PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF

FASCISM
From Plato to Gentile

By Mahesh BARI

Prepared as an independent philosophical analysis

“For Fascism...the State and the individual are one, or better, perhaps, "State" and
"individual" are terms that are inseparable in a necessary synthesis.”
Giovanni Gentile

This project is a philosophical analysis of fascism and its historical context. It is not intended as
an endorsement or promotion of fascism in any form. The views and arguments presented aim to
explore the ideological, political, and cultural dimensions of fascism critically. The content of
this paper should be understood within the context of academic inquiry, and it does not reflect
support for any extremist or harmful ideologies.

This analysis is conducted from a neutral, critical perspective with the goal of understanding the
philosophical underpinnings of fascism. It is not a reflection of personal belief or political
affiliation.

This document contains Information compiled and fact-checked with the assistance of AI tools.
While every effort has been made to ensure accuracy, readers are encouraged to cross-reference
and verify important details independently.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Defining Fascism

2. Historical context

3. Philosophical Analysis

3.1 Origins of Fascism

3.2 A deeper view

3.3 Fascism–Right or Left?

4. Conclusion

1. DEFINING FASCISM
Fascism is a far-right political philosophy, or theory of government, that emerged in the early
twentieth century. Fascism prioritizes the nation over the individual, who exists to serve the
nation. While fascist movements could be found in almost every country following World War I,
fascism was most successful in Italy and Germany.
(Fascism | Holocaust encyclopedia, 2019)

DEFINING FEATURES OF FASCISM:

● Ultranationalism
A central feature of fascism is Nationalism at its very extreme, emphasizing the superiority of the
nation.

● Totalitarianism
Fascism seeks to establish a state where the government practices power over all aspects of life.

● Militarism
Glorification of Military strength.

● Anti-Democracy
Fascism rejects classical democracy, deeming it as something that causes division among people.

● Anti-Communism
Fascism opposes communist ideologies, considering them a threat to national cohesion.

● Anti-Liberalism
Rejection of Individualism and freedom of expression.

● Corporatism
Business goals must be aligned with the nation’s interests.

● Subordination of the Individual

The individual must submit himself to the fascist nation.

The word “Fascism” comes from the Italian word “fascio” and has its roots in the Latin word
“Fasces”. In ancient Rome, fasces were bundles of rods tied around an axe, symbolizing
authority, unity, and power. The rods represented strength through unity, as a single rod could
be broken easily, but a bundle could not. The axe signified the power of life and death held by
Roman magistrates.
When discussing fascism, we must invoke two key figures who shaped the development of the
fascist ideology.

● Benito Mussolini
Former Prime minister of Italy (1922-1943) and the founder of the National
Fascist Party. In 1922, Mussolini co-authored the Doctrine of
Fascism, a key document which outlined the fundamental principles of the
ideology. Mussolini is best known as the ruthless dictator of Fascist
Italy, where he consolidated power and suspended democracy, creating a
totalitarian regime.
He was appointed as the leader of Italy by King Victor Emmanuel III after his
March on Rome (1922), which was a protest against the liberal party.

● Giovanni Gentile
Giovanni Gentile was an Italian philosopher and key intellectual
figure in the development of the Fascist ideology; Also known as the
Philosophical founder of Fascism.
Gentile co-authored the Doctrine of fascism along with Benito
Mussolini in 1922.
His Philosophy of Actual Idealism served as the foundation for fascism.

Gentile was chosen in 1907 to fill the chair of the history of philosophy in the
University of Palermo In this year, at the Sixth National Congress of the
Federation of Secondary School Teachers, he attained national prominence as
the defender of religion in the schools against the attempts of the positivists led by Sig Salvemim
to secularize them In the next year he published Scuola e filosofia, a collection of short writings
on educational problems, begun in 1900 with the prophec II concetto sctenttfico della pedagogm
At Palermo Gentile interested himself in the relation between religion and philosophy, and the
result was his Il modernismo e i rapporti fra religione e filosofia There followed three important
volumes of research Bernardino Telesio, republished two years later in I prohlemt della
scolastica e il pensiero Italians, and La riforma della dialettica hegeliana The work on Hegel is
extremely significant for actual idealism. (Holmes, 1938)

While Gentile shaped the philosophical foundation of Fascism, Mussolini brought it into
practice. However, Mussolini did not strictly adhere to the principles laid down by Gentile, as
evident in his actions against various ethnic groups, which were driven by personal opinions
rather than Fascist ideology. Therefore, analyzing Fascism solely through the lens of Fascist Italy
can lead to false conclusions about its core principles.

2. HISTORICAL CONTEXT
Fascism first gained widespread recognition as a political ideology after being employed in Italy
under the leadership of Mussolini. It was framed as a solution to the post WW1 socio-economic
and political problems.

Subsequent to World War I, many European countries were left devastated. To add insult
to injury, the Central Powers, particularly Germany, were burdened with harsh
reparations under the Treaty of Versailles. These reparations, combined with other
economic factors, led to public distress and the hyperinflation of the German currency.
Hitler took advantage of this situation to promote his ideology, gaining significant
popularity and support among the Germans.

On the other hand, Italy, despite being on the winning side of the war, faced significant
Turmoil and dissatisfaction.

The war cost Italy 680,000 lives and imposed enormous debts. Italians expected compensation.
Italy’s allies, however, perceived little help defeating the main enemy, Germany. Italian demands
seemed excessive. Sonnino’s inflexible diplomacy in Paris aroused resentment. Wilson expected
the Brenner frontier would reconcile Italy to losing Fiume. It did not. Italian insistence on
London Treaty provisions and the port met Wilson’s unyielding refusal. (Sullivan, 2017)

Many Italians felt betrayed by the Treaty of Versailles, as Italy did not receive the
territorial rewards it had been promised in the Treaty of London (1915).
This, combined with other factors, led to a massive civil unrest in Italy.

The major arms and shipbuilding firms went bankrupt after the war for lack of government
orders. Unemployment rose to two million as returning soldiers searched for work. Peasants,
organized by trade unions, ex-servicemen’s groups, or Catholic leagues, seized land for
themselves, especially in the south; agricultural labourers went on strike at harvest time. Trade
unions, now operating again, pressed for higher wages, and strikes, including those in the public
services, became routine. A series of stoppages paralyzed the railroads, as well as postal and
telegraph services. (Italy - Economic Crisis, Political Turmoil, Two Red Years, n.d.)

In addition, there was a rise of far-left Marxist propaganda, which led to strikes and
protests against the liberal government of the time.

This created fertile ground for Benito Mussolini and his Fascist Party to rise to power. Mussolini
capitalized on fears of a communist revolution and the disillusionment with the perceived
failures of the liberal establishment to gain support from the middle class, industrialists, and
veterans.

Gentile credits the post World war I hardship in Italy for the Fascist rule in Italy to be
established.
Historically, several nations have displayed fascist characteristics while not being explicitly
fascist.

Historical fascist nations:

1. Italy (1922-1943)
2. Spain (1939-1975)
3. Romania (1940–1944)

While Nations like Germany and Hungary are usually classified as fascists, they followed a
different ideology called National Socialism.

The closest thing to a fascist nation in today’s world would be North Korea, despite declaring
itself communist, North Korea’s regime under the Kim dynasty shows ultranationalism, a
personality cult, and totalitarian control, resembling aspects of fascism.

Almost every Fascist nation in history has practiced racism, but Fascism as an ideology does not
inherently promote racial discrimination. Gentile described Nazi persecution of Jews as 'a
barbarous act'. Fascist Italy only began exiling Jews in the later stages of the regime, particularly
after becoming a puppet state of Nazi Germany. Until then, over 10,000 Jews were members of
the National Fascist Party, and Mussolini initially considered them representatives of Italian
culture to the world.

However, despite this early tolerance toward Jews, Mussolini’s regime was extremely racist
toward Slavs and Black people, reflecting the belief in Italian superiority. Additionally, the 1938
Racial Laws, which targeted Jews, marked a significant shift in Fascist racial policy even before
the German occupation.

3. PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS
“The Fascist system is not a political system, but it has its center of gravity in politics. Fascism
came into being to meet serious problems of politics in post-war Italy. And it presents itself as a
political method. But in confronting and solving political problems it is carried by its very
nature, that is to say by its method, to consider moral, religious, and philosophical questions and
to unfold and demonstrate the comprehensive totalitarian character peculiar to it. It is only after
we have grasped the political character of the Fascist principle that we are able adequately to
appreciate the deeper concept of life which underlies that principle and from which the principle
springs. The political doctrine of Fascism is not the whole of Fascism. It is rather its more
prominent aspect and in general its most interesting one” (Gentile, n.d., 28)

Gentile and Mussolini have constantly argued in their writings that fascism is not just a mere
political ideology, and even less of a religion.

To get a deeper understanding of fascism, we must first explore its origins.

3.1 ORIGINS OF FASCISM

Fascism’s philosophical underpinnings are deeply rooted in Giovanni Gentile’s Actual Idealism.

Actual idealism is a form of idealism, developed by Giovanni Gentile, that grew into a
"grounded" idealism, contrasting the transcendental idealism of Immanuel Kant, and the absolute
idealism of G. W. F. Hegel. (Actual Idealism, n.d.)

The key principles of actual idealism are:

1. Reality only exists when we think about it.

2. The world is created by our thoughts and actions in the present moment.
3. Collective will matters more than individual desire.

While Actual Idealism represents a specific application of the idealist thought, it is a part of a
much older and broader philosophical concept.That is, Idealism.

"Idealism" in its philosophical sense, is the view that mind and spiritual values are
fundamental in the world as a whole. (Idealism, Encyclopedia.com)

In simple words, reality is shaped by our mind.

Idealism is both an epistemological and metaphysical field. For deeper understanding,

studying the history of the Western Philosophy is crucial. Below is a chronological
exploration of the western philosophy and how idealism developed over time, laying the
groundwork for its later influence on political ideologies like fascism.

1. Heraclitus of Ephesus (535-475 BC)

“You cannot step in the same river twice, for fresh waters are always flowing in.”

Heraclitus is known for his doctrine of Flux, which proposed that change is the only
constant in the world and that everything is constantly changing. According to him,
everything is in a state of continuous transformation.
 From this perspective, if everything is changing, then everything is contradictory. For
example, consider a growing tree. At any moment, the tree exists as a complete entity, yet
simultaneously going through the process of growth and decay. It is both the same and
not the same, embodying the contradictions inherent is constant change.

This view laid the groundwork for dialectical reasoning, which later idealists like Hegel
built on.

Heraclitus also proposed a universal principle called the Logos.

“Logos, in ancient Greek philosophy and early Christian theology, the divine reason
implicit in the cosmos, ordering it and giving it form and meaning.”

In the meantime, philosophers like Protagoras (490–420 BC) and Gorgias (483–375 BC),
building upon Heraclitus’ conclusion of flux, began questioning whether knowledge
could truly be attained.

Protagoras proposed the subjectivity of knowledge, arguing that it is gained only through
the senses. “Man is the measure of all things”

Gorgias, taking this skepticism further, questioned whether anything could exist or be
known at all; and arrived at the given conclusions:

1. Nothing exists.
2. Even if something exists, nothing can be known about it.
3. Even if something can be known about it, the concerning knowledge cannot be
communicated.

2. Plato of Athens (428/427 or 424/423 BC-348BC)

Plato played a huge role in the development of the idealist thought through his Theory of
Forms. It suggests that there exists a realm of perfect forms, from which the mind draws
information.

“The theory suggests that the physical world is not as real or true as "Forms". According
to this theory, Forms—conventionally capitalized and

also commonly translated as "Ideas"—are the non-physical, timeless, absolute, and

unchangeable essences of all things, which objects and matter in the physical world
merely imitate, resemble, or participate in. Plato speaks of these entities only through the
characters (primarily Socrates) in his dialogues who sometimes suggest that these Forms
are the only objects of study that can provide knowledge.” (Gerson & Fine, n.d.)
 According to Plato, the world is divided into two realms: the material world of particulars
and the higher realm of universals. Particulars are the objects that exist in the physical
world, while universals are their perfect forms that exist in a higher, non-physical realm.
It is from these universals that the mind draws information. For example, a tree is a
particular, and the 'treeness' it embodies is a universal.

Plato also proposed that universals are arranged in a hierarchy. For instance, there is
'brickness,' which represents the essence of a brick, and 'houseness,' which represents the
essence of a house. In this hierarchy, 'houseness' is above 'brickness,' as the house
encompasses a greater purpose or idea. And above all lies the ultimate good.

This hierarchy of universals reflects the structure and vision of a fascist nation.

It is important to highlight the parallel development of another group of philosophers, primarily

the atomists Leucippus (5th century BCE) and his student Democritus (c. 460–370 BCE), who
proposed that the world is composed of indivisible particles called atoms. This perspective
introduced a materialist view of reality and led to another philosophical split. Aristotle (384–322
BCE) rejected Plato’s ideas of universals and argued that knowledge should come from
rationality and observation of the natural world. On the other hand, the empiricists, notably
Epicurus (341–270 BCE), asserted that whatever can be known about the world is derived solely
from sensory experience, advocating a more scientific approach, thus opening the gates for
Hume.

According to David Hume (1711–1776), there are no universals, only particulars. Universals are
mere ‘labels’ given to objects with similar qualities. For instance, when we see multiple objects
with similar features—like a chair with four legs, a seat, and a backrest—we group them under
the universal term "chair." However, Hume argued that this grouping exists only in our minds,
not in reality. In rejecting universals, Hume dismissed the idea that these shared qualities exist
independently of the individual objects.

Although skepticism is often associated with David Hume, he was not the first to explore this
idea. Skepticism traces back to Gorgias, who questioned whether anything could exist, be
known, or communicated. Hume built on this tradition of skepticism, but his work was deeply
influenced by Epicurus’ empiricism, which emphasized sensory experience as the only source of
knowledge. Hume synthesized these ideas, forming a materialist, empiricist, and radically
skeptical view of knowledge and reality.

3. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

After Hume’s radical skepticism had disintegrated the foundations of reality, Immanuel
Kant emerged to reconstruct philosophy.

“Hume left us with a universe like Humpty Dumpty after the fall; Kant is going to
synthesise the fragments and give us an intelligible world again.” (Peikoff, n.d.)

To put philosophy back together, Kant performs a synthesis. He agrees with the previous
ideas of skepticism, empiricism, rationalism, and idealism but rejects the idea that only
 one of them is the sole way to know about reality. He questions whether it truly matters if
we can know reality and, in doing so, arrives at his concept of transcendental idealism.

Transcendental Idealism is Kant’s philosophical theory that deals with the

epistemological problems set by previous philosophers. It explains how the world we
perceive is shaped by our mind.

Kant combines empiricism and rationalism to form a middle ground.

● Knowledge starts with experience.

● The experience is shaped by the mind.

According to Kant, there is Phenomena, which is the reality perceived by our mind, in a
sense filtered with glasses and there is Noumena which is the reality that exists
independent of our perception.

Kant’s transcendental idealism served as foundation for Hegel’s philosophy and indirectly for
certain aspects of the fascist ideology. By emphasizing that our understanding of reality is
shaped by the mind’s structures, Kant introduced the idea that perception and knowledge are
inherently subjective, yet organized by universal principles.

4. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)

Hegel built upon Kant’s transcendental idealism, but he moved beyond Kant’s focus on
knowledge and shifted it onto the evolution of ideas.

Hegel later came to the conclusion that the history and evolution of ideas is a dialectical
process.

“Hegel’s dialectics refers to the particular dialectical method of argument employed

by the 19th Century German philosopher, G.W.F. Hegel, which, like other
“dialectical” methods, relies on a contradictory process between opposing sides.”
(Maybee, 2016)

Through Hegel, we get Absolute Idealism.

According to Actual Idealism, the world we see is not the world as it truly exists, a view
that closely aligns with Kant’s perspective. Hegel, however, argues that the best way to
understand reality is not through physical means but through reflection upon the self-
aware mind. Thinking, in this framework, connects each experience to the larger, infinite
whole, rather than imposing fixed ideas onto what we observe. Hegel’s interpretation of
idealism stresses on the notion that the world is nothing but a mere reflection of the mind.
Finite things (those that exist temporarily) depend on the infinite, unlimited being that
encompasses everything. The finite is just a part of this greater infinite whole.
 Hegel proposes the idea of an ethical-life or ethical-order which he calls Sittlichkeit and
says that The state is the highest stage of ethical life. He believed true freedom is
achieved not in isolation but through participation in these social structures. By aligning
with the ethical order, individuals find purpose and fulfillment.

After Hegel’s death, there happens to be a split between his followers. The Right-
Hegelians who think that Hegel was right about his concept of God and ethical life. The
Left (young) Hegelians however, believed that while Hegel’s methods, i.e., Dialectical
reasoning were correct, his conclusions were wrong, which gives a rise to the Marxist
philosophy.

5. Giovanni Gentile (1875-1944)

Gentile successfully built upon his master Hegel’s philosophy, stepping into his shoes to
create Actual Idealism.

While the individual mind creates reality, Gentile believed that this process is inherently
communal. The collective will of society shapes the individual’s thought, making the
state the highest expression of reality: as Hegel said.

Hegel’s goal was to awaken the Absolute Spirit, aiming for a deeper understanding of universal
truth. Gentile, however, took a much more practical approach, focusing on how thought could be
applied to actively create and maintain the state.

3.2 A DEEPER VIEW

Now that the origins and philosophical foundations of this ideology have been explored, it is
time to analyze fascism through the writings of its founder, Giovanni Gentile, and his
collaborators.

As mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, Gentile gave us the theory of actual
idealism. And from this view, is Fascism derived.

According to Gentile, man is inherently a communal being. As the mind shapes reality in
Idealism, Gentile says that the reality is shaped by the process of collective thinking, and the
state is the embodiment of the collective will.

“The State is within us, mature, alive and of necessity living and growing and expanding and
elevating itself in dignity, and conscious of itself and of its high duties and the grand goals to
which it is called, in our will, in our thought, and in our passions. The individual develops and
the State develops.” (Gentile, n.d., 27)

As opposed to Marx, who emphasised on class struggle over individual identity, Gentile believed
that the individual indeed does exist, but finds his true purpose after aligning his thought with the
collective will. In doing so, the individual transcends his personal desires and becomes divine.
It is notable how Gentile distinguishes between the Individual’s choice which he refers to as
“desire” while referring to the common choice of the society as the “collective will”. The
Fascists and the Marxists both dismissed the individual’s rights, as they came from the same,
Hegelian background.

“The Fascist State. therefore, as distinct from the Nationalist State, is an entirely spiritual
creation. It is a national State, because from the point of view of Fascism, it is the result of
spiritual action rather than a presupposition. The nation is never complete—nor is the State
simply the nation in its concrete political form. The State is always in fieri, It is all always in our
hands. It is therefore our own immense responsibility.”

The Fascist state is the result of collective thinking, therefore an entirely spiritual creation. The
citizens are the state and hence, it is a democratic state, attaining the highest form of democracy.
The state does not represent its citizens, it is the citizens.

“The Nationalist state was an aristocratic state, that constructed itself out of the force it inherited
from its origin, that made it valued by the masses. The Fascist State, on the other hand, is a
popular state, and, in that sense, a democratic State par excellence. The relationship between
the State and the individual is not that between it and one or the other citizen, but with every
citizen. Every citizen shares a relationship with the State that is so intimate that the State exists
only insofar as it is made to exist by the citizen. Thus, its formation is a product of the
consciousness of each individual, and thus of the masses, in which the power of the State
consists.” (Gentile, n.d., 28)

In his book the doctrine of fascism, Gentile argues that a Fascist state is the only truly liberal
state, as freedom can only be found within the authority of the state. According to this view,
a liberal government is seen as illegitimate and an illusion of liberty, which is why Fascism
strongly opposes it.

The totalitarian nature of Fascism is a core feature, as defined by Gentile. When an individual
aligns their thought with the goals of the Fascist state, nothing remains of the individual apart
from their thought, as thought is the only true possession one has.

Religion is an essential part of the Fascist state as it is of the consciousness, which Gentile
borrows from Hegel. In the Fascist state, religion must align with the goals of the state, not the
other way around as in a theocracy. This principle is evident in Hitler’s creation of 'positive
Christianity,' which was declared heretical by the Catholic Church.

To sum everything that has been said so far in this chapter,

Heraclitus begins with his undeniable proposition of change, which leads the skeptics to
conclude that reality is impossible to fully know. Plato counters this by proposing a realm of
perfect, unchanging forms from which our minds draw information. These forms are arranged in
a hierarchy, with the ultimate good at the top. Plato’s ideas are critiqued by Aristotle, while the
atomists simultaneously lay the groundwork for materialism.
Fast forward to the Enlightenment, Hume dismantles reality with his radical skepticism,
prompting Kant to synthesize prior methods of gaining knowledge into his transcendental
idealism. Hegel then builds on Kant’s ideas, shifting the focus to the evolution of ideas and
history through his dialectical process. He emphasizes the collective will, seeing the state as the
highest expression of ethical life. Finally, Gentile develops these ideas further, placing the
nation-state at the top of Plato’s hierarchy of universals and thus making fascism.

3.3 FASCISM—RIGHT OR LEFT?

As defined earlier in this document, Fascism is a Far-right political ideology. Or is it?

Almost every source claims that fascism is a far-right ideology. This is largely due to its
nationalistic and totalitarian aspects. While nationalism and totalitarianism are defining features
of fascism, their interpretation can vary (as explained above).

Fascism does not promote free markets in the classical sense, nor is it inherently conservative. It
positions itself as a "third position”, distinct from both capitalism and communism. While it is
nationalist, it is also socialist.

Its concept of "socialism" refers to a state-directed collectivism rather than Marxist socialism.
The entirety of fascism is based on the assumption that man is a communal being, with the
individual subordinate to the collective goals of the nation.
CONCLUSION

This paper has explored the philosophical foundations of Fascism, tracing its roots from ancient
idealist thought to its practical implementation through Giovanni Gentile’s Actual Idealism.

Philosophical Foundations:

● Fascism is rooted in Giovanni Gentile’s Actual Idealism, which builds on the ideas of
Hegel and earlier idealist philosophers.
● Gentile argued that reality is created by thought, and the state is the highest expression of
collective thought, making it a spiritual entity.

Development of Idealism:

● The progression of idealist thought begins with Heraclitus, who proposed that change is
constant, leading to skepticism about reality.
● Plato introduced the Theory of Forms, emphasizing a realm of perfect, unchanging
universals.
● Aristotle and the atomists critiqued Plato, laying the groundwork for materialism.
● Hume dismantled the concept of universals with skepticism, which Kant synthesized
into Transcendental Idealism.
● Hegel built on Kant, emphasizing the evolution of ideas and collective will, seeing the
state as the highest ethical entity.

Gentile’s Contributions:

● Gentile adapted Hegel’s ideas, placing the nation-state at the top of Plato’s hierarchy of
universals.
● He argued that individuals find purpose by aligning their thoughts with the collective
will, subordinating personal desires to the state.
● The Fascist state, according to Gentile, is a democratic state par excellence, where the
state and citizens are one.

Key Features of Fascism:

● Fascism emphasizes totalitarianism, where the individual exists only as part of the state.
● Religion is integral to Fascism but must align with state goals, as seen in Hitler’s concept
of “positive Christianity.”
● Fascism rejects liberalism, viewing it as an illusion of freedom, and opposes individual
rights in favor of collective unity.

I hope I have cleared some misconceptions about Fascism through this study.
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