Module Two

Cellular Basis of Heredity

Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of this module, you are expected to be able to:

1. identify and give the functions of the different parts of the cell.
2. illustrate the different types of chromosomes according to the location of the
centromere.
3. discuss the major events in each stage of mitosis and meiosis.
4. explain the behavior of the chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis.
5. compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.
6. explain the importance of mitosis and meiosis in heredity and variation

All organisms are made up of one or more cells. The cell can be categorized into two
types namely: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. The prokaryotic cell can be found in bacteria and
cyanobacteria while the eukaryotic type can be observed in plants, animals, fungi and protists.
In prokaryotic cell, the chromosomes are not contained within a membrane bound nucleus. The
chromosomes are located in a region of the cytoplasm known as the nucleoid. On the other
hand, the nucleus in eukaryotic cell is surrounded by a nuclear membrane so that the nucleus
can be seen distinctly. The nuclear membrane separates the nuclear material from cytoplasmic
material. Membrane bound organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum; mitochondria, Golgi
apparatus, chloroplast, lysosomes etc. are present. All cells are composed of four key
components: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, DNA and ribosomes.

Parts of Eukaryotic Cell

1. Plasma membrane is semi permeable membrane consisting of phospholipid bilayer

which regulates the passage of molecules in the cell.

2. Nucleus is the largest and most conspicuous organelle present in eukaryotic cell
surrounded by a double membrane. It contains most of the genetic materials. The nucleus
controls the different activities of the cell.

2.1 Nuclear membrane is a double membrane enclosing the nucleus. This membrane
separates the cytoplasm from the nucleoplasm.

2.2 Nuclear pores are many tiny openings in the nuclear membrane that serve as an avenue for
the exchange of materials between the nucleus and cytoplasm.

2.3 Nucleolus is spherical bodies that makes ribosomes.

2.4 Chromatin is a complex of DNA and histone proteins that makes up the chromosomes.
Chromosome is a threadlike structure that contains the genetic information of the organism.

3. Cytoplasm is part of the cell surrounding the nucleus where several organelles are
present. Organelles are concern with active function and their presence or size may vary between
different organisms and different tissues.

3.1 Mitochondrion is a sausage or rod-shaped organelle enclosed by a double membrane, the

inner and outer membrane. The inner membrane forms an internal folding known as cristae.
This organelle provides energy through oxidative metabolism or aerobic respiration. Hence, it
is often referred to as the powerhouse of the cell.

3.2 Golgi apparatus consists of stack of flat membranous sacs which is involved in packaging,
modification and transport of molecules.

3.3 Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules and flattened sacs. The endoplasmic
reticulum can be classified into smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) and rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER). The SER is free of ribosomes while in RER the ribosomes
are attached to the membrane. The SER is involved in lipid metabolism, carbohydrate
metabolism and detoxification while RER is involved in protein synthesis.

3.4 Lysosome is a membraned bound organelle that contains digestive enzymes which can digest
different macromolecules.

3.5 Ribosomes are small particles which are the main site of protein synthesis. They may be
floating or attached to the ER. The ribosomes consist of two subunits which differs in
sedimentation coefficient. In bacteria, the smaller sub unit is characterized by 30S and the
large sub unit is 50S. In eukaryotic cells like plant and animal cells, the large and small sub
units have sedimentation coefficient of 60S and 40S, respectively.

3.6 Centriole is a cytoplasmic organelle involved in the formation of spindle fibers during cell
division.

3.7 Chloroplast is enclosed by a two layered membrane that contains chlorophyll. This is the site
of photosynthesis.

3.8 Cytoskeleton is a network of tubules and filament s that gives shape, provides strength and
anchors the organelles and provides mechanical support that allows the cell to move and
divides. It consists of microtubules, intermediate filament and microfilament.
 Figure 2.1. Prokaryotic Cell ( Photo Credit: Khan Academy. Org)

Figure 2.2. Animal and Plant Cell (Photo Credit: Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., 2012)

Chromosome Structure
The chromosome contains the genetic material of the organisms. The number of chromosomes
present in the cell vary from species to species. Table 2 shows the number of chromosomes
present in selected organisms.

Table 2. Chromosome number of selected organisms

Organism Scientific Name Chromosome number (2n)
Man Homo sapiens 46
Dog Canis familiaris 48
Housefly Musca domestica 12
 Mouse Mus musculus 40
fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster 8
Rice Oryza sativa 24
Corn Zea mays 20
Cat Felis catus 38

Parts of Chromosome

Mitotic chromosomes can be observed with the following structures:

1. Centromere or primary constriction is a permanent well-defined region the chromosome.

2. Kinetochore is a protein associated with centromere which serves as the attachment of the
spindle fiber during cell division.

3. Secondary constriction is the constricted or narrow region found at any point of the
chromosomes other than the centromere.

4. Satellite is a bulge on the telomeric end with repetitive, heterochromatic DNA sequences.

5. Telomere is a region of repetitive nucleotide sequences at each end of a chromatid. It protects

the end of the chromosome from deterioration or from fusion with neighboring chromosomes.

Figure 2.3. Structure of the chromosome

Classification of Chromosomes

Chromosomes can be classified based on the size (small, medium and large) and location of the
centromere. The centromere (Figure 2.4) can be located at the terminal end (telocentric); near
the terminal end (acrocentric); near the center (submetacentric) and at the center
(metacentric). Moreover, the chromosomes can also be classified into somatic chromosomes
(autosomes) and sex chromosomes. The autosomes control somatic character of the body while
the sex chromosomes determine the sexuality of the individuals. In human, there are 22 pairs of
autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes. Individuals with XX chromosome are females while those
with XY chromosomes are males.

Figure 2.4 Types of chromosomes based on the location of the centromere

Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is a series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows and divides. It is an
ordered sequence of events from the time a cell is first formed from a dividing parent cell until its
own division. It consists of two major phases: interphase (G1, S and G2 phases) and M phase
(Figure 2.5). The interphase is the stage between cell divisions. During this period the cell grows,
develops and functions. The M phase is divided into karyokinesis (nuclear division or mitosis)
and cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm). The cell cycle is very important because all the
genetic materials are passed from parent to daughter cell.
 Figure 2.5. The Cell Cycle (Photo Credit: Khan Academy. Org)

A. Mitosis

Mitosis is a process of cell reproduction in which a cell produces two genetically identical
cells. Mitosis can be divided into interphase and M phase.

1. Interphase. The cell is metabolically active and preparing for the next division. Chromosomes
are not clearly seen in the nucleus.

a. G1 phase (first gap period). The nucleus and cytoplasm are enlarging toward mature size
due to imbibition of water and nutrients. Cytoplasmic organelles such as ER, Golgi
apparatus, mitochondrion, etc. are formed.

b. S phase (synthesis). Synthesis of DNA and histone and duplication of each chromosomes.
By the end of this phase the amount of DNA doubles.

c. G2 phase (second gap). Additional biochemical events necessary for cell division occurs.
Synthesis of RNA and protein also occurs.

2. M- phase is the period of active cell division which includes mitosis (nuclear division) and
cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division).

a. Prophase. The chromosomes condense and become visible, centrosomes move apart and
microtubule form fibers from the centrosome. The nucleoli disappear and nuclear envelope starts
to disintegrate allowing for the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm to join.

b. Metaphase. The chromosomes align themselves at the equatorial plane (middle part of the
cell) and the centrioles can be seen at the opposite sides of the cell.

c. Anaphase. After breakdown of cohesin protein in the centromere, the centromere divides
and the sister chromatids separate and move towards the opposite side of the cell.

d. Telophase. The chromosomes are located on the opposite sides of the cell. The nuclear
envelope is formed around each set of chromosomes. Nucleoli reappear and spindle microtubules
disintegrate. Cytokinesis immediately follows.
 Prophase Metaphase

Anaphase Telophase

Figure 2.5. Stages of Mitosis (Photo Credit: Lewis. 2009. Human Genetics)

B. Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis is the division or partitioning of the cytoplasm. In animal cell, cleavage

furrow forms and partitioning of the cytoplasm starts from the side going to the center. On the
other hand, in plant, cell plate is formed and division of the cytoplasm starts from the center
going to the sides or periphery of the cell.
 Figure 2.6 Cytokinesis in Animal and Plant Cells
Photo Credit: Microbe Notes: Online Microbiology and Biology Notes
https://microbenotes.com/cytokinesis/

Genetic Consequences
Mitosis and cytokinesis produced two daughter cells with the same number of
chromosomes with that of the parental cells. Each cell produced has a full complement of the
chromosomes. Barring mutation, the two cells are genetically identical.

2. Meiosis

At maturity, organisms that reproduce sexually, formed gametes in the gonads (testes in male
and ovaries in female) of animals and stamens and pistils of plants. Chromosome transmission
from parents to offspring is accomplished by fertilization of haploid (n) gametes to form a
diploid (2n) zygote. The chromosome number remains constant from generation to generation
due to a process known as meiosis that reduces the chromosome number prior to fertilization.
Meiosis occurs during gametogenesis in animals (spermatogenesis in male and oogenesis in
female) and sporogenesis in higher plants. Microsporogenesis is the formation of male
gametophyte while megasporogenesis is the formation of female gametophyte.
Similar to mitosis, meiosis is also preceded by G1, S, and G2 phases of the cell cycle. It
consists of two successive nuclear division cycles. The first involves the separation of
homologous chromosomes resulting in two haploid nuclei. On the other hand, the second
division results in the formation of four haploid nuclei.

A. Meiosis I is the first part of meiotic division in which the chromosome number is reduced
from diploid (2n) to haploid (n). It consists of Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I and
Telophase I.

1. Prophase I. The cells gradually increase in size. Each chromosome contains two
duplicates coiled to each other. It is the longest and most complex phase.
1.1. Leptotene. The chromosomes begin to condense and appear as long and thin threads.
Beadlike granules called chromomeres can be observed along the length of the chromosomes.
1.2. Zygotene. Homologous chromosomes pair with each other. This process is called
synapsis. The synapsed chromosomes form a bivalent consisting of four chromatids.
Synaptonemal complex is formed in this stage.
1.3. Pachytene. Crossing over or exchange of chromosome segment occurs between non
sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes. The point of contact between two chromatids is
called chiasma (plural = chiasmata). Crossing over is an important source of genetic variation in
the populations.
1.4. Diplotene. The chromatids continue to shorten and thicken and the synaptonemal complex
starts to disintegrate. The homologous chromosomes separate starting from centromere and
proceed toward both ends except at the chiasma.
1.5. Diakinesis. The chromosomes become shorter and thicker due to condensation. Nuclear
membrane and nucleolus disappear at the end of diakinesis. The centrioles move toward the
opposite side of the cell and the spindle fibers are formed.

Figure 2.7. Different stages of Prophase I of Gesonula punctifrons. leptotene (A), zygotene
(B), pachytene (C), diplotene (D) and diakinesis (E) (Photo Credit: Devi and Chingangban,
2017)

2. Metaphase 1. The bivalents aligned themselves at the middle of the cell (equatorial plane).

3. Anaphase I. The univalent in each bivalent separates and moves toward the opposite side of
the cell.

4. Telophase I. Two haploid nuclei are formed. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane reappear.
Chromosomes uncoil and lengthen. Cytokinesis may follow.

B. Meiosis II is the second part of meiotic process which is similar to mitosis except that the
chromosome number is haploid.

1. Prophase II. Similar to mitotic prophase. Chromosomes contract; the nucleus and nuclear
membrane disappear.

2. Metaphase II. Similar to mitotic metaphase. Chromosomes are located at the middle of
the cell.

3. Anaphase II. Similar to mitotic anaphase. The sister chromatids move toward the
opposite side of the cell.

4. Telophase II. Similar to mitotic telophase. The chromosomes uncoil and lengthen;
reappearance of nucleolus and nuclear membrane. Four haploid nuclei are formed. Cytokinesis
follows.
Genetic Consequences
Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes from diploid (2n) to haploid (n) so that the
chromosome number of the species is maintained from generation to generation. Crossing over
or exchange of chromosome segment between non sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes and random separation of homologous generates genetic differences among the
cells produced.

Life Cycle of Flowering Plants

The life cycle of flowering plants consists of sporophyte and gametophyte stage. The
diploid sporophyte (2n) produces haploid spores by meiosis in sporangia. These grow into
haploid gametophyte. The haploid gametophyte (n) produces haploid (n) gametes (sperm and
egg) by mitosis. The gametes fuse to form a zygote which develops into a multicellular
sporophyte.

1. Microsporogenesis is the development of male gametophyte (pollen grain). The formation of

pollen grains occurs in microsporangia (pollen sacs) of anthers at the tips of the stamens. The
microsporangia contain diploid microsporocytes (microspore mother cells). Each microsporocyte
undergoes meiotic division producing four haploid microspores. The haploid microspores
divide by mitosis to form a generative cell and a tube cell. Tube cell will give rise to a pollen
tube that burrows through the style after pollination. On the other hand, the generative cell
divides mitotically to form two sperm nuclei as the pollen tube grows.

(a) Development of a male

gametophyte (in pollen grain)

Microsporangium
(pollen sac)

Microsporocyte (2n)
MEIOSIS

4 microspores(n)

Each of 4
microspores n
()
MITOSIS
Generative cell n)
( Male
gametophyte

Nucleus of
tube cell(n)
20 µm

Ragweed
pollen
75 µm grain

Figure 2.8. Development of Male Gametophyte (Photo Credit: Campbell and Reece,
2002)

2. Megasporogenesis is the formation of female gametophyte or embryo sac inside the ovule.
Megasporocytes (megaspore mother cell) are located inside the ovule. The megasporocyte
divides by meiosis and gives rise to four haploid megaspores, however, in most species only on
e survives while the three disintegrate. The nucleus of the surviving megaspore divides
mitotically three times forming one large cell with 8 haploid nuclei namely: 3 antipodal nuclei, 2
polar nuclei, 1 egg nucleus and 2 synergids.

(b) Development of a female

gametophyte (embryo sac)

Megasporangium (2n)

Ovule Megasporocyte (2n)

MEIOSIS Integuments (2n)

Micropyle

Surviving
megaspore (n)

(
Female gametophyte
MITOSIS
Ovule
3 antipodal cells (n)

embryo sac
2 polar nuclei (n)

)
1 egg (n)
Integuments (2n)
2 synergids (n)

Embryo
100 µm

sac

Figure 2.9. Development of Male Gametophyte (Photo Credit: Campbell and

Reece.,2002)
During pollination, the generative cells of the pollen grain divide mitotically to form two sperm
(male mature gametophyte).The pollen tube enters the embryo sac through the micropyle and
discharges its two sperm nuclei. One sperm nucleus unites with the egg nucleus to form the
zygote (3n) which will become the embryo. The second sperm nucleus fuses with the polar
nuclei to form the endosperm (3n)

Animal Life Cycle

Gametogenesis is the process involved in the formation of matured reproductive cells
called gametes. Spermatogenesis is the formation of male gametes (spermatozoa) while
oogenesis is the production of female gametes (ova). Spermatogenesis (Figure 2.9) occurs in the
seminiferous tubules of the testis. The primordial germ cells differentiate into spermatogonia.
The diploid (2n) spermatogonium grows and develops to primary spermatocytes. This primary
spermatocyte undergoes the first meiotic division to produce two haploid (n) secondary
spermatocytes. Each secondary spermatocyte undergoes the second meiotic division to form two
haploid (n) spermatids. Each spermatid differentiates into functional spermatozoon (n).
Oogenesis takes place in the ovary. Similar to spermatogonia, the oogonia are derived from
the primordial germ cell. The diploid (2n) oogonia develop into primary oocytes (2n). These
primary oocytes enter the first meiotic division. Unlike spermatogenesis, each primary oocytes
divide unequally and give rise to a larger secondary oocyte (n) and smaller first polar body (n)
which later disintegrate. The secondary oocyte completes the second meiotic division producing
an ootid and secondary polar body. The secondary polar body also disintegrate. Finally, the
ootid differentiate into an ovum. Only one functional ovum is formed in this process (Figure 12).
During fertilization the ovum can be fertilized by either spermatozoon carrying X chromosome
to produce a female individual or Y chromosome to produce a male individual.

Figure 2.9 Gametogenesis (Photo Credit: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/104/104F024.html)

References

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2. Gardner, EJ, MJ Simmons and DP Snustad. 1991. Principles of genetics. John Wiley and Sons
Inc. Canada. 119 pp.
3. Pierce, BA. 2012. Genetics – A Conceptual Approach. WH Freeman Co. NY. pp
2. Ramirez DR, MS Mendioro and RP Laude. 2019. Lectures in Genetics 11 th ed. 7 Lakes Printing
Press, San Pablo City. 293 pp
4. Umaly, RC and RR Roderos. 1986. Lecture Notes on Modern Genetics. Vibal Publishing
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