. Its a seasonal shift. • It is generally dry with some humidity
• The climate is humid and warm. during winter.
There is often precipitation. • It has a tropic summer and non-tropic
• There are ever green forests and winter climate.
savannahs. • It has semi-deciduous or evergreen
• More than 40% of the earth’s forests, hardwood forests with winter
population lives in the tropics. This rain, savannah, pasture land. It also
population keeps increasing. has semi-deserts, warm temperate
moist forests, nemoral deciduous
The subtropics zone forests.
This is the zone between latitudes 23.5° • It has extreme heat, strong
and 40°. The subtropics receive the highest precipitation and drought in some
radiation in summer. This is because the areas.
sun’s angle at noon is almost vertical to the
earth. The cloud cover is also relatively thin. Temperate zone
These regions receive less moisture. This
This is the zone between latitudes 40°and
condition increases the effect of radiation.
60°. Here, the solar radiation arrives with
Therefore, most of the deserts in the
a smaller angle. The average temperatures
world are situated in this zone. In winter,
here are much cooler than in the subtropics.

197
The seasons and day length differ significantly the day length varies most in this zone. In the
in the course of a year. The climate is summer, polar days occur. Vegetation is only
characterised by less frequent extremes. possible during a few months per year and
There is a more regular distribution of the even then is often sparse. The conditions for
precipitation over the year. There is also a life in these regions are very hard.
longer vegetation period.
Characteristics of the polar climatic zone
Characteristics of the temperate climatic • It is in the area between 60° to 90°
zone North and South latitudes.
• It is in the area between the cold zone • The maximum angle of the sun is at
and the subtropical zone (40° to 60°). 53° above the horizon (polar day) to
• The maximum angle of the sun is at under the horizon (polar night).
73° and minimum 0° (at the Arctic • The average temperatures are
Circle). between – 47°C and 0°C.
• The average temperatures is between • The minimum temperature is at –
0°C and 20°C. 89°C (Antarctica).
• The minimum temperature is at • The maximum temperature is at
–40°C. +25°C (Tundra).
• The maximum temperature is at + • The radiation is negative.
40°C. • The day length is between 0 and
• The radiation balance is negative. 24 hours for polar night and day
• The day length is between 4 to 16 respectively.
hours and 8 to 12 hours at 50°. • Precipitation is variable and is mostly
• The precipitation is from 300 mm to in the form of snow.
2000 mm with an average of 800 mm. • There is ice climate with the average
• The climate is warm and cold temperature of the warmest month
temperate. below 0°C and tundra climate with
• The vegetation is deciduous forests, the average temperature of warmest
warm temperate forests and month between 00c and 100c
savannah. • The vegetation in the area is scarce.
• Extreme temperatures and There is moss, lichens, grass, boreal
precipitation are rare. forest with conifer woods.
• The area is hostile to life.
Polar zone
This is the zone between latitudes 60° and Mountain zone
90°. The polar areas between 60° latitude This climatic zone is also referred to as the
and the poles receive less heat through solar alpine or highland climatic zone. In this
radiation. This is because the sun has a very zone, no month has a mean temperature
flat angle toward the ground. Because of the
changes of the earth’s axis angle to the sun,

198
that is higher than 10°C. The climate • The Ethiopian Highlands
becomes colder at high elevations than the • The Alps of Europe
surrounding lowlands. • The Himalayas of Asia
Although this climate classification only • The Andes in South America
covers a small portion of the earth’s surface, • The Rockies in North America
mountain climates are widely distributed.
The altitude where alpine climate occurs • The Kenyan highlands
varies with latitude. For example, at 68°N in • Mount Kilimanjaro
Sweden, mountain climate occurs as low as Characteristics of mountain climatic zone
650 metres, while on Mount Kilimanjaro in
• It is distributed all over the world.
Tanzania, it occurs at 3,950 metres.
• This type of climate is greatly
In mountainous areas with an alpine influenced by relief and altitude.
climate, the dominant vegetation is the
• Due to variations in temperature, it
alpine tundra. This consists of vegetation
has a wide range of micro-climates.
that does not contain trees because it grows
in very high altitudes. This type of climate • Temperatures decrease with altitude.
is experienced in areas like: The higher one goes, the cooler it
becomes.

Tropical Climates Temperate Arid Arctic

Equatorial Marine west Subtropical Taiga/boreal
N rainforest coast high desert forest
Monsoon Rainshadow Tundra
W E Mediterranean
rainforest desert
S
Savannah Steppe Cold current
0 3000
desert
Prairie

Fig 8.76 Climatic zones of the world.

199
• During the day, temperatures rise while in the night, they fall. This is due to
excessive radiation.
• There is minor annual temperature range. Temperatures tend to be constant for
most part of the year.
• The heavy precipitation is received on the windward side of the mountain. The
leeward side has no rainfall and temperatures tend to be high.
• Atmospheric pressure decreases as one ascends.
• Temperature inversion is a common in these areas.

Activity 8.43
1. Indicate the major climatic zones of the world in the map below.

Fig 8.77
2. Justify your locations by describing the characteristics of the zones that you have
indicated on the map.
3. Present your work in a class discussion.

200
Impact of weather and (a) High and reliable rainfall in moderate
climate on human activities levels supports the growth of crops.
This ensures food security.
Activity 8.44 (b) Moderate and abundant rainfall
supports growth of grass hence
Study the photographs provided below. favouring livestock farming. It also
supports herbivorous wildlife hence
developing the tourism sector.
(c) Heavy and reliable rainfall supports
the growth of trees of high value. This
leads to the development of forestry
and lumbering.
(d) The warm tropical climate attracts
many tourists who come to enjoy the
Fig 8.78 Crops growing in a farm in Musanze
warmer conditions when they have
district. winter conditions back home. This
supports the tourism sector.
(e) In areas where with arid climates,
humans are forced to find ways of
irrigating the crops.
(f) Heavy and reliable rainfall sustains
water bodies like rivers, swamps,
lakes and wetlands. All these
support aquatic life, tourism sports
and provide water that is used for
domestic purposes.
Fig 8.79 Children wading through a flooded Activity 8.45
street in Nyabugogo area in Kigali.
1. List the differences in the pictures.
2. What are some of the causes of the Use your local environment, the Internet
floods in Nyabugogo area? and other geographical material.
1. Find out other influences of weather
and climate on human activities.
The weather and climate play a huge role in 2. Discuss and note your findings down.
determining the human activities that can
3. Share them with your classmates in a
take place. For example agricultural activities
class presentation.
are directly influenced by the climate. The
following points show how weather and
climate impact human activities.

201
Did you know?
• The South Pole is the least sunny place on earth.
• Antarctica is the least rainy place and not deserts.
• The shape and colour of clouds can help you predict rain
• Ice plays an important role in regulating climate, because it is highly reflective.
• Without the sun, there would be no weather.

End unit revision task

1. (a) Distinguish between weather and climate.
(b) List the elements of weather and climate.
2. (a) Define atmosphere
(b) Briefly describe the layers of the atmosphere.
3. (a) Explain the water cycle processes.
(b) Identify different forms of precipitation.
4. Explain the factors influencing atmospheric pressure variation.
5. Identify the different types of winds.
6. State the different types of clouds.
7. Outline the factors that influence climate.
8. (a) Name the major climatic zones in the world.
(b) State the characteristics of alpine climate.
9. Explain how climate has influenced human activities in the world.

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Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Vegetation
Number of periods: 11

203
 UNIT
9 Vegetation

Human beings, animals and insects all

Key unit competence
depend on vegetation. They purify the air
By the end of this unit, you must be able that we breathe.
to determine the relationship between
vegetation and human activities.
Classification of vegetation
Unit objectives Vegetation is classified into three main
By the end of this unit, you must be able to: groups, namely:

(a) identify different vegetation types on (a) Natural vegetation

maps (b) Artificial vegetation
(b) outline factors that influence the (c) Secondary vegetation
distribution of vegetation
Natural vegetation
(c) outline the importance of vegetation
(d) state the relationship between This is the vegetation that grows naturally
vegetation and human activities. in an area without any human aid. It grows
under natural physical conditions and has not
been interfered with by people or animals.
Vegetation
Types of natural vegetation include forests,
Activity 9.1 grasslands, desert vegetation and swamp
vegetation.
Take a walk in the area around your school.
Observe the vegetation growing around the Forests
school. Record the following in your exercise
books. A forest is a large area of land covered by
trees and other woody vegetation. The
• Type of vegetation natural forests found in Rwanda are the
• Height of the vegetation natural forests of Nyungwe National Park,
• Size of the leaves Volcanoes National Park and Gishwati
(a) What are your observations . and Mukura forest reserves. Most of the
remaining natural forests in Rwanda are
protected as national parks or forest
Vegetation refers to all the plant cover reserves.
growing in a particular area. It also refers
to the ground cover provided by plants.

204
 Fig. 9.3 Desert vegetation.
Fig. 9.1 Nyungwe Forest National Park. Swamp vegetation
Grasslands A swamp is a wetland with woody vegetation.
Grasslands are areas where the main Swamp vegetation can be found in salty or
vegetation is grass. They grow naturally. fresh water. The swamps in Rwanda are
Examples of grasslands in Rwanda are Mugesera, Rweru, Kagera, Nyabarongo,
the savannahs of Akagera National Park, Mushaka and Kamiranzovu.
Bugesera, Gisaka and Umutara.

Fig. 9.4 Rweru swamp.

Artificial vegetation
Fig. 9.2 Savannah at Akagera National Park. This is composed of the vegetation that has
Desert vegetation been planted by human beings.
A desert is an area of land with little or
no vegetation. There is very little rainfall
in these areas thus the conditions are
unsuitable for plant and animal life. There
are some plants adapted to growing in the
desert. These are desert and semi-desert
vegetation such as scrub and cactus.
However, there are no deserts in Rwanda. Fig. 9.5 Artificial forest in Rwanda.
It is also known as planted vegetation.
Forests made up of exotic trees are examples
of planted vegetation. Exotic trees that
are planted include pine, cypress and
eucalyptus.

205
Activity 9.2

W E

0 1000

Fig 9.6
1. Study the map shown above.
2. Using the key, identify the different types of world vegetation on the map.
3. Give examples of the vegetation types that are found in Rwanda. Locate the areas
in which the vegetation are found on a map of Rwanda.

Secondary vegetation
This is the vegetation that grows naturally in an area after being interfered with by people
or animals. It is also known as derived vegetation. The vegetation is still in the process of
development and will eventually acquire the characteristics of natural vegetation.
A good example of secondary vegetation is the one that grows in an area after the previous
vegetation cover is cleared or destroyed by an outbreak of fire.

206
Factors that influence the 3. Identify areas in Rwanda where each of
distribution of vegetation the vegetation shown on the pictures
are found.
Activity 9.3
4. How important are the vegetation to
Rwanda as a country and to the people
who live near them?
There are four main factors that influence
the distribution of vegetation over the
earth’s surface.
• Climatic factors
• Edaphic factors
• Topographic factors
• Biotic factors
Fig 9.7
Climatic factors
Activity 9.4
1. Look at the vegetation surrounding
your school
2. Identify some of the factors that have
influenced their growth and presence
in the area.
3. Classify them according to the factors
Fig 9.8 identified in (2) above.
4. Note down your findings.

Climate is the weather condition in an

area over a long period of time. The main
elements of climate that influence vegetation
include precipitation, temperature, sunlight
and wind.

(a) Precipitation
Precipitation is the deposit of water in liquid
Fig 9.9
or solid form on the earth’s surface from the
1. Identify the type of vegetation in all the atmosphere.
pictures.
The type and amount of precipitation
2. Suggest the factors that are suitable for influences the type and distribution of
the growth of the vegetation shown in vegetation. Different plants have different
each of the pictures. moisture requirements.
207
Areas that receive heavy and well distributed Hot dry winds cause wilting of plants since
rainfall throughout the year have forests it accelerates water loss from the plants.
composed of many tree species. Strong winds cause the trees to bend.
Areas with moderate and seasonal rainfall
are dominated by grasslands.
Edaphic factors
This refers to soil particularly with respect
Areas with low rainfall are dominated by
to its influence on organisms. Deep well
desert and semi-desert vegetation.
drained soils support a variety of large trees.
Soils that are shallow in depth support the
growth of shallow rooted plants such as
grass.
The pH of the soil also determines the
type of plants found in a region. Soils with
nutrients and humus support the growth
of plants. Soils with few nutrients support
very little plant growth.
Fig. 9.10 Natural rainforest.
Topographic factors
(b) Temperature
Topography defines the physical features
Temperature plays an important role in the in a place. The topographic factors include
growth of vegetation. It determines plant relief, slope and aspect. These factors affect
processes such as germination, rate of plant vegetation through soil formation processes,
growth, flowering, ripening of fruits and climate, soil moisture and soil nutrients.
shedding of leaves.
Warm conditions encourage rapid growth of (i) Relief
plants. Cold conditions slow down the rate Relief refers to the difference in elevation
of plant growth. between any two points on the earth’s
surface. The height of the land determines
(c) Sunlight temperature and rainfall. There is an
Sunlight is important to plants for increase in vegetation with an increase in
photosynthesis. Long hours of sunlight altitude. This is distinct on mountains. The
encourage the growth of many varieties of vegetation ranges from grass to forests,
plants. Areas with fewer hours of sunlight bamboo, heath and moorland.
have fewer plants.
(ii) Slope
(d) Wind Steep slopes experience high rates of soil
The moisture content and strength of the erosion leading to the development of thin
winds influences plant growth. Warm moist and shallow soils. This results in poor plant
winds contain sufficient moisture. This helps growth. Gentle slopes have deep and well-
in the formation of rainfall necessary for drained soils resulting in the growth of thick
plant growth.
208
vegetation and a wide variety of plants. Flat 2. Explain how human activities have
areas are easily waterlogged resulting in the influenced the distribution of
growth of swamp vegetation. vegetation. Use specific examples
from Rwanda.
(iii) Slope aspect
Aspect is the direction of the slope with Importance of vegetation
regards to sunshine and rainfall. Slopes
that are exposed to the sun are warm. They Activity 9.5
support plant growth. The slopes which 1. Go outside your home
are not exposed to the sun have fewer 2. Look at the vegetation surrounding
vegetation. your school.
Biotic factors 3. Find out the importance of the
vegetation to the people who live near
These are the living organisms which have them and to the country.
an effect on the growth of vegetation.
These include human beings, animals,
bacteria, burrowing animals and insects. Vegetation is a major component of the
ecosystem. It is important because of the
Human activities such as deforestation,
following reasons.
mining and overgrazing destroy vegetation.
Other activities such as agroforestry, 1. Food – Some vegetation are a source
reforestation, afforestation and creation of food for human beings and animals.
of forest reserves result in the development Some insects also feed on vegetation.
of vegetation. 2. Habitat for wild animals – Forests
Some insects aid in plant pollination. and other vegetation provide a home
Animals and birds aid in seed dispersal for wild animals. Wild animals attract
leading to growth and distribution of tourists. They earn the country foreign
vegetation. exchange that aids in economic
development. Therefore, we should
Burrowing animals and earthworms aerate not destroy our vegetation.
the soil resulting in suitable conditions for
plant growth.

Task 9.1
1. Describe how each of the following
factors influences the growth of
vegetation.
(a) Climate factors
(b) Edaphic factors Fig. 9.11 Vegetation provides habitats for wild
(c) Topographic factors animals.

209
3. Sources of medicine – Some parts of vegetation help in conserving soil and
vegetation such as barks, roots and water. They hold the soils together and
leaves of trees are used as medicine. conserve moisture in the soil.
They are used in curing different
diseases in both animals and humans . Task 9.2
4. Prevent soil erosion – Vegetation holds 1. Explain the importance of vegetation
soil together. This prevents erosion to the economy of Rwanda.
by water and wind. Vegetation also 2. Give five uses of trees.
reduces the speed of water when it is
raining. Roots of vegetation hold soil Relationship between
particles together. This helps to reduce
soil erosion and conserve soil.
vegetation and human
5. Purify the air – Vegetation purify the activities
air that we breathe. They utilise carbon Activity 9.6
(IV) oxide in the atmosphere and
release oxygen. 1. Find out how the presence of the
6. Improve soil fertility – Plant materials vegetation around your school has
that fall from different vegetation influenced the activities that take place
decompose into humus. This improves in the area.
the fertility of the soil. The decaying 2. Use the Internet, textbooks and
material increases the organic matter topographic maps to find out how
content in the soil. vegetation influences human activities
7. Source of timber – Trees are a source of in different areas of the world.
timber. This is used in making furniture
and building. Trees are also a source of
fuel. However, trees should not be cut
carelessly. Whenever one tree is cut, 1. Vegetation type and distribution have a
two more trees should be planted. great influence on human activities and
occupation over the earth’s surface. For
8. Source of raw materials – Vegetation
example, availability of grass has led to
are also a source of raw materials for
livestock keeping due to availability of
industries. For example, trees are used
pasture.
in the manufacture of paper, plywood
and rubber. 2. Overdependence on vegetation by
human beings for their needs has
9. Windbreaks – Vegetation such as
had a negative impact on vegetation.
trees act as windbreakers. They help
It has lead to a reduction in the
in reducing the speed of wind. This
area under natural vegetation. Such
reduces the effects of wind such as
human activities include overstocking
blowing away roof tops or soil erosion.
leading to overgrazing, pollution and
10. Conserve soil and water – The roots of deforestation.

210
 growing population.
• The bamboo is a natural vegetation.
• Some plants like the Venus flytrap are
carnivorous.
• There are over 200,000 plant species.
End unit assessment
1. Define vegetation.
2. List and describe the different types of
vegetation.
Fig. 9.12 Deforestation. 3. Discuss four factors that influence the
3. The human population is growing. There distribution of vegetation.
is need for land for settlement. Human 4. Assess the importance of vegetation to
beings are destroying vegetation to Rwanda.
create more land for settlement. This 5. Describe how natural vegetation
has had an effect on the distribution of has influenced the following human
vegetation. activities.
4. Human activities such as pollution lead (a) Tourism
to climate change. This leads to global
(b) Livestock keeping
warming and causes a decrease in
vegetation. (c) Building and construction
(d) Medicine
Activity 9.7
6. Describe how the following human
1. Find out how the human activities that activities have influenced the
take place have affected the vegetation distribution of vegetation.
in the area surrounding your school. (a) Overstocking
2. Use the Internet, textbooks and (b) Mining
topographic maps to find out how (c) Pollution
human activities have affected
(d) Urbanisation.
vegetation in different areas of the
world.

Did you know?

• The forest at Nyungwe is one of Africa’s
true rainforests with more than 200
types of trees and numerous flowering
plants.
• Much of Rwanda’s natural rainforest
has been cut down to make way for its
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Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Drainage
Number of periods: 11

212
 UNIT General organisation of
10 hydrography

Key unit competence was very dirty. She saw dirty water flowing
By the end of this unit, you must be able almost everywhere carrying all types of
to analyse the general organisation of waste. It also had a bad smell that polluted
hydrography and its relationship with the area.
human activities. (a) Describe the environment in the slum
area.
Unit objectives (b) What description is given to the
By the end of this unit, you must be able to: condition where dirty water flows
everywhere without proper direction?
(a) state different types of water bodies
(b) identify the major terminologies related
Definition of drainage
to drainage
(c) identify major rivers of the world Drainage refers to the natural or artificial
removal of surface and sub-surface water
(d) explain different parts of river profile
from an area. This is done through a system
and their characteristics
of natural streams in the ground or through
(e) identify different drainage patterns pipes.
(f) explain the relationship between
drainage and human activities. Water bodies
Hydrography is the study of water bodies of Activity 10.2
the Earth. The water bodies include oceans,
seas, rivers and lakes. Use the Internet, maps of Rwanda,
photographs and geography textbooks.
Activity 10.1
1. Name the categories of the water
Mukamwezi’s class teacher took the class bodies found in Rwanda.
to the Kiniha slum area in Karongi district. 2. Describe their characteristics that
The class went for a field study. Mukamwezi justify them to be under the categories
observed that the surroundings in the area that you have put them.

213
3. State the importance of the water (b) Lakes - A lake is a body of water contained
bodies to Rwanda. in an extensive depression on the earth’s
4. Discuss your findings in class. surface. The water in the lake may
be salty or fresh. Examples of lakes
A water body is any significant accumulation in Rwanda include Lake Kivu, Lake
of water on the earth’s surface. The water Ruhondo, Lake Mugesera, Lake Burera,
bodies are categorised into two. Lake Muhazi and Lake Ihema.

• Natural water bodies

• Artificial water bodies
Examples of natural water bodies include
oceans, seas, lakes, swamps, rivers and
ponds. Reservoirs, dams, canals and artificial
lakes are examples of artificial water bodies.

Activity 10.3
Use geographical resources such as Fig 10.2 Lake Kivu in Rwanda.
textbooks, the Internet and documentaries. (c) Ponds - A pond is a body of stagnant
1. Find out the main types of water water that could either be natural or
bodies. artificial. It is smaller than a lake and
is surrounded by land.
2. Describe their characteristics.
3. Identify the water bodies in your
country.

The main water bodies include the following.

(a) Oceans - An ocean is a large and
extended body of salty water occupying
a basin between continents. Examples of
oceans of the world include the Indian
Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean,
Arctic Ocean and Southern Ocean. Fig 10.3 A pond.
(d) Reservoirs - A reservoir is an artificial
lake where water is stored. It is from
reservoirs that dams are constructed
across rivers. Examples of reservoirs in
Rwanda include the Nyabarango and
Rusumo dams.
Fig 10.1 The Indian Ocean.

214
 Fig 10.4 Dam on Nyabarongo River.
(e) Swamp - This is a flat uncultivated Fig 10.5 Rugezi marshland.
land where water collects. The ground
is usually wet and soft and saturated (f) Seas - A sea is a large body of salty
with water. Rugezi, Kamiranzovu, water found on the margin of oceans.
Mwogo, Nyabugogo, Rwasave, Ngenda, It is partially enclosed by land. It is
Sake, Mugesera, Ntende, Rwagitima, smaller than an ocean. Examples of
Muganza, Bugarama, Koko, Mugenoro seas include Mediterranean Sea, Baltic
are some of the swamps in Rwanda. Sea, Red Sea and Dead Sea.

Fig 10.6 A map showing the location of the Mediterranean Sea.

215
(g) Rivers - A river is a stream of water which Task 10.1
flows in a channel from a high ground
to a low ground. It flows into an ocean, 1. Draw correct diagrams showing the
sea, lake or swamp. Rivers in Rwanda following.
include Mwogo, Rukarara, Mukungwa, (a) A reservoir
Base, Nyabarongo and the Akanyaru (b) A river
and the Akagera Rivers. (c) A pond.
2. Identify the main water bodies in
Rwanda.
3. Differentiate between a perennial and
an intermittent river.

Major rivers of the world

Activity 10.4
1. Use an atlas to identify and locate the
main rivers of the world.
2. Identify their sources and mouths.
Fig 10.7 River Nyabarongo in Rwanda. 3. Share your findings in a class
There are different types of rivers. They presentation.
include:
Some of the major rivers of the world
(a) Perennial river - This is a river that include the following.
contains water throughout the year. It
can also be referred to as a permanent Table 10.1 Major rivers of the world.
river. An example is River Nyabarongo. Region River
(b) Intermittent river – This is a river Africa - Nile
whose surface water ceases to flow
- Niger
at some point in time. Such rivers
periodically stop flowing. Such rivers - Congo
drain large arid and semi-arid areas. An South America - Amazon
example is River Kidepo in Uganda. - Parana
(c) Ephemeral river – This is a river that
flows periodically and only exists for
a short period. It flows immediately
following heavy rains or snow melt.

216
Region River Region River
North America - Rio Grande Asia - Ob
- Mississippi - Yenisey
- Missouri - Lena
- Yukon - Amur
- Mackenzie - Huang
- Yangtze
Europe - Rhine - Mekong
- Danube - Ganges
- Volga - Indus
Middle East - Tigris
- Euphrates
Australia - Murray darling

Ob Yenisey
Volga Lena
Mackenzie
Danube Indus
Yukon Amur
Missouri Huang
Rhine
Mississippi
Nile Yangtze
Rio Grande
Niger Mekong

Amazon
Congo Ganges

Parana
Tigris and Euphrates

Rhine Murray–darling

Fig 10.9 Rivers of the world.

217
Activity 10.5
1. Draw a sketch map of the world. On it, mark and name the main rivers of the world.
2. For each of the main rivers in (a) above, name their sources.
3. Name the continents and countries that contain each of the rivers you have named.

Activity 10.6
Use an atlas or the Internet to identify the major rivers of the world marked by the
arrows shown.

Fig 10.10

River profile
Activity 10.7
Study the photographs shown below.
1. Identify the parts of the river profiles that are shown in the pictures.

Fig 10.11

218
 Fig 10.12 Fig 10.14 A cross profile of a river.
Long profile
This is the shape of a river along its course
from the source to the mouth. The long
profile is expressed graphically as a curve.
It has a steep gradient near the source but
gradually flattens towards the river mouth.
The profile of a river is ideally expected to be
smooth. However, this never occurs since
the energy of the river changes as it flows
Fig 10.13 through its course.
2. Discuss the characteristics of each of The energy changes in the long profile may
the stages identified. be caused by the following.
A river profile is the shape of the river (a) Increase in the river discharge due to
course. There are two river profiles. increased precipitation.
• The cross river profile. (b) Changes in the sea level. This may
be either a rise or fall in the level of
• The long river profile.
the sea.
Parts of a river profile (c) The land may rise or fall due to
continental movements.
Cross river profile The long profile of the river is divided into
This is the transverse profile of a river from three stages.
one bank to another. The river cross profile
• The youthful stage
changes from the upper to the lower course.
• The middle stage
• Old stage

219
 Upper course
(c) The water speed is moderate.
(d) There is high stream volume.
400
(e) The river erodes its valley laterally thus
300
widening it.
Height (m)

Middle course
(f) Both erosion and deposition take place
Lower course
200 at this stage.

100 (c) The old stage (lower course)

This is the stage that is close to the river
0 mouth. The gradient of the river channel
is very gentle. The main function of the
Fig 10.15 The long profile of a river river is deposition though lateral erosion
still occurs.
(a) The youthful stage (upper course)
This is the stage that is near to the river’s Characteristics of the old stage of a river:
source. The river has a lot of energy due to (a) The gradient of the river channel is very
the steep gradient. Erosion is the dominant low.
function of the river. (b) The speed of the river is very low.
The characteristics of the youthful stage (c) The stream volume is large.
of a river: (d) The river valley is wide and U-shaped.
(a) The river has a steep gradient. (e) Deposition occurs on the river channel
(b) The water flows at a very high speed. making it shallow.
(c) There is a deep steep sided river valley. Task 10.2
(d) It has a narrow channel.
1. What is a long profile of a river?
(e) Vertical erosion is dominant
2. Name three stages of the long profile
(f) The river channel is V-shaped. of a river.
(b) The middle stage 3. Name the features found in each stage
This stage is also known as the mature of the long profile.
stage or the valley stage. It is the stage 4. State the characteristics of the river in
between the youthful and the old stages. each stage.
The gradient of the river channel is reduced.
The river has more stream volume since Drainage patterns
more tributaries join it.
A drainage pattern is the arrangement of
Characteristics of the middle stage of a a river and its tributaries on the earth’s
river: surface. Drainage patterns tell a lot about
(a) The river has wide U-shaped valley. the land. Drainage patterns are influenced
by:
(b) The gradient of the river channel is gentle.
• the slope of the land

220
• differences in the rock resistance
• rock structure.
There are different types of drainage
patterns. They include:
• radial • centripetal
• dendritic • parallel.
• trellis
(a) Radial drainage pattern
This is a drainage pattern that forms on Fig 10. 17 Dendritic drainage pattern.
volcanic cones or domes.
(c) Trellis drainage pattern
This is a pattern where the tributaries join
Central the main river at right angles. The minor
uplift
tributaries also join the main tributaries
at right angles. It develops in areas where
there are alternate layers of hard and soft
rocks. These rocks lie at right angles to the
main direction of slope. The main river is
powerful enough to cut through the hard
rocks while the tributaries cut through
the soft layers of rocks at right angles. The
Fig 10.16 Radial drainage pattern. minor tributaries cut valleys into the less
resistant rocks. The hard layers of rocks
The rivers flow outwards from a central high
protrude as ridges.
point. The pattern resembles the spokes of
a bicycle wheel. The slope influences the
direction of flow of the rivers.

(b) Dendritic drainage pattern

This drainage pattern looks like a tree
trunk and its branches. The tributaries
flow towards the main river from many
directions. They join the main river at acute
angles. This pattern develops in an area with
gentle slopes with fairly uniform rock type.
The direction of flow is influenced by the
slope. It is common on massive crystalline
rocks such as granite. It also develops on
horizontal gently dipping sedimentary rocks. Fig 10.18 Trellis drainage patterns.

221
(d) Centripetal drainage pattern (f) Fault guided drainage pattern
This is a drainage pattern where rivers flow This is a drainage pattern where rivers flow
from all directions into a common basin. along fault lines. This occurs in areas that
The common basin could be a swamp or a have experienced faulting. The direction
lake. The direction of flow of the rivers is of flow is influenced by the faults. The
influenced by the slope. tributaries form very sharp bends along
their course. This drainage pattern is also
referred to as rectangular drainage pattern.

Fig 10.19 Centripetal drainage pattern.

(e) Parallel drainage pattern Fig 10.21 Fault guided or rectangular

This is a drainage pattern where the main drainage pattern.
river and its tributaries flow parallel to (g) Annular drainage pattern
each other. It occurs over a large area. The This is a drainage pattern around a basin or
slope determines the direction of flow of crater. It forms when the main river and its
the river. It is common on steep slopes and tributaries are arranged in a series of curves
escarpments. Tributaries join the main river around a basin. The tributaries join the
at small acute angles. main river at sharp angles. Lake Bosumtwi
in Ghana forms this pattern.

Fig 10.20 Parallel drainage pattern

Fig 10.22 Annular drainage patterns.

222
Activity 10.8 (a) The influence of water bodies on
human activities.
Use an atlas.
(b) The influence of human activities on
1. Identify the different drainage patterns water bodies.
of the major rivers of the world.
2. List the patterns and match them to Influence of water bodies on human
specific rivers. activities
Activity 10.10
Activity 10.9
Outline the ways in which human activities
1. Collect clay soil and water. are influenced by water bodies. Give
2. Mix the two well examples from Rwanda.
3. Mould the following drainage system.
(a) Radial drainage pattern Water bodies have a great effect on
(b) Dendritic drainage system human activities. These effects include
(c) Trellis drainage pattern the following:
(d) Centripetal drainage pattern (a) Settlements
Water bodies that contain fresh water
attract human settlements. This is because
Task 10.3 they provide water for domestic use.
1. What is a drainage pattern?
(b) Agriculture
2. State three factors that influence the Fresh water bodies encourage agriculture by
formation of drainage patterns. providing water which is used for irrigation.
3. Describe the characteristics of the Rivers deposit alluvium in the flood plains.
following drainage patterns. Alluvium contains fertile soils which are
(a) Dendritic used for growing crops. The water bodies
(b) Radial also provide water for livestock to drink
(c) Centripetal encouraging livestock keeping.
(d) Trellis (c) Transport
Lakes, seas, oceans and navigable rivers
Relationship between water provide a cheap means of transport for
bodies and human activities people and goods.
The relationship between the water bodies (d) Fishing
and human activities can be looked at in Water bodies such as oceans, lakes, rivers
two ways. are good habitats for fish and other aquatic
life. Fishing is carried out in such water
bodies for subsistence and for sale.

223
(e) Mining pebbles in their beds. These materials are
Some water bodies contain minerals in extracted and used as building materials.
their beds. These minerals are mined.
(l) Flooding
Mining takes place as an economic activity.
Water bodies such as rivers may flood
Minerals which are mined in water bodies
causing the displacement of people,
include salt, trona and gold.
destruction of property. Floods also cause
(f) Tourism loss of lives.
Water bodies form beautiful sceneries e.g.
(m) Water-borne diseases
waterfalls and sandy beaches which attract
Water bodies can be breeding grounds for
tourists. Tourism earns foreign exchange
disease-carrying organisms. Mosquitoes
which is used for economic development.
and snails transmit malaria and bilharzia
(g) Recreation respectively, which are water-borne diseases.
Some water bodies offer recreational
activities. Water sports such as surfing,
The impact of human activities on
yatching and sport fishing are some water bodies
recreational activities that people engage in.
Activity 10. 11
(h) Industries Outline the ways in which human
Water bodies such as rivers and lakes activities affect water bodies. Give
provide water which is used for industrial examples from Rwanda.
purposes.
Water bodies also provide raw materials Human activities have an increasing impact
which encourage the establishment of on the water bodies. These activities
industries. Fish leads to establishment of include sedimentation, deforestation,
fish related industries. pollution, landscape changes, urban growth
and climate change.
(i) Ports
Some rivers have suitable sites for the (a) Sedimentation
construction of ports and harbours. Rias Human activities such as farming, clearance
and estuaries at river mouths are used for of forests, mining and building of roads
construction of ports. Fiords form natural expose the soils to erosion. The soils are
harbours. washed by surface runoff and are eventually
deposited in the water bodies.
(j) Hydroelectric power generation
Some rivers have been dammed and their The sediments affect water in various ways.
water is used to generate hydroelectric • They can harm aquatic life by carrying
power. The power is used for domestic and toxic chemicals into the water.
industrial purposes. • They reduce the amount of sunlight
penetrating the water.
(k) Building materials
Lakes and rivers contain sand, gravel and
224
• They add nutrients to the water (f) Landscape changes
encouraging the growth of plants The drainage of swamps to create dry land
(eutrophication) for agriculture interferes with the water
• Sediments reduce the capacity of balance. The water cycle is also destroyed
reservoirs making them shallow. leading to the depletion of wetlands. It also
This interferes with navigation and result affects the flow of water into the lakes,
in flooding of the areas adjacent to the eventually affecting their sizes.
water bodies.
(g) Urban growth
(b) Deforestation The expansion of urban centres results in
The clearance of vegetation in the catchment increased contamination of underground
areas exposes the soil to erosion leading to water and surface water bodies. This occurs
sedimentation in the water bodies. by direct discharge and surface runoff.
Contamination can occur directly through
(c) Pollution seepage of soluble contaminants from
Industrial wastes, sewage and surface runoff septic tanks, landfills and other industrial
from the farm lands are disposed of into the wastes.
water bodies. They cause pollution making
the water unfit for use. Activity 10.12

Gases emitted from factories and vehicles 1. Why is it important to protect water
are released into the atmosphere. This leads bodies?
to the formation of acid rain which damages 2. Suggest ways in which the citizens of
vegetation and pollute the water. Rwanda can protect the water bodies
in Rwanda.
(d) Excessive use of water 3. Giving examples in Rwanda, discuss how
The excessive use of water from the surface forests and mountains are responsible
and underground sources leads drying up for the creation of rivers.
of water bodies. Such water bodies include
4. Discuss your findings in a class
lakes, rivers and aquifers. Some of the
discussion.
rivers experiencing excessive use of water
include Niger and Nile. Did you know?
(e) Climate change • Rivers normally contain freshwater.
Some human activities lead to climate • Most of the world’s major cities are
change. Climate change can result into located near the banks of rivers.
wetter or drier climates in some regions of • The largest river drainage basin area in
the world. In drier climates, a decline in the the world is that of the Amazon river.
volume of the water bodies is witnessed. • Rivers begin at their source in higher
grounds such as mountains or hills.
• A dendritic drainage pattern is the most
common form of drainage pattern.

225
End unit assesssment

1. Define drainage.
2. Give four types of water bodies.
3. List three terminologies related to drainage.
4. Identify the major rivers of the world and the continents in which they are located.
5. Discuss the different parts of a river profile and their characteristics.
6. Identify and describe seven drainage patterns.
7. (a) Explain how water bodies influence human activities. Give examples to support
your answer.
(b) Discuss how human activities affect water bodies.

226
Topic area:
Physical geography
Sub-topic area:
Man and his environment
Number of periods: 5

227
 UNIT
Hazards
11

Key unit competence impact on a country or area.

By the end of this unit, you must be able
to propose responses to the effects of Types of hazards
natural and non-natural hazards in the
environment. Activity 11.2
List the different types of hazards that
Learning objectives affect people and the environment in
By the end of this unit, you must be able to: your area.
(a) define hazards
(b) identify different types of hazards There are many hazards that affect human
(c) state the causes and effects of hazards beings and their environment. These hazards
are divided into two major categories.
(d) explain human responses to natural and
or human hazards in the short, medium • Natural hazards.
and long term. • Man-made hazards.

Hazards Natural hazards

These are naturally occurring events that
Activity 11.1
have negative effects on the environment
Use your dictionary and the Internet and on people. Human beings have no
to find out the meaning of the term control over natural hazards. However,
hazard. some measures can be put in place to
reduce their effects. Examples of natural
hazards include floods, earthquakes,
Hazards are events or activities that cause drought, epidemics, landslides, volcanic
a threat to life, health, property or the eruptions and strong winds.
environment. Hazards can cause great
harm to life on the earth and to the physical
environment. They have a very significant

228
Floods A flood is an overflow of large amounts
of water onto dry land. The flood water
Activity 11.3 covers the land surface. When floods occur,
Study the pictures below and answer the they wash away important things such as
questions that follow. crops and other vegetation. People are
also displaced from their settlement areas.
Sometimes people drown in the floods.
Causes of floods
1. Soil deposition – Soils are usually
deposited on river beds due to erosion.
This makes the river beds to become
shallow. The increase in river water due
to high rainfall makes water to spill over
the banks thus causing floods.
Fig 11.1

Fig. 11.3 Soil deposition on a river bed.

Fig 11.2 2. High rainfall – High rainfall in catchment
1. Name the type of hazard shown in the areas releases large volumes of water
pictures. into the rivers. This causes the rivers to
2. Suggest possible causes of the hazard burst the banks as the water flows to
shown. the adjacent lands.
3. What are the effects of this hazard to 3. Blocked drainage systems – Blocked
human activities? drainage systems in the urban areas
4. Suggest possible measures that can be cause water to flow on the surface.
put in place to overcome the hazard. 4. Earthquakes – They cause tsunamis
5. Give examples of countries in Africa in the oceans which flood coastal
where this hazard is common. Use lowlands.
the Internet and other geographical 5. Low gradients of the river channels
documents to get this information. – Low gradient river channels in the
old stage lead to low stream velocity.
This causes the load to be deposited
in the river channel making it shallow.

229
 The water spills over the river banks2. Educating people – People should
causing flooding. be educated on the importance of
not blocking drainage systems by
Effects of floods poor waste disposal. This will prevent
1. Displacements of people since their blocking of drainage systems when it
homes are in water. rains.
2. Flooding washes away crops leading to 3. Construction of dams – Dams should
food shortage. be constructed. They should have
flood-control reservoirs to help in flood
control.

Fig. 11.4 Floods destroy crops.

3. Water logging in soils which hinders
crop cultivation.
4. Loss of lives through drowning, and Fig. 11.5 Reservoirs in a dams.
destruction of property.
Earthquakes
5. Floods wash away bridges, roads and
railway lines which interfere with Activity 11.4
transport and communication.
6. Create pools of stagnant water which Study the pictures below and answer the
provide a conducive habitat for breeding questions that follow.
of disease-causing organisms such as
mosquitoes which spread malaria.
Diseases such as cholera, typhoid,
malaria and bilharzia are also common
in flooded areas.
Prevention and control measures
1. Planting vegetation – Vegetation
prevents the land from erosion. They
Fig 11.6
hold soil firmly together. Vegetation
helps to reduce the flow of flood water
hence reducing its effects.

230
 Fig 11.7 Fig. 11.8 (a) Plates moving towards each
other.
1. Describe what you can observe in the
pictures.
2. Suggest areas where the hazard
shown in the pictures is common.
3. State the effects of the hazard shown
in a settlement area.
4. Suggest measures that can be put in
place to overcome the effects of the
above hazard. Fig. 11.8 (b) Plates moving away from each
other.

An earthquakes is a sudden and violent

shaking of the ground as a result of
movements within the earth’s crust. It can
also be due to volcanic action. Earthquakes
cause a lot of destruction.

Causes of earthquakes
1. Movement of tectonic plates –
Earthquakes occur when two plates
move towards each other and one of Fig. 11.8 (c) Plates sliding against each other.
them slides beneath the other.
2. Violent volcanic eruptions – Magma
It also occurs when the plates move that is pushed from the interior of the
away from each other or when the earth through the vent by great force
plates slide against each other without causes vibrations in the earth’s crust.
destroying the earth’s crust.
3. Radioactivity – Radioactivity refers
to the particles that are emitted from
the mantle due to instability. It causes
the mantle to release a lot of energy
which in turn causes vibrations in the
earth’s crust.
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Effects of earthquakes Drought
1. Destruction of property – A lot of
property is destroyed when earthquakes Activity 11.6
occur. For example, there is destruction Using internet and geographical documents
of buildings, roads, railway lines,
research on:
bridges and dams.
1. The causes of drought.
2. Loss of lives – Earthquakes occur
suddenly. When buildings collapse, 2. The effects of drought.
people in buildings may loose lives. 3. Ways of preventing droughts from
3. Landslides, earthquake can cause the occurring.
sliding of unstable land mainly on steep
slopes. Drought is a prolonged period of low rainfall
4. They also cause flooding of coastal leading to shortage of water. Drought affects
lowlands due to tsunamis. people, animals and vegetation. Examples
5. Outbreak of fire – This is caused by the of areas that experience drought in Africa
damaged electric cables. include the Sahel, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya,
Angola and Mozambique.
6. They cause breaking or displacement
of rocks of the earth’s crust. Causes of drought
7. Displacement of people – When 1. Lack of rain – Drought occurs when
earthquakes occur, people are forced to an area does not receive adequate
move from where they live. This is due amounts of rainfall for a long period
to destruction of property including of time.
houses. Therefore, they have to move 2. Global warming – The gases that
and settle in a different area. are released in the atmosphere due
Prevention and control measures to human activities cause a rise in
Earthquakes cannot be prevented. However, temperature. This in turn causes
they can be monitored using specialised climate change. The weather patterns
equipment. People can then be alerted change and areas receive little rainfall.
to a possible earthquake. People are then This can lead to drought.
able to prepare themselves by evacuating 3. D e f o r e s t a t i o n – F o r e s t s h e l p
vulnerable areas. This helps to reduce the in conserving water and reducing
effects of the earthquake. evaporation. Their roots hold water in
the soil. Cutting down of trees exposes
Activity 11.5 water sources such as rivers and
streams causing them to experience
Carry out a book and Internet research
more evaporation. The water bodies
to find out some of the things that can
become smaller making an area dry.
be done to indicate preparedness for
This speeds up drought conditions.
an earthquake.

232
Effects of droughts 3. Greenhouse farming – Greenhouse
Drought has the following effects. farming should be encouraged.
Greenhouses protect crops against
1. Frequent food shortages.
adverse climatic conditions. This ensures
2. Loss of lives. that food is available throughout the
3. Shortage of water. drought period.
4. Drying up of rivers. 4. Rain water harvesting – During the
5. Shrinking of lakes. rainy season, people can harvest and
6. Decrease in hydro-electric power store rainwater to be used during a
production due to lack of water. drought.
7. Loss of vegetation. 5. Recycling water – Water that has been
used can be purified and reused.
Prevention and control measures
It is difficult to detect a drought. It also Epidemic
cannot be prevented. However, certain
Case study
control measures can be put in place to
reduce the effects of a drought. In the month of April 2014 in Kamembe slum
1. Building dams – Dams should be built in in Rusizi District, there was an outbreak of
different areas. They should be used to a disease. The disease caused the death of
collect and conserve water during the very many people.
rainy seasons. This water can then be Medical officers from the government
used for different purposes when there visited the area to find out what disease it
is a drought. was. They noticed the following symptoms
2. Irrigation – When an area is hit by in people:
drought, irrigation farming can be • diarrhoea
practised. The water from dams can
• fever
be used to irrigate the crops. This will
ensure a constant supply of water to • stomach ache
the crops. Drip irrigation should be used • vomiting.
in an area facing drought to prevent Those who were diagnosed were told that
wastage of water. they had cholera. They were also told that
it was an epidemic.
(a) What do you think is the meaning of
the term epidemic?
(b) What likely caused the epidemic?
(c) Suggest some of the solutions that can
be put in place to prevent occurrence
of the disease.
(d) Discuss your answers in a class
Fig. 11.9 Drip irrigation in a dry area.
presentation.

233
An epidemic is an outbreak of a disease that or death of energetic people.
spreads rapidly among many people in a 4. Reduced productivity of people due to
community at a particular time. Examples illnesses. This leads to poor economic
of epidemic diseases include HIV and Aids, development in an area.
Ebola, influenza, cholera, malaria and
typhoid. Prevention and control measures
1. Vaccination – People should be
Causes of epidemics vaccinated against various diseases
1. Climatic conditions – Climatic conditions that may cause death rapidly. This will
such heavy rainfall cause floods that protect them against infection.
lead to the spread of epidemics. 2. Proper hygiene – Most epidemics
The flood water causes sewages to are brought about due to lack of
overflow. The water for domestic use proper hygiene. People should practise
then becomes contaminated causing personal, environmental and food
outbreaks of diseases. hygiene to prevent outbreaks of
2. Lack of water – Poor water supply in diseases such as cholera and typhoid.
an area can cause an epidemic. People 3. Education – People should be educated
have little or no access to safe water for on different types of epidemics and
their day to day use. their effects to a community. They
3. Inadequate sanitation facilities – should also be educated on how to
People living in poverty usually live in protect themselves against infection
areas with poor hygiene and that lack and how to handle the epidemics if they
proper facilities for disposal of waste. get infected.
These unhygienic conditions cause 4. Eating a balanced diet – A diet that
epidemics. has all the nutrients needed by the
4. Unsafe food – When people eat food body will make the immune system
that is contaminated, they can get strong. This will make people resistant
diarrhoea and other such infections. to certain diseases. Lack of nutrients
They may also get diseases such as in the body makes the body’s immune
cholera and typhoid which are caused system weak.
by consuming contaminated food and
water. Landslides

Effects of epidemics Activity 11.7

The following are the effects of epidemics Using photographs on various areas that
in an area. have been hit by landslides or internet
1. Loss of lives. research, answer the questions that follow:
2. High cost of treatment. 1. Find out the possible causes of landslides.
3. Shortage of labour due to disposition 2. Give the effects of the landslides on a
community.

234
3. Suggest possible prevention measures 5. Volcanic eruptions – When volcanic
of above hazard. eruptions occur, there is a rupture on
4. Name the areas in Rwanda that are the crust. This causes earth movements
likely to experience the hazard. which make soil and rocks move
downslope.
6. Mining and quarrying activities –
Landslides refer the movement of masses During mining and quarrying activities,
of earth’s materials composed of rocks and techniques such as blasting are used.
soils down a slope. Landslides may be rapid These cause vibrations to occur under
or slow. the soil that lead to landslides.
7. Wildfires – Fires destroy vegetation. The
vegetation holds soil firmly together
preventing landslides from occurring.
When the vegetation is destroyed by
fire, the soil becomes loose causing
landslides.
Effects of landslides
1. Destruction of property such as
buildings.
Fig. 11.10 Landslide. 2. Loss of lives and injuries to people.
3. Destruction and interruption of
Causes of landslides transport and communication lines
1. Prolonged heavy rainfall – Rainwater such as roads.
saturates and lubricates the soil and 4. Landslides expose the slopes to soil
rock materials making the earth erosion.
unstable.
5. Displacement of people when they
2. Vibrations of the earth – These occur in settlement areas.
vibrations are caused by earthquakes.
They cause trembling and shaking of Prevention and control measures
the earth’s crust making soil and rocks 1. Improving drainage – Improving the
to move down-slope. surface and sub-surface drainage of
3. Undercutting at the base of a slope – an area near a slope will help reduce
Undercutting is the process of wearing the occurrence of a landslide. This is
away of the part below a cliff or a slope. because water is the main cause of
This makes the slope to be unstable most landslides.
thus triggers movement downslope. 2. Growing vegetation – Vegetation holds
4. Melting ice – It may cause movement the soil together firmly. People should
of large masses of ice and rock particles avoid destroying vegetation through
downslope. cutting trees in sloppy areas. Trees and
other vegetation should be planted to
hold any loose soil in place.
235
3. Removing and replacing soil – Soil that pictures influences human activities
is prone to landslides can be removed. both positively and negatively.
It should then be replaced with soils
that are not prone to landslides such
Volcanic eruptions occur when there is
as silt and sandy soils.
rupture on the crust of the earth. The
Volcanic eruptions rupture causes hot lava, volcanic ash and
gases to be discharged from volcanic vents.
Activity 11.8
Describe the activity shown in the following
pictures.

Fig. 11.13 Volcanic eruption on Mount

Nyiragongo.
Causes of volcanic eruptions
Volcanic eruptions are caused by movement
of tectonic plates. This movement causes
Fig 11.11 magma to rise through cracks or weaknesses
in the crust of the earth. Pressure then
builds up inside the earth’s crust. When this
pressure is released, the magma explodes
and moves to the surface causing volcanic
eruptions.

Ash and rock

Crater

Vent
Fig 11.12
Strata
1. Give reasons why the activity taking
place in the picture is considered a
hazard.
2. Give examples of areas where the
activity in the pictures have been
experienced in Rwanda and Africa. Magma chamber
3. State how the activity shown in the Fig. 11.14 How a volcanic eruption occurs.
236
Effects of volcanic eruptions
Massive volcanic eruptions result in the following.
1. Displacement of people.
2. Loss of lives.
3. Destruction of settlement areas and property.
4. Air pollution that occur s from the volcanic ashes and gases that are released.
5. Destruction of transport and communication lines.
6. Destruction of farmlands leading to food shortages.
7. Destruction of power lines and other communication infrastructure.
8. Destruction of vegetation and wildlife.
Prevention and control measures
Volcanic eruptions cannot be prevented. However, people can be educated on the different
things they can do to protect themselves and their families when the eruptions occur.

Activity 11.9

1. Study the pictures below and explain what is taking place. Explain the causes and
effects of each.

Ashfall

Pyroclastic
flow

Lava flow

Fig 11.15
237
 Human-caused hazards
These are disastrous events caused directly
by identifiable, deliberate or negligent
human actions. They are also known
as non-natural disasters. These hazards
include pollution, wars, famine, accidents,
fires and terrorism.

Fig 11.16 Pollution

Activity 11.10

Study the pictures below and answer the

questions that follow.

Fig 11.17
2. Find out from a resource person the
types of natural disasters that have
occurred in your local area in the past.
3. Discuss the natural disasters that you
have been explained to the resource
person.
Fig 11.18
4. Identify their causes and effects
and write down short notes in your
notebooks.
5. Find out how the people reacted and
responded after the occurrence of the
hazard.
6. Find out the disaster preparedness,
response and prevention measures
the people and the government have
adopted in case of a reoccurrence of
the disaster.

Fig 11.19

238
 burn, they release fumes. The fumes
cause air pollution. This is a major cause
of air pollution in Rwanda. It is quite
difficult to manage.

Fig 11.20
1. Define the term pollution.
2. Name the types of pollution shown in Fig. 11.21 Fumes from a car.
Figure 11.20.
3. Chemicals – Chemicals used in
3. Give the effects of pollution on the
agricultural production also cause
environment.
pollution. Herbicides and pesticides
4. Identify the types of pollution in your used in dusting crops are usually
local environment. released in the air causing pollution.
5. Suggest possible measures that can be 4. Dust – When there is too much wind,
put in place to overcome the problem dust is blown from the surface of the
of pollution. earth. This leads to air pollution.
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants Causes of water pollution
into the environment that cause undesirable
1. Fertilisers – Fertilisers are applied in
effects. It causes harm to people and other
the soil during agricultural production.
living things and also to the environment.
When it rains, they are carried away by
Sewage water, dust and smoke are examples
rain water and deposited into sources
of contaminants. Pollution can be classified
of water such as rivers and lakes.
into air, water, ground (or land) and noise
pollution. 2. Sewage water – There is no proper
mechanism for sewage disposal in
Causes of air pollution many areas. Sewage water is mostly
1. Emissions from industries – The released into water sources and this
smoke and fumes from industries causes pollution. It also leads to the
cause air pollution. Large amounts of spread of water borne diseases.
carbon monoxide are released into the 3. Dumping of dirt into water sources
atmosphere introducing impurities in – People dump waste products such
the air. as human waste, animal waste and
2. Burning of fossil fuels – Fossil fuels are domestic wastes into water sources.
natural fuels such as coal, oil and gas. This causes pollution.
Vehicles and other means of transport 4. Oil spills – Oils spills from ferries and
use these fossil fuels. When the fuels
239
 ships lead to pollution of the water activities are also a cause of noise
sources. This contributes to destruction pollution. Examples are weddings,
of aquatic life. parties and music from entertainment
areas.
Effects of pollution
1. Climate change – Pollution leads to the
release of gases into the atmosphere.
This causes the climate to change.
Temperatures become high due to
global warming.
2. Poor health conditions among people
– Air, water and land pollution have
adverse effects on the health of people.
Fig. 11.22 Oil spillage in a water body. Water pollution leads to the spread
of water-borne diseases. Air pollution
Causes of land pollution
leads to respiratory infections.
1. Excessive use of fertilisers – Excessive
3. Death of aquatic life – Oil spillage in
use of fertilisers in agricultural processes
water bodies deprives aquatic animals
lead to contamination of soils.
of oxygen. This causes them to die.
2. Poor disposal of garbage – There are
4. Reduction in agricultural production
no appropriate areas for disposing
– Climate change causes unfavourable
garbage. This has lead to emergence of
conditions for agriculture. The crop
random dumping sites that cause land
yields reduce leading to food insecurity.
pollution.
Excessive use of fertilisers also causes
Causes of noise pollution soils to be acidic. They are therefore not
1. Industries – Industries have a lot of suitable for crop production.
machines that produce very loud noise. 5. Formation of acid rain – Chemicals and
These sounds are unpleasant and smoke in the air cause the formation
therefore cause pollution. of acid rain. Acid rain destroys aquatic
2. Means of transport – Various means of life. It also destroys the leaves of plants
transport such as large motor vehicles, leading to loss of vegetation cover.
trains and aeroplanes produce very
loud noise. The noise causes pollution.
3. Entertainment activities – Entertainment

240
 Gases carried
Acidic gases (sulphur by the wind
dioxide and nitrogen
oxides released into
atmosphere)
Gases dissolve in
rainwater to form acid rain

Acid rain kills plant life

pollutes rivers and streams
and erodes stonework

Fig. 11.23 Formation of acid rain.

Prevention and control measures sources.
1. Recycling – Waste materials should be 5. Reduce use of chemical fertilisers – The
recycled to reduce the amount of waste use of chemical fertilisers should be
products dumped in water bodies and reduced. Farmers should opt for more
on land. It will also help reduce the environmental friendly methods such
number of dumping sites. as using farmyard manure and green
2. Combustion of gases – Gases and manure.
vapours should be burnt using flames. 6. Sucking of oil spills – Oil spills should
This will ensure that they are released be sucked from the surface of water
into the environment in the form of immediately when they occur. This
less harmful products. For example, reduces water pollution and prevents
carbon monoxide should be burnt and the death of aquatic life.
released as carbon dioxide (co2) which
is less harmful. Wars
3. Maintenance of vehicles – Motor
Activity 11.11
vehicles and other means of transport
should be properly maintained to
reduce the amount of fumes released Use geographical documents and the
in the environment. Internet to research on war as a human
4. Sewage treatment – Sewage water hazard. Use your findings to answer the
should be treated and the sewage following questions.
water should be treated and recycled.
1. What is war?
The solid wastes should be disposed
of appropriately and not in the water 2. Outline the possible causes of war.
241
3. Explain the effects of war on: Effects of war
• human activities 1. It leads to the death of people and
• the economy. human suffering.
4. Explain the possible measures that can 2. It leads to displacement of people from
be taken to stop the occurrence of war. their homelands creating refugees.
3. It leads to destruction of property.
War is a conflict between large groups of 4. The soldiers and victims suffer from
people. It involves physical force inflicted mental and psychological illnesses.
by use of weapons. War takes many forms 5. It results in food shortages since farmers
such as armed conflicts, hostilities and abandon their farming activities as they
police action. The 1st and 2nd World Wars look for safety.
are examples of war. 6. There is economic stagnation due to the
War has resulted in great destruction on the destruction of the main infrastructure.
economy, human suffering and loss of lives. It is also very costly to finance wars. The
resources that would have been used
Causes of war for economic development are diverted
1. Competition – Competition for some to war.
resources that are unfairly distributed or
Prevention and control measures
which are inadequate result in conflicts
and war. Such resources include jobs, 1. Promote peace education – People
political positions, territory, housing, should be taught the importance of
cultivable land, fresh water and pasture. peace and harmony in the country. This
will reduce hostility which may lead to
2. Poor governance – This makes people war. They should also be taught the
unhappy with the government. It effects of wars to human beings and o
makes people or groups of people to development of the country.
fight for independence from the central
government. 2. Increase security – Security personnel
should be deployed to various borders
3. A clash in people’s beliefs – Religions of the country. This will help to protect
and political views give a group of the country against external attacks
people a sense of identity. When these which may result to war.
beliefs are interfered with, it results
into war. Famine
4. Ethnic differences – Ethnicity gives
people a sense of identity and Activity 11.12
belonging. A threat to this results into Using photographs from internet on various
violence or conflicts. areas that have been hit by famine. Watch
the video carefully. After watching, find out
the following.
(a) What are the causes of famines?

242
(b) Give the effects of the famine to a 4. Poverty – People living in poverty do
country. not have access to land needed for
(c) Suggest possible prevention measures agricultural production. Food will thus
to the above hazard. not be available to ensure food security.
5. Poor infrastructure – Poor transport
Famine is a widespread scarcity of food. and communication facilities in a
It is caused by many factors. Famine country cause poor food distribution.
is accompanied by cases of starvation, People living in areas with poor road
malnutrition and outbreak of diseases. This networks cannot easily access food.
is a huge problem that affects very many Effects of famine
countries in Africa. 1. Malnutrition – Lack of all nutrients
required by the body causes health
problems. These health problems may
lead to death.
2. Epidemics – During famine, people
have access to very little food and
water. They do not get enough nutrients
needed to protect the body against
attacks by diseases. Therefore, they
are prone to attack by diseases which
may lead to an increase in number of
Fig. 11.24 An area facing famine. deaths.
3. Starvation – Famine leads to lack of
Causes of famine
food in an area or country. This in turn
1. Conflicts – When a country or an area leads to starvation. Extreme cases of
is engaged in war, the government uses starvation lead to death.
funds to deal with the war. When a
natural hazard such a drought affects 4. Migration – People usually migrate
an area, the government lacks funds to from areas that have been hit by famine
deal with the situation. in search of food. They later decide
to settle in those areas. This leads to
2. Climate change – Global warming population increase in some areas.
results in poor agricultural production.
It leads to reduced amounts of rainfall Prevention and control measures
received in an area. This can result in 1. Improve infrastructure – Transport and
famine. communication infrastructure should
3. Natural hazards – Natural hazards cause be improved. This will ensure that the
people to fight for the scarce resources. roads are accessible and thus food can
They also cause food insecurity due to be distributed equally in all areas of the
low agricultural production.

243
 country. This will help prevent famine. An accident is an unplanned or unfortunate
2. Conflict resolution – Conflicts that event that happens unexpectedly. It also
occur should be resolved peacefully happens unintentionally. Accidents result
without engaging in war. in injuries or damage. Accidents can occur
3. Disaster preparedness – People when doing different activities such when
should be taught on how to handle travelling, doing domestic chores like
different hazards when they occur. The cooking, playing, walking and working.
government should also set up disaster Some accidents also occur as a result of
response centres that will ensure that poisoning or electric shock.
people experiencing famine are given
food.
4. Improved farming methods – Improved
farming methods such as building
of greenhouses should be adopted.
This will ensure constant food supply
throughout the year. People living in dry
areas should practise irrigation farming
to ensure there is crop production
hence food security. Organic farming Fig. 11.25 A fire accident.
should also be encouraged to reduce
land pollution which leads to poor crop Causes of accidents
yields. 1. Careless and drunken driving – Road
accidents cause a lot of deaths in the
Accidents country. They mostly occur due to
careless driving. They also occur due
Activity 11.13 to speeding. Some drivers drive under
Use geographical documents and the the influence of alcohol thus cause
Internet to research on accidents as a accidents.
human hazard. Use your findings to answer 2. Poor weather conditions – Poor
the following questions. weather conditions also lead to travel
accidents. When there is fog or mist,
1. What are the different examples of
drivers and pilots are not able to see
accidents that human beings face?
clearly.
2. Outline the possible causes of accidents.
3. Failure to observe road safety rules –
3. Explain the effects of accidents on the Many of road users do not obey road
economy. safety rules. This increases the number
4. Explain the possible measures that can of accidents that occur.
be taken to reduce accidents. 4. Careless handling of machines and
equipment – If machines are not
handled well when working, they can

244
 cause to injury to those using them. This Prevention and control measures
happens more in industries. Electric 1. Education on road safety – People
appliances should also be handled well should be educated on how they can
and used for the purposes they are use roads safely. They should also be
intended for to avoid accidents. taught the importance of observing
5. Poor housekeeping practices – The road safety.
home is where many accidents that 2. Being careful – People should be careful
can be prevented occur. This is due when performing different tasks or
to poor housekeeping practices and when handling machines to prevent
carelessness. For example, when water accidents.
spills on the floor and it is not wiped, it 3. Construction and maintenance of
can cause falls. roads – Road networks should be
6. Gas leaks in homes – When one does improved to ensure that the number
not turn off the gas knob well, it causes of accidents are reduced.
the gas to leak. A fire can start when a 4. Avoid speeding when driving – Drivers
match is lit. should be cautioned against speeding.
7. Poor road network – Roads with a lot Speed governors should be installed
of potholes and those that are unpaved in vehicles to ensure that drivers drive
can lead to road accidents. within acceptable speed limits.
Effects of accidents 5. Proper housekeeping practices –
1. Death – Many accidents are fatal. They The house should be kept clean and
cause the loss of lives of very many everything should be stored where it
people. Road accidents cause very is supposed to be to reduce accidents.
many deaths in the country daily. Gas cookers should be turned off
appropriately to prevent gas leaks
2. Loss of property – When accidents which may lead to fire outbreaks.
occur, property worth a lot of money
is lost. Infrastructure is also destroyed.
Responses to hazards
3. Disability – Those who are injured from
accidents may become disabled. This Activity 11.14
prevents them from doing their work as
they were used to. They have to learn
new ways of coping with the situation. Use geographical documents and the
Internet to research on the different
4. Reduced development – Accidents lead
responses to hazards. Use your findings
to loss of lives. This causes a reduction
to answer the following questions.
in the population of an area. The rate
of development thus reduces due to 1. What is a response to a hazard?
scarcity of human labour. 2. What do you understand by:
• short-term response

245
 • medium-term response affected areas.
• long-term response? • Provision of aid money to help victims
3. Give reasons why it is necessary to and their families.
respond after the occurrence of a • Burying of the dead victims to stop the
hazards. spread of diseases.
4. Identify some of the hazards that have
occured in Rwanda.
(b) Medium-term responses
5. For each hazard in (4) above, outline These are responses that occur in weeks
the short-term, medium-term and long- and months after a disaster has taken place.
term responses that have been carried These responses are aimed at providing
out to overcome those hazards. services and facilities to help the victims of
a hazard to settle and continue with their
6. Give some of the challenges that face
normal lives. Medium-term responses are
responses to hazards in Rwanda.
rehabilitation measures.
They include the following.
A response to a hazard is a deliberate effort
or measure that is put in place to ease the • Medical rehabilitation and counselling.
problem. There are three responses to • Reconnection of water and electricity
hazards. supplies.
• short-term • Rebuilding of homes.
• medium-term • Rebuilding of transport lines such as
• long-term roads, railway lines, airports and ports.
• Reconnection of communication lines
(a) Short-term responses such as the telephone masts and
These are responses that occur in the days Internet.
and weeks immediately after a disaster • Clearance of damaged buildings.
has occurred. Short-term responses mainly • Re-building and reopening of schools,
involve search, rescue and helping those hospitals, colleges, universities,
injured or affected. Short-term responses shopping malls, offices and banks.
are rescue measures. They include the • Cancellation of debts.
following.
• Search and rescue operations. (c) Long-term responses
• Provision of machinery and equipment A long-term response is a response or
for use in the search and rescue activity that goes on for months or years
operations such as helicopters, boats after a disaster has occurred. The aim of
and bulldozers. the long-term response is to jump start the
• Recovery of dead bodies and survivors. local economy. Long-term responses are
reconstruction measures.
• Provision of food, tents and water.
• Sending of medical teams to the They include the following.

246
• Building of new shelters such as schools, hospitals and houses.
• Cancellation of debts.
• Improvement on the disaster monitoring and warning systems such as those used
for earthquakes.
• Improved education provision to people on hazard risks and their possible solutions.
• Provision of long-term aid or donations to a region or country.
• Creation of enterprise zones in order to encourage investment.
• Taking refugees back to their homes.
Activity 11.15
1. Act out a skit to show an area that has experienced a hazard. Use a hazard of your
choice.
2. Respond to the hazard that has occurred and offer short-term solutions to the affected
people.
3. Outline the medium term and long term solutions that should be offered in response
to the hazard.

Did you know?

• When magma reaches the earth’s surface it is referred to as lava. When the lava cools
down, it forms rocks.
• Most natural disasters are caused by weather.
• Floods are the most widespread natural disaster aside from wildfires.
• Earthquakes are the deadliest of all natural disasters.
• The greatest famine in history killed around 45 million people in China between 1958
and 1962.

End unit assessment

1. Define a hazard.
2. Giving examples, discuss the different types of hazards.
3. The table below shows some of the hazards that have been experienced in Rwanda.
Fill in the blank spaces.
Hazard Short-term responses Medium –term responses Long-term
responses
1 Water pollution
2 Soil erosion
3 Floods

247
4 Diseases like HIV and AIDS

4.Explain the importance of responses to hazards in Rwanda.

5.Identify some of the challenges that Rwanda faces in the attempts to respond to hazards.

248
Topic area:
Human and economic
geography
Sub-topic area:
Population, settlement and
urbanisation
Number of periods: 8

249
 UNIT Population and
12 settlement

Key unit competence Activity 12.2

By the end of this unit, you must be able to Your teacher will guide you to fill in the table
explain general population concepts and below with the required details.
settlement patterns (rural and urban).
Table 12.1 The population of our school.
Unit objectives Category of people (persons) Number
By the end of this unit,you must be able to: Females
(a) define population and associated (a) Learners
concepts (b) Teachers
(b) identify types of settlement (c) Workers such as
(c) define concept of migration. cleaners, cooks and
security personnel.
Activity 12.1
(d) Administrators
1. Count the number of people in your (e) Visitors such as the
classroom. inspectors.
2. Include all the students, your facilitator Males
and any other person present at the
(a) Learners
time of counting.
(b) Teachers
3. Give the number of males and females,
separately. (c) Workers such as
cleaners, cooks and
4. Use the data collected to draw a chart
security personnel.
or a picture of your classroom. Use
symbols to show the statistics of your (d) Administrators
class. (e) Visitors such as the
5. Display your chart or picture on the inspectors.
class notice board.
6. Describe the composition of the people
in your class.
7. Why is it important for your facilitator
and school management to know the
number of students in a class?

250
(a) Analysis countries at intervals of ten years. Rwanda
also carries out its population census after
(b) The number of females
every 10 years. The last population census
(c) The number of males in Rwanda was in 2012.It is therefore
(d) The total number of the expected that there will be a population
population census in 2022.
General description or The study of populations is referred to as
comment on the composition demography. This field deals with studying
of the school’s population the population distribution, population
structure. structure and composition, factors that
(Compare the male and influence population distribution and the
female numbers) effects of population levels on the available
resources and socio-economic state of the
society.
Population
Activity 12.3 The population structure
1. Define the term population.
and composition
2. Explain the meaning of population Activity 12.4
census. 1. Use the data findings in Activities 12.1
3. Why do you think it is important for and 12.2 to do this activity.
countries to carry out population 2. Determine the age of the population of
census? your school.
4. Give the term given to the study of 3. Fill in the table below.
population.
Table 12.2 The age group of the population
of our school.
Population is a term used to refer to the
number of people living in an area at a given Category of Age Number
time. Using the findings of Activity 12.1, you people (persons) group of people
are able to know the population of your Females 0–4
class. At the same time, Activity 12.2, assists 5–9
you to know the population of your school. 10 – 14
15 – 19
Suppose your class was a country, you would 20 – 24
be able to know the number of people living 25 – 29
in the country. The official counting exercise 30 – 34
is known as population census. 35 – 39
Population census is the act of counting 40 – 44
people living in a given area over a specific 45 – 49
time. Population census is usually done by

251
Females 50 – 54 Population structure refers to the
55 – 59 composition of a given population. It is
60 – 64 broken down into categories such as age and
65+ gender. The population structure of a given
country is represented diagrammatically by
Males 0–4
use of population pyramids. The pyramids
5–9
are commonly known as the Age and Sex
10 – 14
graphs.
15 – 19
20 – 24 The importance of a population structure
25 – 29 (a) It helps governments to project the
30 – 34 future growth and economic prosperity
35 – 39 of countries.
40 – 44
45 – 49 (b) It provides the data that is used by
50 – 54 policy makers and economic planners.
55 – 59 The data is used when planning and
60 – 64 budgeting for the nation. For example
65+ it helps to determine the number of
schools, hospitals and distribution of
Analysis
clean water. Electricity supply, roads
The number of females. and recreational facilities in a given area
The number of males. can also be determined.
The information collected is then statistically
The total number of the
represented. This representation gives a
population.
visual interpretation of the analysis of the
General description population composition.
or comment on the
composition of the school’s The nature of a population pyramid
population structure.  When the population structure has the
(Compare the male and female greatest population lying between 0–14
numbers in terms of age.) years, it is a young population.
 Most developing countries have a
1. State the number of females and males population pyramid that is broad at the
found in your school. base. This means that there are more
2. Why do you think it is very important young people and few aged ones.
to know the above numbers?  On the other hand, the population
3. Identify the largest age group in your structure of a developed country is
school and explain why it is so. narrow at the base and wider at the
4. Using the answers obtained in 1, 2 and apex when compared to that of a
3 above, explain what a population developing country.
structure is.

252
 Rwanda – 2013
Male 100+ Female
95 – 99
90 – 94
85 – 89
80 – 84
75 – 79
70 – 74
65 – 69
60 – 64
55 – 59
50 – 54
45 – 49
40 – 44
35 – 39
30 – 34
25 – 29
20 – 24
15 – 19
10 – 44
5–9
0–4
970 776 582 388 194 0 0 194 388 582 776 970
Population (in thousands) Age group Population (in thousands)
Fig 12.1 Population pyramid of Rwanda – a developing country.
Source: www.coopami.rg

The middle part of this population structure is wide. This is reflected by bulging bars
as illustrated below.
Canada – 2014
Male 100+ Female
95 – 99
90 – 94
85 – 89
80 – 84
75 – 79
70 – 74
65 – 69
60 – 64
55 – 59
50 – 54
45 – 49
40 – 44
35 – 39
30 – 34
25 – 29
20 – 24
15 – 19
10 – 44
5–9
0–4
2 1.6 1.2 0.8 0.4 0 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
Population (in millions) Age group Population (in millions)
Fig 12 2 Population pyramid of Canada – a developed country.
Source: www.indexmundi.com

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Population distribution and An analysis of population distribution shows
density areas with many people or few people and
areas that are moderately populated.
Activity 12.5 This implies that population can hardly be
1. Use the five classes; Senior 1, evenly distributed. Some areas have dense,
Senior 2, Senior 3, Senior 4, and low and sparse populations. Population
Senior 5 as representatives of the distribution is represented using population
provinces of Rwanda. maps. On such maps, dots are used to
represent settlements. The maps are known
2. Count the number of learners in each as dot maps. There are other population
class. maps that use shades of different colours.
3. Describe the way population is spread They are called choropleth maps.
out in your school.
Areas with many dots imply dense
populations. Areas with scattered dots
Population distribution is the spread of indicate sparse populations.
people across the area where people live.

W E

0 3000

Fig 12.3 United States Hispanic population dot map.

254
 N

W E

0 1000 km
1000

Fig 12.4 A choropleth map showing global population distribution.

Task 12.1 Suppose country Y has a total population

of 29,500,500 people and a total land area
1. Define the term population distribution. of 156,578 km2. Its population density will
2. Describe a population structure. be as follows:
3. Explain the composition of a population
Population density = Total population
structure of a: Total area
a) developing country 29,500,500
=
b) developed country. 156,578 km2
4. Describe how population distribution = 188,4 people/km2
is represented in geography.
Therefore, the population density of area
Population density Y is 188,4 people /km2.
Population density refers to the number of
people living per unit area. The unit area is Activity 12.6
usually in square kilometres. To determine
Use the data indicated in the Table 12.3 to
the population density of an area, the total
determine the population density of each
population of an area is divided by the total
country.
size of the area. The population density is
expressed as persons per square kilometre.

255
Table 12.3 Population densities of different countries.
Country Total population Total area in km2 Population density
X 11,565,810 26,671 -------------------------
Y 2,050,678 276,106 --------------------------
Z 50,000,658 25,000 --------------------------
E 38,689,654 102,000 --------------------------
1. Identify the country with the highest population density.
2. Identify the country with the lowest population density.
3. Explain the problems a country with a high population density is likely to face.
4. Examine the challenges a country with a low population density is likely to experience.
5. Present your findings in class.

Activity 12.7 Population growth

Project work. Case study
1. Analyse the effects of a high population
There is a large inflow of refugees from
density on the environment where you live.
Burundi entering into Rwanda. The refugees
2. Suggest how the problems arising are fleeing from insecurity and famine.
can be solved in order to use the Unfortunately, this is happening when the
environment sustainably. infant mortality rate in Rwanda has declined
3. Present your findings in class. tremendously. The life expectancy level in
Rwanda has also risen.
The knowledge on population density
enables the country to allocate resources
appropriately. This is in proportion to the
number of people.

Task 12.2
1. Define the term population density.
2. Explain how the population of a given
country is obtained. Fig 12.5
3. Why is it necessary to determine the 1. Explain the effects that this refugee
population densities of various parts of problem will have on the population of
a country? Rwanda.
4. Calculate the population density of 2. Identify the main factors that have forced
country X, whose total population is refugees from Burundi to enter Rwanda.
2,506,761 people and total area is 2,565
3. Why did the refugees decide to take
square kilometres.
refuge in Rwanda?

256
Population growth refers to the increase in The birth rate is approximately 20 per every
the number of people living in a given area 1,000. This means that every year there are
or country. The population of the world 20 newborn babies.
has been steadily increasing over time. The birth rate of an area is closely affected
The population of Africa is also rapidly by fertility.
increasing. To determine whether there
has been population growth, the following (b) Fertility rate
formula is used;
(birth rate + immigration) – (death rate + Activity 12. 9
emigration).
1. Identify the following families in your
(a) Birth rate neighbourhood:
(a) families with many children
Activity 12.8
(b) families with few children
1. Study the population of your home (c) childless families.
area.
2. Explain the varying sizes of families.
2. Compare it with how it was last year.
3. Do you notice any difference? Fertility rate refers to the number of children
that would be born to a woman in her
4. Explain the difference noted.
lifetime. It is calculated per every 1000
women in a population. Fertility rates
Birth rate refers to the number of live babies vary in different areas. Other reasons that
born in a year for every 1000 people in the account for differences in fertility rates
total population. It is calculated using the include economic constraints, cultural and
following formula. traditional beliefs, poor nutrition by the
mothers and diseases.
Birth Number of new born babies
rate = x 1000
The total population Task 12.3
1. Explain the difference between fertility
Suppose in a certain year, new born babies rate and birth rate.
were 200,000 in a total population of
2. Explain the factors that influence the
10,000,000 people. The birth rate is as
fertility rate in any given region.
follows;
3. What would happen to population sizes
= 200,000 x 1000 = 20 if the fertility rate:
10,000,000
(a) increases
(b) decreases?

257
(c) Death rate Growth rate refers to the natural change in
the number of people living in a given area
Case study
or country. This change is by an increase or
In a certain year in a village in Gasabo district, decrease expressed as a percentage.
there were many grandparents taking care Growth rate is also defined as the ratio of
of their grandchildren. After 10 years, the birth rate and death rate per 1000 people.
grandchildren were found alone taking care
of themselves. Their grandparents could not This is determined by the formula:
be seen anymore. Birth rate - Death rate x 100
Growth rate = 1000
(a) What do you think happened to that
village? There are different types of growth rates.
(b) Why were the grandchildren left alone? Rapid growth rate - refers to a situation
where birth rates are high and death rates are
low. This leads to a fast growing population.
Death rate refers to the number of people Slow growth rate - refers to a nearly
dying per 1000 people in the total population. stagnant population growth where both
It is calculated using the following formula: the birth and death rate are low. It is
experienced in countries such as Britain
The total number of deaths and Sweden.
Death rate = The total population
x 1000
Zero growth rate - is also known as constant
growth rate. It is a stable population growth
Let us see a scenario; rate where birth rates are equal to death
rates and the rate of population increase is
In 2014, country X registered 60,000 deaths therefore zero.
in a total population of 12,000,000 people.
Negative growth rate- is a type of growth
Calculate the death rate of country X. rate where birth rates are lower than death
rates. This results in a declining population.
The total number of deaths
Death rate = The total population
x 1000 (e) Natural increase
This is the difference between the number
of births and number of deaths. It occurs
60,000
= x 1000 when the birth rate exceeds the death rate.
12,000,000
This may be caused by high birth rates,
=5 low death rates and influx of people like
refugees into a country.
This means that for every 1000 people of
the general population, 5 persons died in (f) Natural decrease
that year. This is a condition that occurs when the
death rate exceeds the birth rate. It results
(d) Growth rate in a low population growth rate. A natural

258
decrease could also be caused by epidemics such as HIV and AIDS, natural hazards such
as floods, severe drought, pests and diseases and civil wars.

Activity 12.10

Use the following data to calculate the birth and death rates of various countries.

Table 12.4
Year Country Total Number of Number of Birth Death
population deaths births rate rate
2011 X 150,000 1000 768 _____ _____
2012 Y 20,000 800 2500 _____ _____
2013 Z 95,000 1500 1500 _____ _____
2014 F 84,006 250 362 _____ _____

1. Define the term death rate.

2. Differentiate between birth and death rates.
3. Comment on country X and Y and suggest factors that led to their differences in birth
and death rates.
4. Calculate the growth rate for each of the countries.
5. Identify some factors that may influence the population growth rate.

Settlement
Activity 12.11
Activity 12.12
Use the Internet, geography textbooks and
other geographical documents. Discuss and answer the following questions.
1. Find out other concepts and terms 1. Where did the early man live?
related to population studies. 2. Where do people live?
2. Describe the characteristics of the 3. Describe where you live.
concepts.
4. Why is it necessary to have homes?
5. Identify the factors that influence the
establishment of a home.
6. Draw a village where people live and
display your picture in the class.

259
A settlement refers to a place where people (d) In places with security such as near
live and establish their homes. It refers to the king’s palace, state house or army
forms of human habitation from a single barracks.
dwelling to the largest city. (e) In areas with favourable relief that
People choose to build their homes in given is generally flat or gently sloping
areas due to factors that may be favourable. areas. This is for easy accessibility and
They include the following. infrastructural development.
(a) Where there is a reliable source of water. (f) In places that are disease and pest free.
(b) In places with fertile soils that can (g) Strategic positions or sites such as at a
support plant growth. place where many roads meet.
(c) In locations with enough supply of (h) The presence of natural resources,
food such as near the market or an where people able to get jobs easily.
agriculturally rich region.
Types of settlements
Activity 12.13
Observe the settlements around your home area and school. Answer the following
questions in a class discussion.
1. Describe the settlements.
2. Name the types of settlements you have observed.
3. Which type of settlement is associated with roads, rails and towns?
4. Which type of settlement is associated with rivers and farms?
Rural settlements are villages occupied by people involved in primary production such as
subsistence agriculture.
Urban settlements are areas occupied by people who are involved in trade, commerce and
industrial activities. They comprise of towns or urban centres and cities.

Fig 12.6 A rural settlement in Nyanza Province of Rwanda.

260
 Fig 12.7 An Aerial view of housing units of urban settlements in Kibagabaga, Gasabo District.

Both rural and urban settlements take any (a) Nucleated settlements
of the following settlement patterns. This is a settlement pattern where people
(a) Nucleated settlement pattern. cluster together to form compact
settlements. The clusters may be around a
(b) Linear settlement pattern.
market, a source of water or a farm that has
(c) Sparse settlement pattern. been divided into strips.

Fig 12.8 A nucleated settlement pattern in Poomparai village in India.

(b) Linear settlements
This is a common kind of settlement pattern. Homesteads and houses are arranged in lines.

261
The houses are located on either side of certain features like roads, railways, rivers or
along a coast. Most linear settlements develop because of the convenience of nearness
to a transport route.

Fig 12. 9 A linear settlement pattern along Saint Lawrence River in Quebec Canada.

(c) Sparse or scattered settlements low and unreliable in nature. Practices such
This is a type of settlement consists of as hunting, shifting cultivation and food
isolated dwellings which are scattered gathering and nomadic pastoralism are a
over a large area. This type of settlement main economic activity.
is common in areas where rainfall is very

Fig 12.10 A dispersed settlement pattern in Darrenfelen and Cwm Dyar-fach in Britain.

262
Activity 12.14 Case study
Do this in pairs. Esther Gasana is an accountant in one of the
1. Observe the settlements in the area prominent companies in Rwanda. She stays
around your school. in Kigali with her family. She grew up in Kigali.
2. Identify the different types of Recently, she got a promotion at her place
settlement patterns. of work. She got a letter that required her
3. Give their characteristics and reasons to report at the Huye branch. She received
why they exist. the news with a lot of happiness.
4. Record your findings for a class
discussion. She has an older brother who stays in the
Unites States of America.
Task 12.4 One of her sisters recently visited one
1. Define the term settlement. of their uncles who stays in the Eastern
Province of Rwanda.
2. Explain the meaning of the following.
(a) Rural settlement. 1. Mention the geographical concept
represented in the story.
(b) Urban settlement.
2. Name and explain the types of migration
3. Differentiate between:
represented in the passage.
(a) nucleated settlement and sparse
3. Apart from the factor of employment
settlement
mentioned in the story, identify other
(b) linear and isolated settlement. causes of migration.

Migration
Activity 12.15

Study the photograph shown below and answer the questions that follow.

Fig 12.11 Refugees from Rwanda.

263
1. Explain what is happening in the Activity 12.16
photograph.
Study the table below and fill in the missing
2. Identify the causes of such a mass information.
movement of people like those in the
photograph. Table 12.5
3. What are the challenges that such Source Receiving Type of migration
people face during and after such area area
undesirable movement? Rwanda USA __________
4. Suggest what can be done to stop such Bugesera Musanze __________
movements from happening in our Musanze Kinigi __________
country. Town village
Migration is a term used to refer to the DRC Kenya __________
movement of people from one place to Uganda Rwanda __________
another for specific purposes. The purposes
could be to search for jobs, search for
pasture, search for better living conditions Other types of migration
or as a result of civil war. (a) Voluntary migration
This is where an individual moves from one
Types of migration place to another without being forced. A
There are different types of migration. person moves out of his or her own free
The types are classified based on the will. The movement could be between
original location of a person and their final continents, countries or certain parts
destination. They include the following. of the same country. This is sometimes
referred to as “analysed migration”. The
(a) Internal migration parties involved study the advantages and
This is the movement of people from one disadvantages of moving and decide to
place to another within the same country. leave willingly.
It does not include crossing of borders of a
country. (b) Involuntary migration
This is forced migration where an individual
(b) External migration shifts from a place to another due to
This refers to the movement of people from unfavourable factors. A person moves against
one country to another. It involves crossing his or her will. For example, the government
the borders of a country. This means that may decide to resettle a given population
they emigrate from one country to another. due to a need. The need could be such as
infrastructural development. Other factors
When someone migrates from one country
that can force people to move include war,
to another, the person is known as an
genocide or civil unrest in a country.
emigrant. The same person in the receiving
country is known as an immigrant. The
processes of movement are known as
emigration and immigration respectively.
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(c) Permanent migration or long-term
Did you know?
migration
This is the movement of people from • About 50% of the world population is
the source area to another place with no under 25 years old.
intention of returning back to their origin. • The average life expectancy is 80 years
(d) Temporary migration or short-term old for people in industrialized nations,
migration and 53 years old for Sub-Saharan Africa.
This is the movement of people from • The continent with highest population
the source area to another part with an is Asia that accounts for 60% of world’s
intention of returning to their homes. It is population.
also referred to as a “return migration” or • Early human migrations are thought to
short-term migration. This form of migration have begun when Homo Erectus first
is practised by businessmen, tourists and migrated out of Africa to Eurasia.
students. • The largest migration corridor in the
There are other types of migration that world is the Mexico – USA.
are found on villages and towns. They are
presented in Table 12.6.
End unit assessment
Table 12.6 Types of migration.
1. Define population.
(a) Rural – This is the movement 2. Explain the meaning of the following
urban migration of people from villages terms:
to cities and towns.
(a) population structure
(b) Rural – rural This is the movement (b) population distribution and density.
migration of people from one 3. Why is it important for governments to
village to another carry out census in their countries?
village.
4. Differentiate between:
(c) Urban – This is the movement
urban migration of people from one (a) birth, death and growth rates.
city to another. (b) natural increase and decrease.
(d) Urban – This is the movement 5. (a) Define settlement.
rural migration of people from cities (b) List and briefly describe three types
or towns to villages. of settlements.
6. (a) Define migration.
Activity 12.17 (b) Mention and briefly explain the
Use Geography textbooks, the Internet, two main types of migration.
maps and other documents. (c) Give four reasons why people
. Find out the types of migration that migrate.
exist in Rwanda. Give examples.

265
Topic area:
Human and economic
geography
Sub-topic area:
Economic activities and development
studies
Number of periods : 5

266
 UNIT
Economic activities
13

Key unit competence Types of economic activities

By the end of this unit, you must be There are three main categories of economic
able to categorise the types of various activities.
economic activities and their importance • Primary
on development.
• Secondary
Unit objectives • Tertiary
By the end of the unit, you must be able to: (a) Primary economic activities
(a) define an economic activity Activity 13.2
(b) state the types of economic activities
Study the following photographs and
(c) identify the importance of various answer the questions that follow.
economic activities.

Economic activities
Activity 13.1
Under the guidance of your teacher.
(a)
1. Go outside and look around.
2. Identify and describe the activities that
people do to earn some money.
3. Tell your teacher what the people who
live near you at home do to earn some
money.
4. Why do the people do the activities that
you have mentioned above? (b)

An economic activity is an action that

involves the production, distribution
and consumption of goods and services.

267
 • In mining, the mineral resources are
obtained from the ground through
different means. They are then taken
for further processing.
• Forestry involves tree harvesting where
mature trees are cut down for timber.
(c) • Fishing entails the catching of fish in
water using nets and other fishing
equipment.
(b) Secondary economic activities
Activity 13.3
Study the photographs below and answer
the questions that follow.
(d)
Fig 13.1
1. Identify the activities taking place in
each of the photographs.
2. Give the products of each activity
shown in the photographs.
3. Identify an area in Rwanda where each
of the activities shown is carried out.
(a)
Primary economic activities are those that
involve the extraction of natural resources
from the earth. These activities produce
food and raw materials for other industries.
In most cases, people who are involved in
primary economic activities live closer to
the areas where the resources are found.
Examples of primary economic activities (b)
include crop cultivation, livestock farming,
mining, forestry, fishing and quarrying.
• In crop cultivation, farmers dig the
ground and plant seeds. The seeds later
germinate into crops that mature. The
crops are harvested to obtain food.
• In livestock farming, farmers keep a (c)
variety of livestock like cows, sheep,
goats and pigs. These animals are kept
for their meat, wool and skin.
268
 (c) Tertiary economic activities
Activity 13. 4
Study the photographs below and answer
the questions that follow.

(d)
Fig 13.2
1. Identify the economic activities shown
in each of the photographs.
2. Give examples of some of these
economic activities found in Rwanda. (a)
Secondary economic activities are those
that utilise the products from the primary
economic activities. Secondary economic
activities change the raw materials into
semi-processed or finished products. This
is done by processing or manufacturing.
The raw materials are made more valuable
through processing. (b)
Table 13.1 Secondary and primary
economic activities.
Secondary Primary
economic activity economic activity
1 Milk production Livestock farming
2 Textile production Cotton farming
3 Steel making Iron ore-mining (c)

• In milk production, raw milk from the

cows is processed into different milk
products that include treated milk,
skimmed milk and cheese.
• In textile production, raw cotton from
farms is processed into cloth.
• In steel making, iron ore is refined into (d)
fine steel. Fig 13.3

269
1. Identify the services provided in the of tertiary economic activities include
photographs. transport and communication, tourism,
2. For each activity, identify one area in banking, trade, insurance, administration
Rwanda where it is carried out. and entertainment. Professionals who
Tertiary economic activities are those provide services include teachers, lawyers
that provide services to people. Examples and medical officers.

Activity 13. 5
1. Classify the economic activities in the pictures below as either primary, secondary or
tertiary.

270
 to people, for example, those working
in plantations or factories.
(c) The sale of products from primary
and secondary activities is a source of
income to people. This helps to raise the
people’s standards of living. Products
such as milk are sold to the consumers
and earn the farmers an income.
(d) Economic activities such as processing
activities are a source of revenue to the
government. This revenue is earned
through taxation. The revenue is used
for economic development of various
areas of the economy.
(e) Commodities from the economic
activities are exported to earn foreign
Fig 13.4 exchange. This revenue is in turn used
2. Do you see some of these activities for economic development of the
taking place near your home or school? country.
3. Discuss their importance to the (f) The economic activities such as dairy or
community. tea farming have led to development of
transport and communication networks
Importance of economic in the rural areas. For example, the
construction of roads has led to
activities improved accessibility.
Activity 13.6 (g) The economic activities lead to
production of commodities required by
1. Discuss the importance of the economic people for use. This has enabled people
activities that take place near your to have access to the basic needs
school or home. and services. This leads to improved
2. Do you think they are of importance to standards of living.
the country? Discuss their importance. (h) The primary economic activities are
a major source of raw materials for
industries.
Economic activities play a very significant (i) Some economic activities such as tea
role in the sustainable development of a processing and mining have led to the
country. growth of towns.
(a) Economic activities provide food for the (j) Economic activities have led to equitable
population, for example, fishing and distribution of goods and services. People
farming. who do not produce a commodity are still
(b) Economic activities provide employment able to get them easily. This is because

271
 they can buy the commodities that they processing then buy them back as
do not have in exchange for money or for finished products.
other goods and services. Services such • All the three types of economic activities
as banking, insurance come close to the have a positive economic impact to a
people who need them. country.
Improved standards of living and continuos • Tertiary activities offer support to both
investment into various economic activities the primary and secondary economic
leads to sustainable development. activities.
Activity 13.7 End unit assessment
1. Name some of the economic activities
that take place in Rwanda. 1. (a) Give examples of primar y
economic activities in Rwanda.
2. List the products of the activities.
3. State the importance of the activities (b) List some of the employment
and products produced to the country opportunities in the primary
and to the immediate community that economic activities.
engages in the activity. 2. (a) What are secondary economic
4 Record your findings and present them activities?
in class for discussion. (b) Give examples of secondary
economic activities that take place
Activity 13.8 in your country.
1. Discuss how the government of Rwanda 3. (a) Define tertiary economic activities.
utilises the revenue from the economic (b) Explain the importance of tertiary
activities. economic activities to primary and
2. Why is it important for the government secondary activities.
to develop all areas of the country? (c) List some of the employment
3. Record your findings in your notebook. opportunities in the tertiary
4. Present your findings in a class economic activities.
discussion. 4. Outline the main economic activities in
Rwanda.
Did you know? 5. Giving examples, explain the importance
• Most developing countries still engage of the three economic activities to the
in primary activities. economy of Rwanda.
• Agriculture remains the main primary
activity undertaken by developing
nations.
• Developing countries export raw
materials to developed countries for

272
 GLOSSARY

• Aeration – is the process by which air • Cartographer – a person who creates

is circulated through, mixed with or maps.
dissolved in a substance. • Census – an official count or survey of
• Aerosol – a substance that is released a population.
from a container as a spray. • Ceramics – things made of clay and
• Afforestation – establishment of a forest hardened by heat.
in an area where there was no forest. • Chlorofluorocarbon – a chemical
• Agroforestry – agriculture that involves containing atoms of carbon, chlorine,
cultivation and conservation of trees. and fluorine. It is mostly used in the
• Alluvial soils – fertile soil deposited by manufacture of aerosol sprays.
water flowing over flood plains or in • Constriction – a place where something
river beds. has become tighter or narrower; an
• Altitude – the height of an object or obstruction.
point in relation to sea level or ground • Consumption – using up of a resource.
level. • Continental movement – movement of
• Aquatic – relating to water, living in or the earth’s continents relative to each
near water. other
• Aquifer – an underground layer of • Continents – part of the earth’s crust
water-bearing permeable rock. that rises above the oceans .
• Aspect – the compass direction that a • Convectional currents – the transfer of
slope faces. heat by the mass movement of heated
• Axis - an invisible line around which an particles.
object such as a planet rotates, or spins. • Coordinates – each of a group of
• Base – a substance that is slippery to numbers used to indicate the position
touch, tastes bitter and changes the of a point, line or plane.
colour of indicators. • Core – central and innermost part of the
• Biodiversity – variety of life in the world. earth or other planet.
• Calibrate – mark with a standard scale • Coriolis effect – the force that causes
of readings. a moving object to change direction,
• Canopy – the cover formed by the leafy towards the right in the Northern
upper branches of the trees in a forest. Hemisphere and the left in the Southern
Hemisphere.
• Capillarity – the process in which a
liquid flows in narrow spaces like soil • Cosmic – relating to the universe.
pores. • Crest – the top of a mountain or a hill.
• Crust – outer layer of the earth.

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• Crystals - a small piece of a substance • Emigration – the act of leaving one’s
that is formed when the substance turns native country with the intent to settle
into a solid. elsewhere.
• Data – facts and statistics collected • Equatorial trough – the low atmospheric
together for reference or analysis. pressure zone that lies between the
• Decay – rotting of organic matter subtropical high-pressure belts of the
through the action of bacteria or fungi. Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
• Decomposition – the process of rotting. • Erosion – Weathering in which surface
• Deflect – to cause something to change soil and rock are washed away by the
direction. action of glaciers, water and wind.
• Degree of inclination – the angle at • Exotic – originating in a distant or
which a piece of land is raised in relation foreign country.
to a point of reference. • Extrusive – relating to rock that has
• Demography – the study of populations been forced out onto the earth’s surface
with emphasis on statistics such as as lava or other volcanic deposits.
births, deaths and income. • Farmyard manure – the traditional
• Density – the mass per unit volume of manure that is mostly readily available
a substance . to the farmers. It is made using cow
dung, cow urine, waste straw and other
• Deploy – to spread out or arrange dairy wastes.
strategically.
• Fauna – the animals of a particular
• Deposition – the act or process of region.
depositing.
• Fieldwork – practical work conducted by
• Digital – electronic technology that a researcher in the natural environment.
generates, stores and processes data.
• Flora – the plants of a particular region.
• Dinosaur – an ancient reptile of
enormous size. • Foreign exchange – currency from other
countries.
• Disintegration – the process of breaking
into pieces. • Forest reserve – forests that have been
set side and protected by law in a certain
• Drainage – the process of removing country.
excess water from a substance.
• Fossils – preserved remains of things
• Drizzle – light rain falling in very fine of the old times.
drops.
• Gender – the state of being male or
• Ecosystem – a biological community of female with reference to social and
interacting organisms and their physical cultural differences.
environment.
• Geography – the study of the physical
• Elevation – the height of a geographical features of the earth and its atmosphere.
location above or below a point of It also studies human activities as they
reference. affect and are affected by the physical

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 features. This includes the distribution It provides the raw material for the
of populations and resources, land use, formation of new stars.
and industries. • Intrusive – of or relating to igneous rock
• Glacial – relating to ice. that while molten, is pushed into cracks
• Granule – a small grain or particle of or between other layers of rock.
something. • Ionosphere – a part of earth’s
• Gravity – the force that attracts a body atmosphere that has a lot of ions from
towards the centre of the earth. It can the solar radiation.
also attract a body towards any other • Isotope – a different version of a
physical body with mass. chemical element.
• Green manure – a fertiliser consisting • Jovian planets – outer planets away
of growing plants that are plowed back from the sun.
into the soil. • Landform – a natural feature on the
• Haze – a slight obscuration of the lower earth’s surface.
atmosphere, caused by fine suspended • Landscape – all the visible features of
particles. an area of land.
• Heath – a short shrub with small leaves • Laterally – extending from side to side.
and pink or purple bell-shaped flowers. • Lava – hot molten or semi-fluid rock
• Horizon – a zone or layer erupted from a volcano or fissure.
• Hydrological cycle – this is a continuous • Lava ejecta – material ejected out of a
cycle where water evaporates, into the volcano such as pumice, ash and tuff.
air and becomes part of the clouds. It • Lava flow – a mass of flowing or solidified
then falls down to earth as precipitation lava.
and evaporates again. This repeats again
and again in a never-ending cycle. • Lay of the land – the natural features of
a geographic area
• Immigration – the action of coming to
live permanently in a foreign country. • Light years – The distance that light
travels in a vacuum in one year.
• Impervious – not allowing fluid to pass
through. • Loess – a loamy soil deposit formed by
wind.
• Infiltrate – to cause a liquid to enter
something like soil through its pores. • Louvre – a structure on a roof or window,
with side openings for ventilation.
• Inorganic – not consisting of living
matter • Lumbering – the process of cutting
down trees and turning them into
• Insolation – a measure of solar radiation timber.
energy received on a given surface area
in a given time. • Macro-nutrients – nutrients that
provide energy and are required in
• Interstellar gas – gases, and dust that large amounts.
occupy the space between the stars.

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• Mafic rocks – a silicate mineral or rock • Oceanic bed – the bottom of the ocean.
rich in magnesium and iron that is dark • Offshore – situated at sea some distance
in colour. from the shore.
• Magma – hot fluid or semi- fluid material • Onshore – situated or occurring on land.
below or within the earth’s crust. • Organic – relating to or derived from
• Mantle – a layer in the interior of Earth living matter.
or another planet. • Organic farming – a form of agriculture
• Maritime – relating to the sea. that depends on techniques like crop
• Matter – a physical substance that rotation, green manure, compost and
occupies space and has mass. biological pest control.
• Metamorphism – alteration of the • Orographic – resulting from the effects
composition or structure of a rock by of mountains.
heat or pressure. • Oxides – a mixture of oxygen and
• Meteorologist – scientists who study another element.
the atmosphere. They examine its • Ozone layer – a layer in Earth’s
effects on the environment, predict the stratosphere that absorbs most of the
weather, or investigate climate trends. ultraviolet radiation reaching Earth from
• Micro-climate – the climate of a small the sun.
area that is different from the area • Ped – a soil particle.
around it. • Percolate – of a liquid; filter gradually
• Micro-nutrients – nutrients required in through a porous surface or substance.
small amounts. • Perennial – lasting or existing for a long
• Micro-organism – a living organism that time.
is too small to be seen with the naked • Permeability – the state of a material
eye e. g bacteria. that causes it to allow liquids or gases
• Molten – in a semi-liquid state by means to pass through it.
of heating. • Photosynthesis – a process used by
• Moorland – an area of low-growing plants to convert light energy from
vegetation of grass and bushes on acidic the sun, into chemical energy that can
soils. be later released to fuel the plant’s
• Murram – a form of clay material used activities.
for road surfaces. • Physical features – the environment:
• Muslin – lightweight cotton cloth. landforms, water bodies, climate,
• Natural resources – materials or natural vegetation and soils of the earth.
substances that occur in nature and can • Planetoid – minor planet
be used for economic gain. They include • Plankton – the small and microscopic
forests, fertile land, water, minerals etc. organisms drifting or floating in the sea
• Oblique – aerial photographs taken or fresh water.
from a high point at a slope angle.

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• Plutonic – igneous rock formed by • Ribbon – a long narrow strip of
solidification below the earth’s surface. something.
• Population pyramid – a graphical • Run-off – draining away of water from
illustration that shows the distribution the land surface.
of various age groups in a population. • Satellite – a body that orbits around
• Porous – relating to a rock having spaces Earth, any other planet or a star.
or holes through which liquid or air may • Scarp – a very steep bank or slope.
pass. • Sea level – an average level for the
• Precipitate – cause (a substance) to be surface of the earth’s oceans from which
deposited in solid form from a solution. heights are measured.
• Pressure belt – A pressure belt is a band • Sea waves – a disturbance on the
of high and low pressure found every surface of the sea or lake. It is usually
30 degrees. in the form of a moving ridge or swell.
• Quarrying – extraction of stones from • Sediments – solid fragments of inorganic
rocks on the ground. or organic material that settle at the
• Rain shadow – a region with little bottom of lakes or ocean beds. They are
rainfall because it is sheltered from rain- carried and deposited by wind, water,
bearing winds. or ice.
• Ratio – a relationship between two • Sediments – the accumulation of sand
quantities showing the number of times and dirt that settles at the bottom of
one value is contained in another. lakes or oceans.
• Raw materials – a basic material that • Semi-processed – a product that has
is used to produce goods, finished not been fully processed to completion
products and energy. to create a product.
• Reforestation – restocking of existing • Sensitise – make an object or substance
forests that have been depleted or sensitive to light.
destroyed. • Slide – an image on a transparent base
• Refugee – a person who has been forced for projection on a screen.
to leave their country in order to escape • Soil aggregate – groups of soil particles
war, persecution or natural disaster. that bind to each other strongly.
• Regolith – the layer of loose material • Solidification – to make something into
covering the bedrock of the earth. a hard compact mass or a solid.
• Relief – the highest and lowest elevation • Soluble – of a substance able to dissolve
points in an area. Mountains and ridges in water.
are the highest elevation points, while • Sub-surface water – water beneath
valleys are the lowest. earth’s surface as part of the water cycle.
• Revenue – a country’s income from • Sublimation – a chemical process where
which public expenses are met. a solid turns into a gas without going
through a liquid stage.

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• Submarine canyons – is a steep-sided • Twilight – the soft light from the sky
valley cut into the sea floor . when the sun is below the horizon. It
• Tectonic plate movement – theory usually occurs at daybreak to sunrise or
which states that the Earth’s lithosphere from sunset to nightfall.
is divided into plates that float over the • Ultra-violet – electromagnetic radiation.
mantle. • Undulating – to have a wavy shape that
• Terrain – a tract of land considered with rises and falls such as in hills and valleys.
its physical features. • Vacuum – empty space.
• Terrestrial planets – inner planets closer • Volcanic lava – the molten rock expelled
to the sun. by a volcano during an eruption.
• Tillage – preparation of land for growing • Vulcanicity – the process through which
crops. gases and molten rock are forced out
• Topographical map – a detailed, accurate onto the earth’s surface or into the
graphic representation of features that earth’s crust.
appear on the earth’s surface. • Waterlogged – saturated with or full
• Tra n sve rs e – ex te n d i n g a c ro s s of water.
something. • Watershed – a ridge of high land
• Tributaries – rivers or streams flowing dividing two areas that are drained by
into a larger river or lake. different river system.
• Tsunami – a very large ocean wave • Zone – an area distinguished from
caused by an underwater earthquake other parts by a distinct feature or
or volcanic eruption. characteristic.

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