HEADWAY AND SPACING - MICROSCOPIC PARAMETERS
Headway is the distance measured between two successive vehicles from a common reference point
(e.g. front bumpers or front wheels)
Headway/Spacing
It is commonly measured and expressed in two forms;
Time Headway – h – Normally referred to as Headway (s)
Space Headway – s – Normally referred to as Spacing (m)
nth ith (i-1)th
hn or sn hi or si Hi-1 or si-1 Headway/Spacing
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FLOW, SPEED AND DENSITY
q = u x k Fundamental Relationship of Traffic Flow
n d n
= x Flow = Speed x Density
t t d
Example; Given,
Flow, q = 1 200 veh/h
Speed, u = 30 km/h
Then;
q 1 200 veh/h
Density, k = =
u 30 km/h
= 40 veh/km
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FLOW AND HEADWAY
TIME HEADWAY – h
The time (in sec) measured between successive vehicles as their reference points (e.g. front bumpers) pass
a given point along a lane
Time t
X
nth ith (i-1)th
hi Time Headway
n X
t = hi
i=1
n n 1 3600
q = = n = and h = sec/veh
t h q
hi
i=1
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DENSITY AND SPACING
SPACE HEADWAY – s
The distance (m) measured between successive vehicles as their reference points (like the front
bumpers) pass a given point along a lane
Distance d
nth ith (i-1)th
si Space Headway
n
d = si
i=1
n n 1 1000
k = = n = and s = m/veh
d s k
si
i=1
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
SUMMARY OF THE TRAFFIC PARAMETERS
PARAMETER RECIPROCAL
Volume (v) [veh/day]
Flow (q) [veh/h] Headway (h) [s]
Flow Rate (q) [veh/h] Time gap
Speed (u) [km/h] Rate of Travel [h/km]
TMS (ut) Arithmetic Mean Speed
Averages
SMS (us) Harmonic Mean Speed
(v) Individual Vehicle Speed
Density (k) [veh/km] Spacing (s) [m]
Occupancy Automatic Data Collection Distance gap
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
FUNDAMENTAL DIAGRAM OF TRAFFIC FLOW
When the traffic density is zero, the flow also gets to zero
(i.e. there is no flow of vehicles when there is no density)
When the density increases, the flow also increases
At a maximum possible density (jam density), vehicles do not move and the flow therefore becomes equal to
zero (cars line up end to end)
As density increases from zero, flow increases, but does that only up to a certain maximum value
After this maximum (flow) value, the flow will start to decrease as the density increase (vehicles get congested)
If we consider the graph drawn for the Space Mean Speed u against the flow q
When the flow is low, the speed is high
The speed known as Free Flow Speed (uf) occurs when the flow is zero
As the flow increases to its maximum value, the speed decreases
After this maximum value, both, flow and speed decrease (as density increase)
This gives a picture of how flow, density and speed of traffic relate over time and space (Macroscopic
Modelling of traffic flow)
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
THE FUNDAMENTAL DIAGRAM – THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SPEED, FLOW AND DENSITY
Flow (q)
Flow (q)
qmax qmax
q2 u1 2
k2 2
u
1 q = Q(k) q uf k q = Q(u) q k u
q1 k j uf
j
Critical Density
Free Flow Congested Flow
Density (k) Speed(u)
k1 km k2 K1* kj u1* u1
Speed (u)
Speed (u)
uf Free Flow Speed
u1 Free Flow
Critical Speed Regime
um k qmax
u = U(k) u u 1 u = U(q)
u2 f k j Congested Flow
Regime
Density (k)
Density(k) Flow (q)
TFE611S k1 km k2 kj = Jam Density TRAFFIC ENGINEERING q1 qs qmax TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
GREENSHIELDS MODEL (1934)
k
u u 1
f k
j
k k 2 u
q uk u f 1 k u k q f
k2 u f k
k f k kj
j j
dq 2k dq 2k
u 1 At max flow qmax 0 u 1 m
dk f k dk f k
j j
k
j
k i.e. traffic density at max flow qmax is half the jam density
m 2
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
k u
u u 1 Re-arrange equation
k k j 1
f k uf
j
u u2 k
k u u2 k j u
j
q uk u k j 1 q
uf j uf u
f
dq 2u dq 2u
k 1 At max flow qm 0 k 1 m
du j u du j u
f f
u
u f Traffic speed at max flow qm is half the free flow speed
m 2
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
For the Greenshields model
At the maximum traffic flow qm
k u
k
j And u f
m m 2
2
Therefore
u kj u k u k
f j f j
q u k f
That is to say q
m m m 2 2 4 max 4
NOTE:
1. This is only the case when the speed – density relationship follows the Greenshields assumption
2. All boundary conditions are satisfied by this model, and hence it can be used for both, light traffic as well
as heavy traffic conditions
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
GREENBERG MODEL (1959)
kj
u c ln C being a constant
k
kj
q uk ck ln ck ln k ln k
k j
dq kj dq kj
c ln c At max flow qmax 0 c ln c
dk k dk k
m
kj kj
u c ln Hence cu And therefore u u ln
m k m m
k
m
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
SPEED – DENSITY MODELS/RELATIONSHIP
Speed (u)
kj kj
GREENBERG MODEL u = c x ln = um x ln
k k
ZONE OF NON-LINEAR RELATIONSHIP
uf FREE FLOW SPEED
ZONE OF LINEAR RELATIONSHIP
GREENSHIELDS MODEL u = uf 1 - k
kj
ZONE OF NON-LINEAR RELATIONSHIP
JAM DENSITY
Density (k)
kj
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
For the Greenberg model
The constant c is the speed at the maximum flow qm
kj kj
u c ln u ln
k m k
NOTE:
1. This model does not satisfy the limiting conditions when the density k approaches zero (i.e. low density)
2. Therefore, it is only useful for the dense traffic conditions
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
APPLICATIONS OF FLOW – SPEED – DENSITY RELATIONSHIPS/DIAGRAMS
USED IN HIGHWAY TRAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEMS USED IN IN HIGHWAY CAPACITY ANALYSIS
Flow (q)
Flow (q)
qmax
Density (k) Speed (u)
USED IN RESEARCH – THEORETICAL WORK
Speed (u)
Speed (u)
Free Flow Regime
Maximum Flow
Congested Flow Regime
Density (k) Flow (q)
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
TUTORIAL EXAMPLE 01: TRAFFIC FLOW MODELS/THEORY
In a study of a highway, two platoons of vehicles were timed over a distance of 0.75 km. The first platoon had a
flow of 2520 veh/h and took 60 seconds while the second platoon with a flow of 3600 veh/h took 72 seconds.
Using the Greenshields model and these observations calculate;
a. The free-flow speed
b. The jam density for the section of the highway
c. The maximum flow of traffic
EXAMPLE 02:
The study data shows that the flow - density relationship of a highway is given by;
q = 294.735u – 64u(lnu)
Estimate the following values;
a. The free-flow speed
b. The speed at the maximum flow
c. The maximum flow of traffic
d. The density at the maximum flow
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
TUTORIAL PROBLEM 01: TRAFFIC FLOW MODELS/THEORY
u
Given:
Distance d = 0.75 km
Flow for Platoon 1 q1 = 2 520 veh/h (k2,u2)
Time for Platoon 1 t1 = 60 sec
Flow for Platoon 2 q2 = 3 600 veh/h
Time for Platoon 2 t2 = 72 sec (k1,u1)
Parameters to find using the Greenshields model;
a. The free-flow speed uf
b. The jam density kj k
c. The maximum flow qm
The two platoons will form two points along a straight-line graph showing the speed – density relationship
u
i. Average speeds:
0.75 km 3600 s
0.75 km 3600 s
u1 h
45 km/h u2 h
37.5 km/h (56, 45)
60 s 72 s
ii. Traffic Densities:
q1 2520 veh q2 3600 veh (96, 37.5)
k1 km
h
56 veh/km k2 h
km
96 veh/km
u1 45 h u2 37.5 h
k
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
iii. Equation of the straight line graph:
u
45 37.5 3
u u1 m k k1 m 0.1875 km2 / veh/h
56 96 16
(0, uf)
3 3
u 45
16
k 56 u
16
k 55.5 (56, 45)
iv. From this equation, we can answer the three questions as follows: (96, 37.5)
a. Free flow speed – It is the u-intercept in the equation (k = 0)
k
uf = 55.5 km/h
b. Jam density kj – It is when speed u is zero
55.55 16
k 296 veh/h
3
c. Maximum flow qmax
uf k j 55.5 296
qmax 4107 veh/h
4 4
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
TUTORIAL EXAMPLE 02:
The study data shows that the flow - density relationship of a highway is given by;
q = 294.735u – 64u(lnu)
Estimate the following values;
a. The free-flow speed
b. The speed at the maximum flow
c. The maximum flow of traffic
d. The density at the maximum flow
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
EXAMPLE 02:
Given:
Flow - density relation q = 294.735 u – 64 u (lnu)
To find;
a. The free-flow speed uf
b. The speed at maximum flow um
c. The maximum flow of traffic qm
d. The density at the maximum flow km
i. Free flow speed: This occurs when the flow is zero
294.735
0 294.735u 64uln(u) ln(u) 4.605234 uf e4.605234 100 km/h
64
ii. Speed at the maximum flow:
dq u 294.735 64 230.735
294.735 64 ln(u) 0 ln(um ) 3.605234
du u 64 64
um e3.605234 36.79031 km/h
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
iii. Maximum flow: This occurs at speed um
qm 294.735um 64um ln(um )
294.735 36.79031 64 36.79031ln(36.79031)
2355 veh/h
iv. Density at the maximum flow:
q qm 2355
k km km 64 veh/km
u um 36.79031
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
TUTORIAL EXERCISE 01
A highway has 4 lanes in each direction. The capacity of the northbound direction is 8200 veh/h having a free
flow speed of 110 km/h. Calculate;
a. The speed at maximum flow rate,
b. The density maximum flow rate, and
c. The jam density.
If a one-hour vehicle count in the northbound direction gives 7034 vehicles in a non-congested condition,
calculate the space mean speed of these 7034 vehicles.
TUTORIAL EXERCISE 02
A section of a highway is known to have a free flow speed of 120 km/h and capacity of 3600 veh/h. A 1 hour
traffic count that was made observed 2000 vehicles that passed the observation point, which was located
within the section.
By assuming the Greenshields model, find the estimates of;
a. The space mean speed of the traffic.
b. The density of the traffic.
TFE611S TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TOMEKA C. L. T. G.
