Cells, Cell Division & Cell Specialization

The Cell Theory

1.​ All living things are made up of one or more cells and their products
2.​ The cell is the simplest unit that can carry out all life processes
3.​ All cells come from other cells ; they do not come from non-living matter

Simple vs. Complex Cells

1.​ Prokaryotes - the simplest of cell forms
●​ These cells do not have a nucleus or membrane bound organelles
○​ Ex. Bacteria
2.​ Eukaryotes - more complex single cell or multicellular organisms
●​ Contain a nucleus and other organelles
●​ Surrounded by a membrane
○​ Ex. Fungi, animals, and plants

Cell Structure
-​ Cells of a eukaryotic cells have specialized parts known as organelles
*Organelles: a cell structure that performs a specific function
-​ All cells perform the same basic activities to stay alive ;
●​ Use energy
●​ Store materials
●​ Take materials from surroundings
●​ Remove waste
●​ Move substances to other parts of the cell and reproduce

Structures Common to Plants & Animals

1.​ Cytoplasm:
●​ A watery substance that fills the interior of cells and suspends the organelles
●​ Is not found within the nucleus
●​ Holds nutrients and waste

​
 2.​ Cell Membrane:
●​ A semi-permeable barrier made of two layers of phospholipids (a lipid bilayer)
●​ A boundary around the cell that selects what is allowed in and out
●​ The membrane is always moving
●​ Also called the plasma membrane

​ ​ ​ ​
3.​ Nucleus:
●​ Control center of the cell
●​ Contains nucleolus and DNA (genetic material)
●​ This genetic info is stored in the chromosomes
○​ Made up of DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid
○​ DNA carries all the genes that make your traits

​ ​ ​ ​
4.​ Chromatin:
●​ Uncontrolled DNA
●​ Coils into chromosomes during cell division
5.​ Centrioles:
●​ Only found in animal cells
●​ Forms spindle fibers during cell division
6.​ Nucleolus:
●​ Location where ribosomes are formed from synthesizing proteins
●​ Found in the nucleus
7.​ Cilia & Flagella:
●​ Locomotive structures
●​ Made up of microtubules

​ ​ ​ Cilia ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Flagella

8.​ Mitochondria:
●​ (power plant) creates the energy used by the cells
●​ Produces ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
●​ Muscle cells have more mitochondria than less active cells (fat cells)
●​ Cells store energy as glucose. The mitochondria has enzymes to breakdown
glucose and use its energy
○​ Cellular Respiration:
Glucose + Oxygen -> CO2 + H2O + Energy (ATP)
 9.​ Endoplasmic Reticulum:
●​ A network of branching tubes. Found in the cytoplasm and transports materials,
such as proteins through the cell
○​ RER (Rough ER)
-​ Is covered with ribosomes ; found in cells that make lots of protein
○​ SER (Smooth ER)
-​ Does not have ribosomes on it ; found in cells that make lots of fat

​ ​ ​ ​
10.​Ribosomes:
●​ Make proteins for our cells or body to use
●​ Found in the cytoplasm and on the Rough ER
11.​Golgi Body:
●​ Processes, packages, and stores the fats and proteins produced by the ER
●​ Make and secrete mucus
●​ The Golgi Membrane pinches off to form vesicles which transport large
molecules into and out of the cell

12.​Vacuoles:
●​ A storage sac
●​ Formed by a piece of membrane breaking loose from the cell membrane
●​ Their function varies according to the type of cell
○​ Functions Include;
-​ Containing substances
-​ Removing waste from the cell
-​ Maintaining pressure (turgor) within the cell
●​ Animal cells have many small vacuoles
●​ Plant cells have one central vacuole, visible under a microscope

​ ​
Organelles in Plant Cells Only
1.​ Cell Wall:
●​ Found outside the cell membrane of a plant cell
●​ Gives plant cell shape
●​ Mostly made of cellulose
●​ Provides support and protection for the cell

​ ​ ​ ​
2.​ Chloroplasts:
●​ Contain chlorophyll
●​ Gives leaves their green colour
●​ Chloroplasts absorb light energy used in photosynthesis (process of converting
carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen)

Organelles only in Animal Cells

1.​ Lysosomes:
●​ Formed by Golgi body
●​ Found only in animal cells
●​ Bags of enzymes used to digest particles and bacteria
●​ Known as the “garbage men” of a cell
●​ Also called “suicide sacs” because cells use them to destroy themselves when
they are old - called apoptosis
Animal & Plant Cells - Labelling

Animal Cell

Microscope Calculations

The Importance of Cell Division

Why is it important for cells to divide?
●​ Reproduction
●​ Growth
●​ Repair

1.​ Reproduction
●​ Each time a cell divides it creates 2 daughter cells
●​ Each new cell has a complete copy of genetic info
●​ Asexual reproduction / Sexual reproduction

2.​ Growth
●​ As we grow the number of cells increase
Why does the number of cells increase instead of simply increasing the size of cells?
●​ Has to do with the chemicals used by cells
●​ Chemicals travel across the cell membrane
 ●​ Occurs by diffusion - substances travel from high concentration to low
concentration
●​ Water enters and leave the cell by osmosis - water moves to where there is more
solute
●​ Therefore, when a cell becomes to large chemicals and water cannot move
through the cell fast enough

3.​ Repair
●​ Everyday millions of skin cells dow
●​ These need to be replaced
●​ Red blood cells need to be replaced every 120 days
●​ Broken bones, cuts and blisters
●​ We need to repair ourselves to stay alive

What is Mitosis? - Cells Dividing

Cells
●​ Each cell in your body has 23 chromosomes
●​ The body has 2 types of cells:
○​ Body cells (hair, nail)
○​ Sex cells (sperm, egg)
●​ Chromosomes determine the characteristics of a living thing (eye colour, height,
weight)
●​ Each time a cell divides, each new cell receives a set of both chromosomes

The Nucleus
●​ Cell division is controlled by the cells nucleus
●​ Before cell division, each chromosome makes an exact copy
●​ Once this is done the nucleus divides
●​ This division of the nucleus is called mitosis
Mitosis (Cell Division)
●​ After division occurs, two new cells are formed, known as daughter cells
●​ These two daughter cells are exactly alike (exact chromosomes, exact traits)
●​ Mitosis is a form of asexual reproduction
●​ This is when one parent cell divides to form two new cells

The Cell Cycle

●​ During its lifetime, a cell passes through two stages: interphase and mitosis

1.​ Interphase
●​ The phase of the cell cycle in which the cell performs its normal functions
and its genetic material is copied
●​ Growth and cellular respiration
●​ Longest cycle
○​ Cell grows
○​ DNA duplicates
○​ Cell prepares to divide
●​ Chromosomes are made up of DNA
●​ DNA duplication occurs so that the two new cells (daughter cells) each
have a complete set of chromosomes - the instructions for life

​ ​ Chromosome Terminology:
●​ Each strand on the same chromosome is called a sister chromatid
●​ Sister chromatids contain the exact same information and are held
together by a centromere

The 4 Stages of Mitosis

-​ Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase (PMAT)
1.​ Prophase
●​ The first stage
●​ The chromosomes become visible
●​ Chromosomes are DNA packed tightly together
●​ The nuclear membrane dissolves
●​ The centrioles move to opposite poles
●​ Spindle fibres begin to form and attach to the double stranded
chromosomes at the centromere
●​ The nuclear membrane and nucleolus dissolve
●​ Note: Plant cells do not have centrioles
 2.​ Metaphase
●​ Chromosomes have moved to the equatorial plate (in the centre)
●​ Starlike structures form from each centriole (double stranded
chromosomes)
●​ Spindle fibres branch out from the centrioles

3.​ Anaphase
●​ The centromere splits and the sister chromatids separate
●​ The 8 chromosomes are now separated into 2 groups
●​ The sister chromatids separate into daughter chromosomes. They are
single stranded
●​ The spindle fibres are pulling the chromosomes to each centriole at each
pole of the dividing cell

4.​ Telophase
●​ The two groups of chromosomes are completely separated
●​ The daughter chromosomes stretch out and become thinner and invisible
●​ A new nuclear membrane forms around each group of daughter
chromosomes

Cytokinesis - Part of Telophase

●​ Final stage of cell division
*Cytokinesis: the division of all the organelles and the cell membrane occurs
●​ Two new daughter cells created

●​ In animals the pinching in of the cell membrane is called a cleavage furrow

●​ In plants the development of a new cell wall is called the cell plate
●​ The chromatids inwind
●​ A nuclear membrane reforms around the chromosomes at each end of the cell

Mitosis - End Result

●​ At the end of mitosis, 2 identical daughter cells are formed
●​ These daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as the original cell
●​ The only difference is that the original cell had double stranded chromosomes and the
daughter cells have single stranded chromosomes
○​ Ex. in humans, the original cell has 46 double stranded chromosomes and the 2 new
daughter cells will have 46 single stranded chromosomes
Cell Division Gone Wrong & Cell Specialization
Cancer: a group of diseases in which cells grow and divide out of control. It results from a
change in the DNA that controls the cell cycle.
-​ This change prevents cells from staying in interphase for the normal amount of time
-​ 1 or more checkpoints fail, so the cell and its subsequent daughter cells continue to divide
uncontrollably
-​ Some types run in families, others are caused by environmental factors, or can be caused
by both hereditary and environmental factors
-​ It is not infectious ; you cannot catch it from someone else
-​ Other organisms such as cats, dogs, fish and even plants can develop cancer

Cell Growth Rates and Cancer

●​ Cancer cell continues to divide despite messages from the nucleus, the uncontrolled
growth and division may create a mass of cells that form a lump or tumor

1.​ Benign Tumors: cells stay together and have no serious effects on surrounding
tissue
○​ Non cancerous, however can grow large and crowd nearby cells and tissue
2.​ Malignant Tumors: mass of cells, interferes with the function of nearby cells and
tissues
○​ Are cancerous, can destroy surrounding tissue
3.​ Metastasis: when cancer cells break away from the original (primary) tumor and
move to a different part of the body and continue to grow, they can start other
(secondary) tumors

Causes of Cancer
Mutations: random changes in DNA, either result in the death of continued growing of a cell
●​ If DNA starts behaving abnormally, the cells may become cancerous
●​ Mutations are caused by carcinogens : environmental factors that cause cancer
○​ Include tobacco smoke, radiation, UV, HPV, hepatitis B, chemicals in plastic, etc
●​ Cancer can be genetic, passed down through generations, such as breast and colon cancer
●​ Lung cancer is the most common type caused by smoking
Cancer Screening
-​ Detects cancer early, even without symptoms
-​ Can be done at home, during check ups or by specialist referrals
-​ Who should screen : family history of cancer, those exposed to carcinogens
-​ Benefits: increases chances of early detection and treatment, reduces risk of cancer

■​ Methods
●​ Pap Test - checks cervical cells for cancer
●​ PSA Test - blood test for prostate cancer
●​ Skin Check - look for moles or skin changes using ABCD rules
○​ Asymmetry, Border, Colour, Diameter

■​ Lifestyle Choices
●​ Eat lots of fruits and vegetables and less fatty meat
●​ “Super foods” like tomatoes, avocados, carrots, garlic, nuts, etc help reduce the
risk of cancer
●​ Eat actual food, don’t rely on supplement
●​ Maintaining a healthy weight can lower risks of cancer
Diagnosing Cancer
●​ Tumours may cause swelling, pain or weight loss
●​ Early diagnosis = better chances of treatment success
●​ Doctors use blood test and medical scans to check

■​ Imaging Technologies
●​ Endoscope: a tube with a camera used to look inside the body
●​ X-ray: shows images of bones and organs
●​ CT, Ultrasound, MRI: scans to see the inside the body
●​ Mammogram: special x-ray to check breast tissue

■​ Examining Cells (Microscope Check)

●​ If a scan looks abnormal, doctors look at cell samples using a microscope
●​ Blood cancers like leukemia can be found this way
●​ A biopsy is when doctors remove a small piece of tissue to check for cancer
●​ Cancer cells usually look and grow differently from normal ones
Treatment for Cancer
-​ 3 main types
1.​ Surgery
○​ remove the tumour is it’s easy to reach

2.​ Chemotherapy
○​ Uses drugs to kill or stop cancer cells from growing
○​ Drugs can be injections or pills
○​ Good at reaching tiny cancer cells throughout the body
○​ Side effects: nausea, hair loss, tiredness

3.​ Radiation
○​ Uses high energy rays to destroy cancer cells
○​ Aimed directly at the tumour to reduce harm to healthy cells

Biophotonics
●​ Uses beams of light to detect and treat cancer
●​ Allows for early detection, fewer side effects

Specialized Cells
●​ Every cell comes from another cell
●​ Cells in complex organisms are not identical
●​ Every cell cannot do everything (digest food, fight diseases, carry nutrients)

*Specialized Cells : have physical and chemical differences that allow them to perform one job
very well

-​ Animals have a wide variety of specialized cells, they differ internally and externally
-​ Plants also have specialized cells
-​ The structure and function of cells in a leaf vs. a trunk of a tree is different
Chapter 3:

The Digestive System

Function
●​ Organ system that takes in food, digests it (breaks it down & absorbs nutrients), and
excretes the remaining waste
●​ Made up of the digestive tract and the accessory organs
●​ It takes about 24-33 hours to fully digest a large meal

The Digestive Tract

●​ Long tube with two openings. One on each end
●​ In humans, includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and
anus
●​ Accessory organs include the liver, gallbladder and pancreas

Lining of Digestive Tract

●​ The lining of the digestive tract is composed of many parts:
1.​ Epithelial tissue
○​ Contain goblet cells that secrete mucous
-​ Mucous protects the digestive tract from digestive enzymes and
allows materials to pass smoothly along
2.​ Layers of muscle tissue
○​ Squeeze to push material along the tract
3.​ Nerves

Parts of the Human Digestive Tract

1.​ Mouth
●​ Mechanical breakdown begins when teeth and tongue chew the food to break it up
into smaller pieces
●​ Chemical breakdown begins when saliva (a mixture of digestive enzymes and
mucous) mixes with the food
 ●​ Enzymes are proteins that help speed up biochemical reactions (a subset of
catalyst)
●​ One important enzyme in saliva is amylase. It helps to break down carbohydrates
into more simple sugars
●​ When food is broken up and softened, it is swallowed and passes into the
esophagus
●​ During swallowing, the epiglottis moves to block the trachea

2.​ Esophagus
●​ Muscular tube connecting mouth to stomach
●​ Smooth muscle tissue contracts and relaxes (without conscious thought) to slowly
move food along
●​ Peristalsis

3.​ Stomach
●​ A muscular organ that contracts to break up food and mix it with gastric juices
○​ Gastric juice - a mixture of mucous, acid and enzymes, is secreted by
epithelial cells
●​ The low pH (between 2.0 & 3.0) helps to kill harmful microorganisms that are
ingested and activate digestive enzymes like pepsin
○​ Pepsin helps to break proteins down by breaking peptide bonds
●​ The churning action results in a thick, milkshake-like called chyme
●​ Plenty of nerves enervate the stomach, signalling among other things when we
have eaten enough

4.​ Small Intestine

●​ Narrow but long
○​ About 6m long in adults
●​ Most digestion occurs here (mainly chemical)
●​ Composed of three parts: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
●​ The majority of digestive enzymes are added in the duodenum
○​ Most of these enzymes are produced and secreted by the accessory organs
●​ In the jejunum, chemical digestion continues, and nutrient absorption begins
●​ The majority of nutrients are absorbed in the ileum
●​ Nutrients are transported through the wall of the intestine into the bloodstream
and reach our cells
●​ This may be by diffusion, facilitated diffusion or active transport
●​ The larger the surface area, the more likely nutrients will interact with the
intestine lining by simple diffusion thereby maximizing absorption
 5.​ Large Intestine
●​ Large in diameter, however, shorter that the small intestine (about 1.5m)
●​ Absorbs water from indigestible food via osmosis
●​ Mutualistic relationship with bacteria (e.g. E. Coli)
○​ We provide food and suitable environment; they produce essential
substances such as Vitamin B and K

Accessory Organs
●​ Help with digestion by supplying enzymes

Liver:
●​ Produces a fluid called bile that helps emulsify fats into small droplets
●​ Also begins the removal of toxins (e.g alcohol) as blood from capillary bed around
intestines goes to the liver before returning to the heart

Gallbladder:
●​ Stores bile produced in the liver and release it into the small intestine when needed

Pancreas:
●​ Produces many enzymes
●​ Amylase is secreted again since the low pH in the stomach in activated it
○​ The pH is raised to around 9.0 in the duodenum meaning amylase will work once
again
●​ Trypsin is secreted to replace pepsin since pepsin won’t work in this high pH
environment
●​ Lipases are secreted to break down fats into individual fatty acid molecules
●​ Also produces two enzymes to regulate blood glucose levels: glucagon & insulin
○​ Insulin promotes cells to absorb glucose from the blood
○​ Glucagon stimulates release of glucose by liver, muscle and fat cells
●​ Diabetics produce too much or too little insulin, causing dizziness & weakness due to low
or high blood sugar levels

Toxins
●​ If you eat spoiled food, your body recognizes the toxins from the bacteria
●​ Digestive tract tries to remove them quickly, resulting in vomiting or diarrhea
The Circulatory System
Function:
1.​ Moves oxygen from the lungs to all the body cells
2.​ Moves carbon dioxide from the body cells to the lungs
3.​ Moves nutrients from the small intestine to the body cells
4.​ Moves waste materials from body cells to the kidneys and skin
5.​ Regulates body temperature and transports disease-fighting white blood cells to sites of
viruses or bacteria
6.​ Deliver substances from cell to cell (e.g. Hormones)

Parts of the Circulatory System

●​ Heart - the pump
●​ Blood Vessels - the tubes to carry the blood (arteries, veins, capillaries)
●​ Blood - the fluid in which materials are transported
○​ Blood
-​ Connective tissue that circulates throughout the body
-​ Consists of 4 components, each have a specialized function

Components of Blood
●​ Red blood cells - contains a protein called hemoglobin that transports oxygen
throughout the body and makes the cells appear red. They make up 45% of the blood
volume
●​ White blood cells - infection fighting cells that recognize and destroy pathogens
(viruses/bacteria). They make up less than 1% of blood. Only blood cells that have a
nucleus
●​ Platelets - cells that help in blood clotting. Make up less than 1% of blood
●​ Plasma - a liquid that carries blood cells along. Make up 55% of blood volume

Oxygenated blood is bright red - due to iron. As O2 is released, the colour becomes a darker
brownish-red

The Heart
Made up of:
-​ Cardiac muscle tissue (only found in the heart)
-​ Nerve tissue
-​ Connective tissue
The average heart rate : 70 - 80 beats per minute
-​ Heart rate changes due to physical activity, stress, temperature, time of day, blood
volume, whether you have recently eaten and general health.

●​ Parts of the Heart

○​ The atria - receiving chambers
○​ The ventricles - pumping chambers
○​ The valves - prevents backflow
○​ The septum - divides the heart

Blood Vessels
-​ Three types of blood vessels:
1.​ Arteries: carry oxygenated blood away from the heart
-​ Pulmonary artery is only exception
-​ Arteries have a high pressure
-​ Thick walls to withstand the pressure
2.​ Veins: carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart
-​ Pulmonary veins is only exception
-​ Walls of veins are thinner than walls of arteries
-​ Veins have a low pressure
3.​ Capillaries: connect arteries and veins
-​ Tiny blood vessels with thin walls
-​ Site of gas exchange between blood and cells

Path of Blood Through the Heart

1.​ Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium from the superior and inferior vena cava
2.​ Blood from the right atrium is pumped through the AV valve to the right ventricle
3.​ The right ventricle pumps blood through the SV valve to the lungs through the pulmonary
artery
4.​ Oxygenated blood returns to the heart from the pulmonary vein and enters the left
ventricle
5.​ Blood from the left atrium is pumped through the AV valve to the left ventricle
6.​ The left ventricle pumps blood through the SV valve to the aorta from where it travels to
the rest of the body
Diseases and Disorders of the Circulatory System
Coronary Artery Disease
-​ Coronary arteries: blood vessels that provide blood to the heart muscle
-​ These arteries can become partially blocked with plaque
●​ Plaque: a deposit, made of fat, cholesterol, calcium and other substances that normally
circulate the blood

-​ Plaque buildup may be caused by poor lifestyle choices such as a high fat diet, lack of
exercise and smoking
●​ Symptoms of coronary disease:
-​ Tiredness
-​ Dizziness
-​ Pain or burning in the chest or arms
-​ This can be detected using a special x ray called an angiogram

Angiogram
●​ A fluorescent dye is injected into the artery and x rays are taken

Heart Attack
●​ Coronary arteries may become completely blocked with plaque or a blood clot
●​ When this happens and the heart muscle cells stop receiving oxygen and nutrients, the
heart stops pumping and the heart tissue starts to dow
●​ symptom s of a heart attack vary from person to person and between males and females
General symptoms include:
-​ Chest pain or pressure
-​ Shortness of breath
-​ Nausea
-​ Anxiety
-​ Upper body pain
-​ Abdominal or stomach pain
-​ Sweating
-​ Dizziness
-​ Abnormal fatigue

Heart Attack Diagnosis

●​ Blood test - identifies proteins that are present only when heart muscle dies
●​ Electrocardiogram - measures electrical signals created by the heart as it beats
●​ The electrical signals from a damaged heart are not the same as those from a healthy
heart
The Respiratory System
Parts of the System
●​ 5 parts of organ system
-​ Nose & Mouth
-​ Trachea
-​ Bronchi
-​ Alveoli
-​ Lungs
●​ Responsible for removing CO2 and providing the body with oxygen
●​ Works with the circulatory system, which moves substances to all parts of the body

Main Parts of the Respiratory System

1.​ Trachea
-​ Tube that takes air from the back of the throat down to the lungs
2.​ Bronchi (sing. bronchus)
-​ As the trachea approaches the lungs it splits into two bronchi, one bronchus leads
to each lung
3.​ Alveoli (sing. alveolus)
-​ Tiny air sac surrounded by blood vessels
-​ Lungs contain millions of these
-​ Where gas exchange occurs

Structure Features
●​ Epithelial cells in the trachea and bronchi produce mucus. The epithelial cells
have cilia that move the mucus and filter out any foreign materials

Gas Exchange
●​ O2 and CO2 have only to diffuse through 2 thin walls: capillaries &
alveoli
●​ Happens by diffusion
-​ Substance moves from an area of high concentration to an area of
low concentration

●​ The bronchi branch many times

●​ Each end has tiny air sacs called