Machine Learning using Python

Module 3
Introduction to Machine Learning

3.1 Introduction to Machine Learning

What Is Machine Learning?
Machine learning is programming computers to optimize a performance criterion using example
data or past experience. We have a model defined up to some parameters, and learning is the
execution of a computer program to optimize the parameters of the model using the training data or
past experience. The model may be predictive to make predictions in the future, or descriptive to gain
knowledge from data, or both.
Arthur Samuel, an early American leader in the field of computer gaming and artificial intelligence,
coined the term “Machine Learning” in 1959 while at IBM. He defined machine learning as “the field of
study that gives computers the ability to learn without being explicitly programmed.”

Definition of learning
Definition
A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect to some class of tasks T and
performance measure P, if its performance at tasks T, as measured by P, improves with experience E.

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 Examples
i) Handwriting recognition learning problem
• Task T: Recognising and classifying handwritten words within images
• Performance P: Percent of words correctly classified
• Training experience E: A dataset of handwritten words with given classifications
ii) A robot driving learning problem
• Task T: Driving on highways using vision sensors
• Performance measure P: Average distance traveled before an error
• training experience: A sequence of images and steering commands recorded while
observing a human driver
iii) A chess learning problem
• Task T: Playing chess
• Performance measure P: Percent of games won against opponents
• Training experience E: Playing practice games against itself

Thus Machine learning (ML) is a category of an algorithm that allows software applications to become more accurate in
predicting outcomes without being explicitly programmed. The basic premise of machine learning is to build algorithms that can
receive input data and use statistical analysis to predict an output while updating outputs as new data becomes available.

Examples of ML in use.

 Prediction — Machine learning can also be used in the prediction systems. Considering the loan example, to compute the
probability of a fault, the system will need to classify the available data in groups.

 Image recognition — Machine learning can be used for face detection in an image as well. There is a separate category for
each person in a database of several people.

 Speech Recognition — It is the translation of spoken words into the text. It is used in voice searches and more. Voice user
interfaces include voice dialing, call routing, and appliance control. It can also be used a simple data entry and the
preparation of structured documents.

 Medical diagnoses — ML is trained to recognize cancerous tissues.

 Financial industry and trading — companies use ML in fraud investigations and credit checks.

3.2 Statistical Modeling to Machine Learning

Statistical models are used by organizations to transform data into business insights. Statistical modelling is a method of
mathematically approximating the world. Statistical models are designed to find relationships between variables and the
significance of those relationships, whilst predicting future values. For example, marketers use statistical modelling to divide
customers into different segments based on various factors (e.g. priorities, demographic information, needs), so that they
can implement specific marketing strategies for different segments.
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Though being handcrafted with high level of interpretability, statistical models have limited predictive
accuracy, since sometimes the underlying assumptions of the model are far too strict to represent reality and since statistics can
process only numeric data. Today’s businesses are adopting hybrid methods combining characteristics of statistical
modelling and machine learning, so as to understand in-depth how the underlying models work as well as generate accurate
predictions

3.3History of Machine Learning – Business Evolution

1950-1980 ML in the lab

These years are the very early stages of ML. In 1950, Alan Turing created Turing Test to determine whether a
computer can think like a human being. Two years later Arthur Samuel of IBM first came up with the phrase
“Machine Learning”. In the following decades, scientists created the very first ML programs for simple
applications, such as improving computer’s performance in a game checker and recognising rough pattern and
shape.

1980-2000 From Lab to Reality

By 1982, interest in neural networks (a subfield of ML that deals with algorithms inspired by the structure and
function of the human brain) started to pick up again. In the last several years of 1990s, many more advances
have been made thanks to the increasing availability of digital data from internet growth. ML industry
shifted from a knowledge-driven approach to a data-driven approach. In 1997 IBM’s Deep Blue, a chess-playing
computer, beats the world champion at chess. Since then ML leaves the lab and gets down to reality.

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2000-2010TriggersBusiness Interest
The beginning of 21st century saw more and more businesses shifting their attention towards ML. Tech
companies like Google started realising ML’s potential in applying complex mathematical calculations to big
data. They are investing considerable resources and researching heavily in the field to stay ahead of their
competitors. In 2014, Google acquired two-year-old AI startup Deep Mind for
$500M, making it Google’s largest European acquisition to date.

2010-2020Modern Machine Learning

In the past six decades, ML was poised to take off in business world because of
limited datasets and expensive computing power. These barriers burned away in
2010s and ML finally ignited powerful changes in real world. Symbiosis of data collection and
cheaper memory allows storage of massive amounts of data. Faster processing power enabled
by GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) manufacturers like Nivida makes applying machine learning practical. In
addition, tech giants have fueled the expansion of ML into various sectors, such as Google speech
recognition and Facebook DeepFace facial recognition.

3.4 The current state of ML in business

According to Algorithmis’ survey “2020 state of enterprise machine learning”, the top three objectives
for which companies of all sizes are adopting ML are:

 Reducing company costs

 Generating customer insights and intelligence
 Improving customer experience

Currently, the most common ML applications are customer-centric, spanning everything from improving in-store
retail experiences with IoT to boosting security with biometric data to predicting and diagnosing disease. The
table below presents some examples of ML use cases in different industries that are driving business value
today.

“The future is already here. It’s just not evenly distributed.”—William Gibson Although ML is
being implemented more widely due to its proven value, it is not equally adopted across businesses. Only big
companies which can hire scarce data science and ML talents, and invest enormously in sophisticated IT
infrastructure, are greatly benefiting from ML. In addition, ML adoption in business faces other challenges such
as data management, model explain ability, use cases identification, internal change resistance and ethical
concern.

3.5. What’s the future of ML in business

ML is a continuously developing practice. In the future, ML industry will be independent
from sophisticated technical framework and expertise, enabling ubiquitous adoption across
different industries and companies of all sizes. Meanwhile, innovative ML methods
will empower advanced analytics as well as increase energy efficiency of ML development and deployment.

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 (a) ML development tools: Automated ML for Everyone
Though ML has enormous potential in business application, most companies are still in the nascent stages of ML
adoption. Like Business Intelligence and other tech industries, we can only see exponential growth of ML business
adoption when core ML development platforms and tools become affordable and available to every company.

Tech giants and leading AI tool startups are automating ML to democratise ML for everyone. Microsoft
Azure, Amazon SageMaker, Google AutoML are cloud-based ML platforms that enable data science professionals
to build models and operationalise ML insights. Google introduced AutoML-Zero in a paper early this year, which
shows that automatically building ML algorithms from scratch is possible by using evolutionary techniques.

 Deployment: ML applications need faster lifecycles since data changes so rapidly in real business world
that companies might need to deploy a new model every day. And businesses need ML development tools
that can easily integrate with their existing systems.
 Data Privacy and Security: In many business applications, effective ML models are usually trained on
sensitive data protected by strict regulations. Privacy-preserving ML is ever needed to ensure data
security and privacy.
 Explainability: ML models are often seen as black box for their lack of transparency. In businesses,
knowing the “why” is as important as predicting the “what”. Unless ‘why’ an ML model made a decision
that can be explained to stakeholders, its applications will be strictly limited despite achieving higher
accuracy than traditional methods.
 Model validation: Data is changing fast in business environment. ML models need to be validated that
they can predict accurately on new data.
 ML ethics and bias: ML and the training data are necessarily biased. Knowing the different bias present
in ML life cycle and the potential consequences requires a transparent process. Reducing or even avoiding
discriminatory bias require bias testing in development cycle as well as monitoring and reviewing models
in operation.

(b) ML business use case: advancing to

prescriptive analytics
Advanced ML technologies will not only predict what will happen in the future and explain the underlying reasons,
but also recommend the optimal solution for the best outcome. Advanced ML evaluates each available option in
complex business environments with millions of variables and constraints to achieve
customised business objectives such as profits and operational efficiency . TurinTech uses evolutionary
optimisation techniques to empower businesses to make optimised value-driven decisions in a cost-effective and
effortless approach. Organisations can easily solve complex business problems while coping
with millions of trade-offs.

( c) Green ML: ML with low environmental impact

A university research in 2019 found that training an ML model can emit more than 600,000 pounds of CO2. That’s
almost five times the amount of CO2 emitted by the average car during its lifetime. Efficient ML methods are
demanded to build a greener future. MIT researchers have been developing new ML techniques
that adapts algorithm to various hardware to reduce the computing power required during training. A solution
to this problem is to automatically optimise AI models and software code to achieve optimal energy
efficiency both during model training and in production

Components of Learning

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 Basic components of learning process
The learning process, whether by a human or a machine, can be divided into four components,
namely, data storage, abstraction, generalization and evaluation. Figure 1.1 illustrates the various
components and the steps involved in the learning process.

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1. Data storage
Facilities for storing and retrieving huge amounts of data are an important component of the
learning process. Humans and computers alike utilize data storage as a foundation for advanced
reasoning.
• In a human being, the data is stored in the brain and data is retrieved using electrochemical signals.
• Computers use hard disk drives, flash memory, random access memory and similar devices to store
data and use cables and other technology to retrieve data.

2. Abstraction
The second component of the learning process is known as abstraction.
Abstraction is the process of extracting knowledge about stored data. This involves creating general
concepts about the data as a whole. The creation of knowledge involves application of known models
and creation of new models.
The process of fitting a model to a dataset is known as training. When the model has been trained, the
data is transformed into an abstract form that summarizes the original information.

3. Generalization
The third component of the learning process is known as generalisation.
The term generalization describes the process of turning the knowledge about stored data into a form
that can be utilized for future action. These actions are to be carried out on tasks that are similar, but
not identical, to those what have been seen before. In generalization, the goal is to discover those
properties of the data that will be most relevant to future tasks.

4. Evaluation
Evaluation is the last component of the learning process.
It is the process of giving feedback to the user to measure the utility of the learned knowledge. This
feedback is then utilized to effect improvements in the whole learning process

Applications of machine learning

Application of machine learning methods to large databases is called data mining. In data
mining, a large volume of data is processed to construct a simple model with valuable use, for example,
having high predictive accuracy.

The following is a list of some of the typical applications of machine learning.

1. In retail business, machine learning is used to study consumer behaviour.
2. In finance, banks analyze their past data to build models to use in credit applications, fraud
detection, and the stock market.
3. In manufacturing, learning models are used for optimization, control, and troubleshooting.

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 4. In medicine, learning programs are used for medical diagnosis.
5. In telecommunications, call patterns are analyzed for network optimization and maximizing the
quality of service.
6. In science, large amounts of data in physics, astronomy, and biology can only be analyzed fast
enough by computers. The World Wide Web is huge; it is constantly growing and searching for
relevant information cannot be done manually.
7. In artificial intelligence, it is used to teach a system to learn and adapt to changes so that the
system designer need not foresee and provide solutions for all possible situations.
8. It is used to find solutions to many problems in vision, speech recognition, and robotics.
9. Machine learning methods are applied in the design of computer-controlled vehicles to steer
correctly when driving on a variety of roads.
10. Machine learning methods have been used to develop programmes for playing games such as
chess, backgammon and Go.

Types of Learning
In general, machine learning algorithms can be classified into three types.
 Supervised learning
 Unsupervised learning
 Reinforcement learning

Supervised learning
A training set of examples with the correct responses (targets) is provided and, based on this
training set, the algorithm generalises to respond correctly to all possible inputs. This is also called
learning from exemplars. Supervised learning is the machine learning task of learning a function that
maps an input to an output based on example input-output pairs.

In supervised learning, each example in the training set is a pair consisting of an input object
(typically a vector) and an output value. A supervised learning algorithm analyzes the training data and
produces a function, which can be used for mapping new examples. In the optimal case, the function
will correctly determine the class labels for unseen instances. Both classification and regression

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 problems are supervised learning problems. A wide range of supervised learning algorithms are
available, each with its strengths and weaknesses. There is no single learning algorithm that works best
on all supervised learning problems.

Figure 1.4: Supervised learning

Remarks
A “supervised learning” is so called because the process of an algorithm learning from the
training dataset can be thought of as a teacher supervising the learning process. We know the correct
answers (that is, the correct outputs), the algorithm iteratively makes predictions on the training data
and is corrected by the teacher. Learning stops when the algorithm achieves an acceptable level of
performance.

Example
Consider the following data regarding patients entering a clinic. The data consists of the gender
and age of the patients and each patient is labeled as “healthy” or “sick”.

Unsupervised learning
Correct responses are not provided, but instead the algorithm tries to identify similarities
between the inputs so that inputs that have something in common are categorised together. The
statistical approach to unsupervised learning is known as density estimation.

Unsupervised learning is a type of machine learning algorithm used to draw inferences from
datasets consisting of input data without labeled responses. In unsupervised learning algorithms, a
classification or categorization is not included in the observations. There are no output values and so
there is no estimation of functions. Since the examples given to the learner are unlabeled, the accuracy
of the structure that is output by the algorithm cannot be evaluated. The most common unsupervised
learning method is cluster analysis, which is used for exploratory data analysis to find hidden patterns

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 or grouping in data.

Example
Consider the following data regarding patients entering a clinic. The data consists of the
gender and age of the patients.

Based on this data, can we infer anything regarding the patients entering the clinic?

Reinforcement learning
This is somewhere between supervised and unsupervised learning. The algorithm gets told
when the answer is wrong, but does not get told how to correct it. It has to explore and try out
different possibilities until it works out how to get the answer right. Reinforcement learning is
sometime called learning with a critic because of this monitor that scores the answer, but does not
suggest improvements.

Reinforcement learning is the problem of getting an agent to act in the world so as to

maximize its rewards. A learner (the program) is not told what actions to take as in most forms of
machine learning, but instead must discover which actions yield the most reward by trying them. In
the most interesting and challenging cases, actions may affect not only the immediate reward but
also the next situations and, through that, all subsequent rewards.

Example
Consider teaching a dog a new trick: we cannot tell it what to do, but we can reward/punish
it if it does the right/wrong thing. It has to find out what it did that made it get the
reward/punishment. We can use a similar method to train computers to do many tasks, such as
playing backgammon or chess, scheduling jobs, and controlling robot limbs. Reinforcement learning
is different from supervised learning. Supervised learning is learning from examples provided by a
knowledgeable expert.

Issues in Machine Learning

Our checkers example raises a number of generic questions about machine learning. The field of
machine learning, and much of this book, is concerned with answering questions such as the
following:

 What algorithms exist for learning general target functions from specific training examples?
In what settings will particular algorithms converge to the desired function, given sufficient
training data? Which algorithms perform best for which types of problems and
representations?
 How much training data is sufficient? What general bounds can be found to relate the
confidence in learned hypotheses to the amount of training experience and the character of
the learner's hypothesis space?
 When and how can prior knowledge held by the learner guide the process of generalizing
from examples? Can prior knowledge be helpful even when it is only approximately
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correct?
 What is the best strategy for choosing a useful next training experience, and how does the
 choice of this strategy alter the complexity of the learning problem?
 What is the best way to reduce the learning task to one or more function approximation
problems? Put another way, what specific functions should the system attempt to learn?
Can this process itself be automated?
 How can the learner automatically alter its representation to improve its ability to
represent and learn the target function?

Disadvantages of Machine Learning

• It is very difficult to identify and rectify the errors.

• Data Acquisition.
• Interpretation of results Requires more time and space.

https://theintactone.com/2021/09/14/kmbnit02-ai-and-ml-for-business/

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 UNIT – I

Introduction to Python
Python is a widely used general-purpose, high level programming language. It was initially designed by Guido van Rossum
in 1991 and developed by Python Software Foundation. It was mainly developed for emphasis on code readability, and its
syntax allows programmers to express concepts in fewer lines of code.
Python is a programming language that lets you work quickly and integrate systems more efficiently.

There are two major Python versions- Python 2 and Python 3.

• On 16 October 2000, Python 2.0 was released with many new features.
• On 3rd December 2008, Python 3.0 was released with more testing and includes
new features.

Beginning with Python programming:

1) Writing first program:

# Script Begins

Statement1

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 Statement2

Statement3

# Script Ends

Why to use Python/Advantages :

The following are the primary factors to use python in day-to-day life:

1. Python is object-oriented
Writing the programme in natural way not as procedural way
Eg: seeing student as a class and define operations over an object of that class typle
2. It’s free (open source)
Downloading python and installing python is free and easy
3. It’s Powerful
 Built-in types and tools
 Library utilities
 Third party utilities (e.g. Numeric, NumPy, sciPy)
 Automatic memory management
4. It’s Portable
 Python runs virtually every major platform used today
 As long as you have a compatible python interpreter installed, python
programs will run in exactly the same manner, irrespective of
platform.
5. It’s easy to use and learn
 No intermediate compile
 Python Programs are compiled automatically to an intermediate form
called byte code, which the interpreter then reads.
 This gives python the development speed of an interpreter without
the performance loss inherent in purely interpreted languages.
 Structure and syntax are pretty intuitive and easy to grasp.
6. Interpreted Language
Python is processed at runtime by python Interpreter
7. Interactive Programming Language
Users can interact with the python interpreter directly for writing the programs
8. Straight forward syntax
The formation of python syntax is simple and straight forward which also makes it popular.

Working with Python

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 Running Python in interactive mode:
Without passing python script file to the interpreter, directly execute code to Python prompt. Once you’re inside the
python interpreter, then you can start.

>>> print("hello world") hello world

# Relevant output is displayed on subsequent lines without the >>> symbol

>>> x=[0,1,2]

# Quantities stored in memory are not displayed by default.

>>> x

#If a quantity is stored in memory, typing its name will display it. [0, 1, 2]

>>> 2+3

The chevron at the beginning of the 1st line, i.e., the symbol >>> is a prompt the python interpreter uses to indicate that
it is ready. If the programmer types 2+6, the interpreter replies 8.

Data types in Python:

The data stored in memory can be of many types. For example, a student roll number is stored as a numeric value and his
or her address is stored as alphanumeric characters. Python has various standard data types that are used to define the
operations possible on them and the storage method for each of them.

Int:
Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals, of unlimited length.

>>> print(24656354687654+2)
24656354687656
>>> print(20) 20
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>>> a=10
>>> print(a) 10
# To verify the type of any object in Python, use the type() function:

>>> type(10)
<class 'int'>
>>> a=11
>>> print(type(a))
<class 'int'>

Float:
Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing one or more decimals.

Float can also be scientific numbers with an "e" to indicate the power of 10.

>>> y=2.8
>>> y 2.8
>>> y=2.8
>>> print(type(y))
<class 'float'>
>>> type(.4)
<class 'float'>
>>> 2.

2.0
Example:
x = 35e3 y =
12E4
z = -87.7e100

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Output:

<class 'float'>
<class 'float'>
<class 'float'>

Boolean:

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Objects of Boolean type may have one of two values, True or False:

>>> type(True)

<class 'bool'>

>>> type(False)

<class 'bool'>

String:
1. Strings in Python are identified as a contiguous set of characters represented in the quotation marks. Python
allows for either pairs of single or double quotes.

• 'hello' is the same as "hello".

• Strings can be output to screen using the print function. For example: print("hello").
>>> print("mrcet college") mrcet

college

>>> type("mrcet college")

<class 'str'>

>>> print('mrcet college') mrcet

college

>>> " "

''

If you want to include either type of quote character within the string, the simplest way is to delimit the string with the
other type. If a string is to contain a single quote, delimit it with double quotes and vice versa:

>>> print("mrcet is an autonomous (') college") mrcet is an

autonomous (') college

>>> print('mrcet is an autonomous (")

college') mrcet is an autonomous (") college

Variables and Constants:

Variables are nothing but reserved memory locations to store values. This means that when you create a variable you
reserve some space in memory. Variables changes it value during the execution of a programme. Constants will not
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changes its value during the execution of the programme.

Based on the data type of a variable, the interpreter allocates memory and decides what can be stored in the reserved
memory. Therefore, by assigning different data types to variables, you can store integers, decimals or characters in these
variables.

Rules for Python variables:

• A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character

• A variable name cannot start with a number

• A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and underscores (A-z, 0-
9, and _ )

• Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three different variables)
Assigning Values to Variables:

Python variables do not need explicit declaration to reserve memory space. The declaration happens automatically when
you assign a value to a variable. The equal sign (=) is used to assign values to variables.

The operand to the left of the = operator is the name of the variable and the operand to the right of the = operator is the
value stored in the variable.

For example −

a= 100 # An integer assignment b =

1000.0 # A floating point

c = "John" # A string

print (a)

print (b) print

(c)

This produces the following result −

100

1000.0

John

Multiple Assignment:

Python allows you to assign a single value to several variables simultaneously. For example :

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a=b=c=1

Here, an integer object is created with the value 1, and all three variables are assigned to the same memory location. You
can also assign multiple objects to multiple variables.

For example −

a,b,c = 1,2,"mrcet“

Here, two integer objects with values 1 and 2 are assigned to variables a and b respectively, and one string object with the
value "john" is assigned to the variable c.

Output Variables:

The Python print statement is often used to output variables.

Variables do not need to be declared with any particular type and can even change type after they have been set.

x=5 # x is of type int

x = "mrcet " # x is now of type str
print(x)

Output: mrcet
To combine both text and a variable, Python uses the “+” character:

Example

x = "awesome" print("Python is "

+ x)

Output

Python is awesome

You can also use the + character to add a variable to another variable:

Example

x = "Python is " y =
"awesome" z = x + y
print(z)

Output:

Python is awesome

Expressions:

An expression is a combination of values, variables, and operators. They are Arithmetic Expression, Relational
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Expression and Logical Expressions.

Arithmetic Expressions are formed by using Arithmetic operators, Relational Expression is formed by Relational operators
and Logical expression is formed by using Logical operators as listed below

Operators: In Python you can implement the following operations using the corresponding tokens.

Operator Token Type

add + Arithmetic

subtract - Arithmetic

multiply * Arithmetic

Integer Division / Arithmetic

remainder % Arithmetic

and & Logical

or \ Logical

Less than < Relational

Greater than > Relational

Less than or equal to <= Relational

Greater than or equal to >= Relational

Check equality == Relational

Check not equal != Relational

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Examples of Arithmetic Expression

Y=x + 17

c=x+y

The above expression will evaluate the expression on right and assign the result to the variable on left

Examples of Relational Expression

a>=5
The above expression is true when the value stored in a is greater than or equal to 5

Examples of logical Expression

a >=5 & b >= 10
The above expression is true when the value stored in a is greater than or equal to 5 and the value stored in b is
greater than 10.

Precedence of Operators:

Operator precedence affects how an expression is evaluated.

For example, x = 7 + 3 * 2; here, x is assigned 13, not 20 because operator * has higher precedence than +, so it first
multiplies 3*2 and then adds into 7.

Example 1:

>>> 3+4*2 11

Multiplication gets evaluated before the addition operation

>>> (10+10)*2 40

Parentheses () overriding the precedence of the arithmetic operators

Example 2:

a = 20
b = 10
c = 15
d=5
e=0

e = (a + b) * c / d #( 30 * 15 ) / 5
print("Value of (a + b) * c / d is ", e)

e = ((a + b) * c) / d # (30 * 15 ) / 5
print("Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is ", e)

9
e = (a + b) * (c / d); # (30) * (15/5)

10
print("Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is ", e)

e = a + (b * c) / d; # 20 + (150/5)
print("Value of a + (b * c) / d is ", e)

Output:
C:/Users/MRCET/AppData/Local/Programs/Python/Python38-32/pyyy/opprec.py Value of (a + b) * c / d is 90.0
Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is 90.0 Value of (a +
b) * (c / d) is 90.0 Value of a + (b * c) / d is
50.0

To read value to a variable through key board

a= float (input(“Input Value”))

b= int(input(‘Input Value”))

c =string(input(“Input Value”))

k=a+b

print(k)

Control statements in Python

Conditional (Branching Statement -if):

The if statement contains a logical expression using which data is compared and a decision is made based on the result
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of the comparison.

Syntax:
if expression:
statement(s)
If the boolean expression evaluates to TRUE, then the block of statement(s) inside the if statement is executed. If
boolean expression evaluates to FALSE, then the first set of code after the end of the if statement(s) is executed.

if Statement Flowchart:

Fig: Operation of if statement

Example: Python if Statement

# Example programme to print value of a if it is greater than 2

a=3
if a > 2:
print(a, "is greater")
print("done")

a = -1
if a < 0:
print(a, "a is smaller")
print("Finish")

Output:

C:/Users/MRCET/AppData/Local/Programs/Python/Python38-32/pyyy/if1.py 3 is greater
done

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-1 a is smaller Finish

If-Else structure :

An else statement can be combined with an if statement. An else statement contains the block of code (false block)
that executes if the conditional expression in the if statement resolves to 0 or a FALSE value.

The else statement is an optional statement and there could be at most only one else Statement following if.

Syntax of if - else :

if test expression:
Body of if stmts
else:
Body of else stmts
If - else Flowchart :

13
 Fig: Operation of if – else statement

Example of if - else:
# Programe to illustrate if .. else statement
a = int (input(‘Enter the number’))
if a>5:
print (“a is greater than 5”)
else:

print("a is smaller than or equal to 5")

Output:
C:/Users/MRCET/AppData/Local/Programs/Python/Python38-32/pyyy/ifelse.py enter the
number 2
a is smaller than or equal to 5
----------------------------------------

Nested if : (If-elif-else):

The elif statement allows us to check multiple expressions for TRUE and execute a block of code
as soon as one of the conditions evaluates to TRUE. Similar to the else, the elif statement is
optional. However, unlike else, for which there can be at most one statement, there can be an
arbitrary number of elif statements following an if.

Syntax of if – elif - else :

If test expression:
B

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 ody of if
stmts
elif test
expressi
on:
Body of elif stmts
else:
Body of else stmts

Flowchart of if – elif - else:

Fig: Operation of if – elif - else statement

Example of if - elif – else:

a=int(input('enter the
number'))
b=int(input('enter the
number'))
c=int(input('enter the
number')) if a>b:
print("a is
greater") elif
b>c:
print("b is
greater")
else:
print("c is greater")

15
 Output:
C:/Users/MRCET/AppData/Local/Programs/Python/Python38-32/pyyy/ifelse.py enter the
number5
enter
the
number
2 enter
the
number
9 a is
greater
>>>
C:/Users/MRCET/AppData/Local/Programs/Python/Python38-32/pyyy/ifelse.py enter the
number2
enter
the
number
5 enter
the
number
9 c is
greater

-----------------------------
# Programme to illustrate the use of nested if..else structure
# Initialize a variable and and printing it as “true value” if it is 200,150 or 100 and “false expression value
otherwise”
var = 100 # initialize a variable
if var == 200:
print("1 - Got a true
expression value") print(var)
elif var == 150:
print("2 - Got a true
expression value") print(var)
elif var == 100:
print("3 - Got a true
expression value") print(var)
else:
print("4 - Got a false
expression value") print(var)
print("Good bye!")

Output:
C:/Users/MRCET/AppData/Local/Programs/Python/Python38-32/pyyy/ifelif.py 3 - Got

a true expression value

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100

Good bye!

Problem: 1
To read the following details
Item Code
Description
Quantity
Prize
Amount

And then compute the GST as follows

a. GST=2% of Amount for Amount < 5000
b. GST=3% of Amount for Amount>=5000
And then print a cash bill containing all details
Problem: 2
Modify the problem number 1 using if else statement modifies the problem
in such a way that the GST calculating in three levels.
a. GST=2% of Amount for Amount < 5000
b. GST=3% of Amount for Amount >5000 and <=10000
c. GST=4% of Amount for Amount >10000 and <=25000
d. GST=5% of Amount for Amount >25000

17
 Unit 4

Supervised learning
A training set of examples with the correct responses (targets) is provided and, based on this
training set, the algorithm generalises to respond correctly to all possible inputs. This is also
called learning from examples. Supervised learning is the machine learning task of learning a
function that maps an input to an output based on example input-output pairs.

A “supervised learning” is so called because the process of an algorithm learning from the
training dataset can be thought of as a teacher supervising the learning process. We know the
correct answers (that is, the correct outputs), the algorithm iteratively makes predictions on the
training data and is corrected by the teacher. Learning stops when the algorithm achieves an
acceptable level of performance.

In supervised learning, each example in the training set is a pair consisting of an input object
(typically a vector) and an output value. A supervised learning algorithm analyzes the training
data and produces a function, which can be used for mapping new examples. In the optimal
case, the function will correctly determine the class labels for unseen instances.

Example
Consider the following data regarding patients entering a clinic. The data consists
of the gender and age of the patients and each patient is labeled as “healthy” or
“sick”.

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Types of Supervised Learning
There are two types of Supervised Learning Methods – Classification and Regression.

Classification is a supervised machine learning method where the model tries to predict the
correct label of a given input data. In classification, the model is fully trained using the training
data, and then it is evaluated on test data before being used to perform prediction on new unseen
data.

For instance, an algorithm can learn to predict whether a given email is spam or ham (no spam),
as illustrated below.

19
 Machine Learning Classification Vs. Regression

There are four main categories of Machine Learning algorithms: supervised, unsupervised, semi-
supervised, and reinforcement learning.

Even though classification and regression are both from the category of supervised learning, they
are not the same.

 The prediction task is a classification when the target variable is discrete. An application is the
identification of the underlying sentiment of a piece of text.
 The prediction task is a regression when the target variable is continuous. An example can be the
prediction of the salary of a person given their education degree, previous work experience,
geographical location, and level of seniority.

Examples of Machine Learning Classification in Real Life

Supervised Machine Learning Classification has different applications in multiple domains of

our da y-to-day life. Below are some examples.

Healthcare

Training a machine learning model on historical patient data can help healthcare specialists

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 accurately analyze their diagnoses:

 During the COVID-19 pandemic, machine learning models were implemented to efficiently
predict whether a person had COVID-19 or not.

 Researchers can use machine learning models to predict new diseases that are more
likely to emerge in the future.
Education

Education is one of the domains dealing with the most textual, video, and audio data. This
unstructured information can be analyzed with the help of Natural Language technologies to
perform different tasks such as:

 The classification of documents per category.

 Automatic identification of the underlying language of students' documents during their
application.
 Analysis of students’ feedback sentiments about a Professor.
Transportation

Transportation is the key component of many countries' economic development. As a result,

industries are using machine and deep learning models:

 To predict which geographical location will have a rise in traffic volume.

 Predict potential issues that may occur in specific locations due to weather conditions.
Sustainable agriculture

Agriculture is one of the most valuable pillars of human survival. Introducing sustainability can
help improve farmers' productivity at a different level without damaging the environment:

 By using classification models to predict which type of land is suitable for a given type of seed.
 Predict the weather to help them take proper preventive measures.

Different classification Methods/Algorithms

 Decision Tree
 Logistic Regression.
 Support Vector Machine.
Naive Bayes
Gradient Boosting
 Artificial Neural Networks.

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 K-Nearest Neighbour

Different Types of Classification Tasks in Machine Learning

There are mainly two main classification tasks in Machine learning: binary, multi-class
classifications.

Binary Classification

In a binary classification task, the goal is to classify the input data into two mutually exclusive
categories. The training data in such a situation is labelled in a binary format: true and false;
positive and negative; O and 1; spam and not spam, etc. depending on the problem being tackled.
For instance, we might want to detect whether a given image is a truck or a boat.

Logistic Regression and Support Vector Machines algorithms, Decision tree are natively
designed for binary classifications.

Multi-Class Classification
The multi-class classification, on the other hand, has at least two mutually exclusive class labels,
where the goal is to predict to which class a given input example belongs to. In the following
case, the model correctly classified the image to be a plane.

Most of the binary classification algorithms can be also used for multi-class classification. These
algorithms include but are not limited to:

 Random Forest
 Naive Bayes
 K-Nearest Neighbours
 Gradient Boosting
 SVM
 Logistic Regression.

22
 Unit - 5
Unsupervised learning

Unsupervised learning, also known as unsupervised machine learning, uses machine learning
algorithms to analyze and cluster unlabeled datasets. These algorithms discover hidden
patterns or data groupings without the need for human intervention. Supervised machine
learning is generally used to classify data or make predictions, whereas unsupervised
learning is generally used to understand relationships within datasets. Supervised machine
learning is much more resource-intensive because of the need for labelled data. clustering is an
unsupervised method that works on datasets in which there is no outcome (target) variable
nor is anything known about the relationship between the observations, that is, unlabeled
data.

We can think of unsupervised learning problems as being divided into two categories: clustering
and association rules. Clustering is an unsupervised learning technique, which groups unlabeled
data points based on their similarity and differences.

An example of unsupervised machine learning would be a case where a supermarket wants to

increase its revenue. It decides to implement a machine learning algorithm on its sold products'
data. It was observed that the customers who bought cereals more often tend to buy milk or those
who buy bread tend to buy butter.

Below is the list of some popular unsupervised learning algorithms:

 K-means clustering
 KNN (k-nearest neighbours)
 Hierarchal clustering
 Anomaly detection
 Neural Networks
 Principle Component Analysis
 Independent Component Analysis
 Apriori algorithm

Clustering
Clustering is used to identify groups of similar objects in datasets with two or more variable
quantities. In practice, this data may be collected from marketing, biomedical, or geospatial
databases, among many other places.
In machine learning too, we often group examples as a first step to understand a subject (data set) in a
machine learning system. Grouping unlabeled examples is called clustering. As the examples are
unlabeled, clustering relies on unsupervised machine learning.

Clustering is the task of dividing the unlabeled data or data points into different clusters such that
similar data points fall in the same cluster than those which differ from the others. In simple
words, the aim of the clustering process is to segregate groups with similar traits and assign them
into clusters.

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K-Mean Clustering
k-means clustering algorithm
One of the most used clustering algorithm is k-means. It allows to group the data
according to the existing similarities among them in k clusters, given as input to the algorithm.
I’ll start with a simple
example.
Let’s imagine we have 5 objects (say 5 people) and for each of them we know two features
(height and
weight). We want to group them into k=2 clusters.
Our dataset will look like this:

First of all, we have to initialize the value of the centroids for our clusters. For instance, let’s
choose Person 2 and Person 3 as the two centroids c1 and c2, so that c1=(120,32) and
c2=(113,33). Now we compute the euclidian distance between each of the two centroids and
each point in the data. If you did all the calculations, you should have come up with the
following numbers:

At this point, we will assign each object to the cluster it is closer to (that is taking the minimum
between the two computed distances for each object).
We can then arrange the points as follows:
Person 1 → cluster 1
Person 2 → cluster 1
Person 3 → cluster 2
Person 4 → cluster 1
Person 5→ cluster 2

Let’s iterate, which means to redefine the centroids by calculating the mean of the members of
each of the two clusters.
So c’1 = ((167+120+175)/3, (55+32+76)/3) = (154, 54.3) and c’2 = ((113+108)/2, (33+25)/2) = (110.5, 29)
Then, we calculate the distances again and re-assign the points to the new centroids. We repeat this
process until the centroids don’t move anymore (or the difference between them is under a certain small
threshold). In our case, the result we get is given in the figure below. You can see the two different

24
clusters labelled with two different colours and the position of the centroids, given by the crosses.

How to apply k-means?

As you probably already know, I’m using Python libraries to analyze my data. The k-means
algorithm is implemented in the scikit-learn package. To use it, you will just need the following
line in your script:

What if our data is… non-numerical?

At this point, you will maybe have noticed something. The basic concept of k-means
stands on mathematical calculations (means, euclidian distances). But what if our data is non-
numerical or, in other words, categorical? Imagine, for instance, to have the ID code and date of
birth of the five people of the previous example, instead of their heights and weights. We could
think of transforming our categorical values in numerical values and eventually apply k-means.
But beware: k-means uses numerical distances, so it could consider close two really distant
objects that merely have been assigned two close numbers.
k-modes is an extension of k-means. Instead of distances it uses dissimilarities (that is,
quantification of the total mismatches between two objects: the smaller this number, the more similar
the two objects). And instead of means, it uses modes. A mode is a vector of elements that minimizes
the dissimilarities between the vector itself and each object of the data. We will have as many modes as
the number of clusters we required, since they act as centroids.

Advantages of Unsupervised Learning

 Unsupervised learning is used for more complex tasks as compared to supervised learning
because, in unsupervised learning, we don't have labeled input data.
 Unsupervised learning is preferable as it is easy to get unlabeled data in comparison to labeled
data.
Disadvantages of Unsupervised Learning
 Unsupervised learning is intrinsically more difficult than supervised learning as it does not have
corresponding output.
 The result of the unsupervised learning algorithm might be less accurate as input data is not
labeled, and algorithms do not know the exact output in advance.

25