River.
Commencing with the gradual
migration of farmers from the highlands
to the lowland river valleys, this phase
predates the Kot Diji Phase (2800–2600
BCE), named after a location in northern
Sindh, Pakistan, close to Mohenjo-Daro.
Notably, the earliest specimens of the
Indus script, a distinctive feature of
this civilization, trace back to the third
millennium BCE.
During this phase, settlements
emerged along the Hakra River, with
Kalibangan in India being a notable
village discovered in this context.
The civilization’s trade networks
extended to analogous regional
cultures and distant sources supplying
raw materials, such as lapis lazuli and
other materials for bead-making.
Villagers during this period had
successfully domesticated a variety of
crops, including peas, sesame seeds,
dates, and cotton. Additionally, the Fig. 2.1: Map of IVC Early Phase
domestication of animals like the water buffalo was evident.
By 2600 BCE, the early Harappan villages had undergone
a transformative process, evolving into significant urban
centres, thereby marking the inception of the mature
Harappan phase. According to recent research findings,
there was a discernible shift in the societal landscape
of the Indus Valley, transitioning from villages to fully-
fledged cities during this critical juncture.
IGNITE YOUR MIND
What is the significance of the proximity of major
Harappan sites to rivers? How does this geographical
connection reflect the interdependence between
geography and societal development during that era?
SECOND PHASE: THE MATURE
HARAPPAN PHASE FROM 2600 Fig. 2.2: Map of IVC Mature Phase
TO 1900 BCE
Characteristics of the Mature Harappan
The Mature Harappan Phase, spanning from 2600 BCE to Phase
1900 BCE, witnessed the remarkable expansion of early The characteristics of the Mature Harappan Phase
Harappan civilizations into expansive urban centres by 2600 are exemplified by the urban design and architecture,
BCE. Prominent among these urban centres were Harappa, as well as the advancements in art, crafts, and the
Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-daro in contemporary Pakistan, prevailing social, religious, and economic conditions of
alongside Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and the time. Notably, the urban layout and architecture of
Lothal in present-day India, exemplifying the scale and the Harappan civilization have been subjects of extensive
complexity of these settlements. scholarly investigation.
16 Ancient India
These urban centres featured well-planned, expansive, • Adjacent to the Great Bath, across a lane to the
and straight roadways, reflecting a high degree of north, stood a smaller building containing eight
urban planning sophistication. Residential structures bathrooms—four on each side of a corridor—each
were equipped with efficient drainage systems and with drains connecting to a main drain running along
ventilation, attesting to the meticulous attention given the corridor.
to both functional and aesthetic aspects of urban living • The distinctive nature of this structure, coupled with
during this period. The finds from the Mature Harappan its contextual placement within the Citadel alongside
Phase contribute significantly to our understanding of other unique buildings, has led scholars to posit that
the advanced and organised nature of the Harappan it served a specific purpose, possibly as a site for
civilization. ritualistic bathing.
N (Manda in Jammu)
B) Lower Part:
W (Sutkagendor in The lower part of the city was inhabited by the general
E (Alamgirpur in UP)
Baluchistan) populace, where residents conducted their daily lives
and pursued their professional activities.
S (Malvan in South Gujarat) Residential structures in the Lower town of Mohenjodaro
Fig. 2.3: Extent of Harappan Civilization serve as illustrations of domestic architecture.
A significant number of these dwellings were designed
Town Planning around a central courtyard, encompassed by rooms on
The Harappan civilization is distinguished for its urban all sides.
orientation and adept civic planning and organisation. The courtyard likely functioned as the focal point for
Typically, Harappan cities exhibited a division into two various activities, such as cooking and weaving, especially
distinct sections, the Citadel and the Lower Town.
in hot and arid weather conditions.
A) Citadel/Raised Part: Notably, a privacy concern is evident in the absence of
This segment, occupying a relatively smaller area, was windows along the ground-level walls, and the main
often positioned to the west of the city. entrance does not provide a direct line of sight into the
It served as the residence of the city’s rulers and interior or the courtyard.
encompassed public edifices, granaries, and key Each dwelling featured its own brick-paved bathroom,
workshops. equipped with drains seamlessly connected to street
The Citadel reveals evidence of structures likely drains.
designated for specific public purposes. Among these, the Some residences exhibited remnants of staircases,
warehouse, a substantial edifice, retains its lower brick indicating access to a second floor or the roof.
sections, while the upper portions, likely constructed of
Additionally, many houses incorporated wells, often
wood, have deteriorated over time.
situated in a room accessible from the exterior,
Citadels possibly intended for use by passers-by. Scholars
While most Harappan settlements have a small, high have approximated that the total count of wells in
western part and a larger, lower eastern section, there Mohenjodaro was approximately 700.
are variations. The entire settlement was fortified at It adhered to a grid pattern, where streets intersect at right
sites such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), and sections angles. Key features of Harappan town planning include:
within the town were also separated by walls. The Citadel Wide Streets: The streets were notably broad, the Main
within Lothal was not walled off but was built at a height. Street measuring ten metres in width. This layout divided
the town into rectangular and square blocks.
Another notable structure on the Citadel is the Great
Lamp-posts: At regular intervals, lamp-posts adorned
Bath, comprising a large rectangular tank situated
the streets. These lamp-posts utilized high-quality burnt
within a courtyard and surrounded by a corridor on all
bricks, featuring a distinctive ratio of 1:2:4 in terms of
four sides.
thickness, width, and length consistently applied across
• The tank featured two sets of steps on the north
all Harappan structures. Noteworthy was the uniformity
and south, leading into it. To ensure water tightness,
in the average size of bricks, measuring 7 x 14 x 28 cm³
bricks were set on edge, and gypsum mortar was
for houses and 10 x 20 x 40 cm³ for city walls.
employed in the construction.
• Surrounding the tank, rooms were present on Drainage System: The Harappan civilization boasted an
three sides, one of which housed a sizable well. A exemplary drainage system. The drains, constructed
substantial drain facilitated the outflow of water using mortar, lime, and gypsum, were covered with
from the tank. large brick slabs to facilitate easy cleaning.
Harappan Civilization 17
