CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ AND O LEVEL ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT: WORKBOOK

Please note that workbook questions and answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are
awarded may be different.

Workbook answers
Chapter 1
Exercise 1.1 Exercise 1.2
1 A = 30 cm ruler; B = hand lens; C = quadrat; 1 Quantitative
D = sweep net; E = compass; F = light meter
2 a ‘Accuracy’ means the degree to which a
2 a Example hypothesis: ‘Soil pH will not measurement or calculation is close to the
affect the growth of plants.’ true value or a standard.
b The height of the plant b 
The balance should be calibrated.
c 
A transect is a measured straight line, 3 a 
Suggested hypothesis: ‘As the presence of
using string or a tape measure. cadmium in irrigation water increases, rice
yields will decrease.’
d 
A pH meter
b 
Independent variable: concentration of
e 
Systematic cadmium in irrigation water.
f 
Measure out the transect. At every Dependent variable: mass of rice harvested.
10 metres put down a quadrat next to the
transect. In four corners measure plant c 
Two from:
height and soil pH. • the density of rice plants in each of
3 a A sweep net the four plots (that is, the number of
plants being grown assuming the four
b 
Random: using a grid and random plots are the same area)
number generator
• the age of the rice plants planted in all
Systematic: using a grid or transect and the plots, which should be the same
choosing every nth square or transect • the variety of rice.
c 
Slowly sweep net back and forth while d 
Two from:
walking through the field; sweep through
the upper parts of plants, avoiding sharp • the nutrient status of the soil
bushes; count the number of insects. • the drainage of the soil
d 
Some insects may be missed, especially if • the structure and texture of the soil.
they are close to the ground; it is difficult e 
The rice is grown in the same field which is
to use in waterlogged conditions; a sweep divided into four plots. This should ensure
net is easily damaged; it does not work that the soil is the same in all four plots in
well in short vegetation; it can be a respect of its nutrient status and drainage.
time-consuming method.
4 Learners may suggest some or all of
the following:
• risk of exposure to the cadmium in the
water (wear gloves and goggles)
• exposure to waterborne diseases
(wear gloves and wash hands well)

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• environmental hazards such as slippery rocks (wear appropriate footwear)

• wildlife (be aware of livestock and other animals in the area in which you are working)
• getting lost (carry a phone and work in groups)
• weather conditions (make sure you are prepared for hot sunshine or cold conditions).
5 a Open questions: B and D
Closed questions: A and C
b 
C, A, B, D would be a better order. It is important to have closed questions at the beginning of
a questionnaire because these are easier for the respondent to answer, which makes them more
comfortable. Question B asks respondents to recount personal incidents, which is then logically
followed by D, where they asked to suggest where they put the blame for these incidents.
c 
Example additional questions:
Closed question: Have you had to go to the doctor with an ailment which they suggested may be
due to heavy-metal pollution of the water? Yes / No
Open question: Please describe to me the symptoms with which you went to see the doctor.
d 
A pilot survey should be used to ensure that the people interviewed understand the questions and
the answers provide the information that needs to be analysed.
6 a

b 
Cadmium concentration ppm Number of eggs laid by female fish at this concentration
1 2 3 4 5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6

Exercise 1.3
1 a
Mass of fish caught / tonnes

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
Years
b 
The trend is decreasing. The highest mass is 65 tonnes in 2014 and the lowest mass is 27 tonnes in 2023.
c 
58.5%

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2 a The data could be presented as either a pie chart, where each sector represents the percentage
affected in the stated category, or as a bar chart, where each bar does the same.
b 
122
c 
A histogram would be used, as the data is frequency data.
3
Fully
exploited
State of fish stocks

Over
exploited
Moderately
exploited

Depleted

Recovering

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage

Exercise 1.4
1 31.12%
2 a
14
12
10
mass / kgs

8
6
4
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Length / cms

b 
The trend is increasing.
c 
It is a positive correlation. As fish mass increases so does the fish length.
d 
Directly proportional
e 
Scatter graphs are useful because they can be used to see if a relationship exists between two sets
of data. A line of best fit can indicate how strong the relationship is and whether it is positive,
negative or there is no relationship.
3 Mean = 82; range = 34

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Exercise 2.2
Chapter 2
1 The ore is found in rock and is made up of one
Exercise 2.1 or more minerals or metals.
1 A weathering; B transportation; C igneous 2 a 
Geology: the position of the deposits/
rocks; D metamorphic rocks; E magma; depth within the soil will impact the
F sedimentary rocks decision whether to surface mine or use
a subsurface method; if the mineral of a
2 magma  Molten rock below the surface valuable material is in the strata, the size
of Earth. of the strata may impact the ability to
mineral  Naturally occurring inorganic develop tunnels; the stability of the rock
substances with a specific chemical will affect the choice of method used.
composition. b 
Environmental impact: surface mining
metamorphic  Rocks formed from existing causes a large impact on the local area,
rocks by a combination of heat and pressure. requiring the removal of overburden and
large, visible scars in the landscape; this
marble  An example of a metamorphic rock. would impact on other industries/local
communities; subsurface mining will have
3 Igneous Metamorphic Sedimentary some impact on the local environment but
basalt marble limestone much of the works will be underground,
lessening the impact on local vegetation,
granite slate sandstone etc.; the leaching of materials into water
shale supplies would also be an impact, much
will depend on the local situation as to
which method has the greatest impact.
4 a ‘Permeability’ means the ability of water
to pass through the pore spaces of rock c 
Market price for the material: the price
and soil. paid for the material may make certain
types of extraction uneconomic as the
b 
Permeable: limestone, sandstone process is costly; surface mining is often
Impermeable: basalt, granite, marble, cheapest, as is the use of explosives to
slate, shale break up rock; both of these are likely to
have greater environmental impacts – if
5 Sedimentary rocks are formed by the the minerals are too expensive to extract
weathering of rock particles. These are and the company will make a loss by
transported in water and deposited in layers doing so, they are unlikely to mine at this
called sediments. These sediments may also site (impacting local employment, etc.).
include the dead remains of plants and
animals (organic matter). The mass of the
sediments on the top applies pressure to
(squashes) the layers underneath and causes it
to harden into rock.

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3 Extraction type Example Advantages of method Disadvantages of method

Surface extraction Opencast/open-pit/ Easier/cheaper access Large areas of land
open-cut/ to resources; large size damaged; looks unsightly,
strip mining of mines allows easier and causes a lot of dust
access of machines and noise pollution;
and workers produces large amounts
of waste rock (spoil)
Subsurface Deep mining/ Reaches minerals not Most expensive method;
extraction shaft mining accessible by other dangerous; risk of tunnel/
methods; less impact on shaft collapse, poisonous
the surface ecosystem gases, underground fires
than surface extraction and explosions
(although still produces
waste heaps)
Biological Phytomining/ Extraction does Slow process; does not
extraction bioleaching not require mining produce large quantities
machinery (although still of resource; risk of
needs to be processed); water pollution
extracts materials that (from bioleaching)
are less concentrated/
low-grade ore; reduced
waste rock

Exercise 2.3 • Quarrying may also impact other

industries such as tourism.
1 a Benefits include: • Loss of homes due to land use
• Additional employment opportunities for mining
for local people in the quarry. • Relocation will mean communities are
• Additional employment in other not kept together
businesses (either supplying goods or • Local religious/ cultural sites could
services to the quarry) or meeting the be lost
needs of those employed.
• Loss of cultural identity due to the
• The need for transportation will mean influx of workers from other areas
an improvement to local infrastructure.
c 
Three from:
• Additional workers brought into the
area may mean the development of • loss of trees/habitats
schools and health facilities. • leads to a change/loss to the food web
• Extraction of stone will mean that • reduction in biodiversity
costs of materials for industries such
as local stone masons will be reduced • noise pollution may scare off wildlife
as transportation will be cheaper. • dust on leaves may impact on rate
of photosynthesis
b 
Three from:
• water pollution may be toxic to
• Removal of farmland. which might (aquatic) organisms.
have been productive.
• Additional noise, dust and (possibly) 2 The plant will be part of a food chain,
water pollution. so could impact on the success of other
organisms; reduced biodiversity of the
• Offer of good wages by the quarry local population; the loss of the local
may mean the influx of people into the population may mean that the entire species
area seeking employment, impacting is endangered.
on the demand for housing, food, etc.

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3 Subsurface extraction is likely to be the most effective because it will have the least impact
on the surface compared to surface extraction and less requirement to remove vegetation.
Biological extraction is not a suitable method to extract the stone.
4
Potential use Evaluation
Waste disposal site for Waste management will still provide employment locally.
household waste Many countries have a shortage of waste sites.
But: Air pollution/smells/risk of disease would increase.
There is a potential of pollution to water sources and the
area may still not be suitable to encourage wildlife back
who lost their habitats when the extraction started
Planting trees and Encourages the reintroduction of wildlife into the area.
sowing wild flower seeds
in the area But: May provide limited future employment as area will be
unsuitable for food production. It will take many years to return
to (something like) its original condition
Conversion of the crater Provides local employment to support this industry.
into a racetrack May prevent countryside from being developed instead.
Racetrack hidden in the crater – causing less visual and
noise pollution (compared to siting in other locations).
But: Site will be unsightly and not provide a natural habitat of
animals and plants
Flood the crater for use as A new source of employment to replace the jobs lost by
a fish farm the quarry closing. Help meet local food needs.
But: Risk of pollution from mine could cause water quality
issues for the fish. Not all areas have sufficient water supplies
to allow for fish farming
Develop a shopping centre An alternative form of employment – lots more people
in the crater employed than were done so in the quarry. Impact of development
hidden so less visual impact. Local area becomes affluent.
But: Will attract lots of vehicles to the area, impacting on local
roads and quality of life. Does not provide a suitable habitat for
organisms displaced when the quarrying started

5 a One from: the creation of waste heaps 6 Three from:

(with appropriate management); creation • Poor soil structure: trees are planted
of new land on coast; filling into other on waste heaps. The particle sizes may
disused/previously worked extraction sites. restrict the amount of oxygen getting
b 
The mining company needs to check for to the tree roots and there may not be
leaching of toxic materials in drainage natural channels for roots to penetrate.
water to ensure this does not enter the water • Toxins in the soil: although in low levels
system to impact on animals, plants and some minerals may be at near toxic levels,
humans. Large piles of waste are also at risk slowing down tree growth.
from landslides; monitoring probes could
• Lack of nutrients: soil has not formed
be set up on the spoil heap to check for any
over time and is lacking in key nutrients.
movement. Heavy rain could also cause
erosion of the heap. Checks could be made • Shallowness of soil: topsoil has been
on a regular basis on the stability of the applied as part of the restoration process,
heap – checking for areas prone to erosion. meaning there is little depth for trees
to penetrate.

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• Shortage in soil organisms: the soil Exercise 2.4

ecosystem is very complex, all working
together to provide fertility to the soil. 1 1
These may be lacking so tree growth R E U S E
2
is reduced. E X T R A C T
3
• Lack of food sources for animals: the lack C O A L
of vegetation may mean that herbivores 4
Y I E L D
(plant-eating animals) have less to choose
5
from and the trees are therefore targeted C R U S H
far more then would normally be the case. 6
L E G I S L A T I O N
• Disease in the soil: the soil may contain a 7
E F F I C I E N T
disease which is impacting the growth of
the trees.
Method: recycle
• Poor choice of trees: the type of tree
chosen may not be suitable for the location. 2 Four from:
7 a 1600 trees × US$0.11 = US$176 per day • Not all material is collected for recycling.
• Some material is wasted when re-processing.
b 
1600 × 40 ÷ 100 = 640 trees
• It is more expensive to use
8 a 
Ensure all other variables are minimised recycled materials.
as much as possible, e.g. time of year,
water given, fertiliser application, • Material is of insufficient quality/mixed
location, tree type, tree size. with other materials.
• Location of recycled materials is not near
b 
Record the success rate of tree planting
the factory/inaccessible.
for the tree planters before training.
Allow other valid answers.
c 
Record the success rate of tree planting
for the tree planters after training. 3 Three from:
d 
Compare the success rate of tree planting • Organise for home collection.
for those trained against a group without • Provide waste bins to segregate
the training during the same period different materials.
(keeping all other variables the same).
• Fine households that do not comply.
e 
Comparing the before and after tree • Education on how to recycle/the need
success rate will show the impact of to recycle.
the training.
Allow other valid answers.
f 
Comparing the trained and non-trained
groups in the same planting season will 4 a 0
Key:
also check whether the impact is due to
Food and plant waste
changing weather/care rather than the
Paper and card
training itself.
Rocks and concrete
Other
Metals
Glass

b 
Metals
c 
Reasons include:
• Recycled materials often take less
energy to create new products than
from ore/minerals.

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• Even less than 10% is a large amount 4 Answers should include the following points:
in a city (with a large population). fossil fuels take a very long time to form;
• Resources are finite and should not they need both heat and pressure (over this
be wasted. long time).

• Landfill is limited so recycling helps 5 Learners should note some or all of the
prevent these materials filling up this following process: wind turns/rotates the
limited space. blades; rotates the turbine; drives the
generator; generator produces electricity;
Exercise 2.5 kinetic energy (from the wind turbine)
converted to electrical energy.
1 Across: 2 sun; 3 finite; 5 carbon dioxide;
8 methane; 9 geothermal 6 Learners should note some or all of the
following process: the incoming wave pushes
Down: 1 nuclear; 4 bioethanol; 6 water; water into the wave chamber; water pushes air
7 kinetic; 10 tidal through the turbine; the turbine rotates; this in
turn rotates the generator; the outgoing wave
2 Fossil fuels are not actually made from fossils,
pulls air through the turbine; which rotates to
but it is a useful term to describe the amount
generate electricity.
of time it takes to produce them. Fossils fuels
are produced from the decay of plants and 7 Example responses (allow other valid reasons):
animals. These remains formed organic matter
that became covered in layers of sediment. Issue Reason
Economic Loss of farmland/food
Over millions of years, and buried deep in the
sources; loss of jobs
ground by the addition of further layers of
sediment, the organic material is subjected to Social Need to relocate homes
high pressure and heat. The precise conditions, (if area to be flooded);
and the type of animal and plant material more people coming to
available, will determine whether coal, area spoils traditional
petroleum (oil) or natural gas is produced. communities
Environmental Changes to local
3
Non-renewable Renewable energy ecosystem; impacts on
energy sources sources migration of animals,
petroleum geothermal i.e. fish breeding;
animals displaced; visual/
coal hydro-electric noise pollution
natural gas wave
nuclear tidal
wind
solar
biofuels

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8 Increase Remain the same Decrease

A change in employment types in a country from
farming to industrial 
An increase in the use of energy-saving appliances 
A downturn in the world economy 
An increase in average household wages 
A warmer than expected winter temperature in a
temperate country 
The building of a more affordable car in an LIC 
A law meaning power companies must use more
renewable sources of energy 
An increase in population 

9 a Greatest energy use per person: Reduce energy waste (two from):

Rank Country • Ensure equipment is turned off when not

in use (not left in standby mode).
1 Qatar
• Switch off lights when not in the room.
2 United Arab Emirates
• Provide more insulation in houses so there
3 United States of America is less need to heat/cool them.
Least energy use per person: 2 a 29%

Rank Country b 
120 000 × 16 ÷ 100 = US$19 200
10 Bangladesh c 
19 200 × 9 ÷ 100 = US$1728
11 Angola d 
Two from:
12 Burkina Faso
• Increase the building’s insulation.
b 
The countries are all LICs and are all in • Ensure that doors close automatically.
areas with warm climates. These countries • Increase the number of windows/
may all have large supplies of fossil fuels. natural ventilation (for cooling).
c 
They are all rich counties so can afford to Allow any other reasonable answer
use more energy; all have abundant energy
reserves (e.g. petroleum). 3 Learners may suggest some of the
following ideas:
d 
63 459 ÷ 905 = 70.12; rounded to nearest • Most countries do not have sufficient
whole number = 70 renewable sources to meet their needs.
e 
The total energy produced by a country • Some renewable sources are not available
depends on the size of the population. when there is peak demand (e.g. the source
A larger population will use more energy. of solar power is not available at night).
• Supply varies with weather conditions.
Exercise 2.6
• Battery storage (although developing)
1 Reduce energy consumption (two from): is insufficient.
• Use more efficient equipment, such as • Installing renewable energy systems takes
LED light bulbs. time, so fossil fuels are still needed.
• Increase the availability of natural light. • Some countries may not keep to
agreements that have been made.
• Use natural ventilation (i.e. windows)
rather than air conditioning. • Fossil fuels may be a cheaper solution than
developing renewables in some countries.
• Heat the building to a lower temperature.

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4 a 
Benefit: it does not produce CO2 when The design of the experiment should aim to
combusted; it produces water. minimise any potential additional variable
factors, for example, a dark room (to check
Limitation: it is explosive/difficult to store light emitted from bulb is identical).
or manage safely. The student should use the same circuit
b 
Two from: (to ensure the resistance in the circuit is not
a variable) over the same length of time.
• Blue hydrogen is made from fossil
fuels, so supply is finite, whereas green b 
Other factors include: cost of bulb to
hydrogen is made from water. purchase; expected life of the bulb
• Blue hydrogen produces CO2, which (how often it needs to be renewed);
is a greenhouse gas, whereas green whether or not the bulb retains its
hydrogen does not produce CO2 if the efficiency throughout its life.
energy used in its manufacture comes
from renewable sources. Exercise 2.7
• Methane is used in blue hydrogen 1 Learners should note some or all of the
production, which can leak (methane following process:
is a greenhouse gas).
• Drill down to shale layer/rock.
5 Answers may include some of the • Pump down liquid/chemical/sand/water
following ideas: (under pressure) to cause cracks to form
• Supply from many renewable resources in the rock.
(solar, wave, wind, tidal) is not consistent • Natural gas (methane) is released from the
at all times. rock, which rises due to pressure.
• Demand for electricity fluctuates. • The natural gas is refined and then
• Failure to meet demand causes an energy pumped to homes, factories and
gap/power cuts, so fossil fuels are needed other buildings.
to meet this gap in demand.
2 a Learners may suggest some or all of the
• Batteries will allow the storage of following concerns:
electrical energy for use when demand is
• pollution of (local) water sources
greater than supply.
• risk of earthquakes/tremors
6 a 
Equipment needed: light meter; three
different light bulbs; energy meter; • contribution to global warming/
electrical circuit to insert bulbs and attach climate change
the meters; timer; a dark room/box. • uses large quantities of water
Method: • risk of fire (from methane)/explosion
• dust/breathing issues
1 Insert bulb 1 and switch on.
• may require relocation.
2 Measure the light intensity with the
light meter. b 
Two from:

3 Record energy used over a set period • Increase in employment opportunities

of time. at the site.
• Increase trade supplying workers at
4 Repeat for bulb 2.
the site (increase to local economy).
5 Check light intensity is the same • Improved infrastructure to the area,
as bulb 1. e.g. roads, schools, medical facilities
6 Record energy used over the same telecommunications, electricity supply.
time period as bulb 1.
7 Repeat process for bulb 3.

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8 a Learners may suggest the following

Chapter 3 process for the investigation:
• Fill the glass jars with the same
Exercise 3.1 volume of soil – one jar of each type.
1 Soil is a habitat for plants and other organisms. • Add the same volume of water to
The main components of soil are: mineral each jar of soil.
particles, the organic matter, living organisms,
• Plant one soybean in each jar, at the
gases and water. The proportion of gases in
same depth.
the soil will depend on the size of the pores in
the soil and the amount of water in the soil at • Provide each jar with the same growing
any particular time. In drought conditions, the conditions (light, temperature).
volume of gases will increase and water content • After a pre-set number of days, remove
decrease. The mineral particles occupy the the plant and wash off the soil.
largest volume of the soil and are formed from
• Measure the total length of root.
the parent rocks by weathering and erosion.
b 
Students may suggest the following ways
2 Particle Size (mm) Texture when moist to increase the reliability of the results:
Sand 2.0–0.02 gritty • Use several soybeans and jars rather
Silt 0.02–0.002 silky than one.
Clay <0.002 sticky • Use pots with drainage holes rather
than jars.
3 Students may suggest plants, animals, • Repeat the investigation at different
microorganisms. Allow specific examples, times of year.
e.g. bacteria, fungi, nematodes.
• Ensure that all the soil is completely
4 The soil will start to settle in layers, with dry before use, so the water added
the large stones first, then a layer of sand, is consistent.
followed by a layer of silt (on top). • Ensure that all soils have the same
Clay particles may stay suspended in nutrient level.
the water, although they will settle later.
Organic matter may float on the surface. • Accept other valid responses.

5 1 pH; 2 organic; 3 texture; 4 air; 5 sand; 9 a Factor preventing optimum

6 silky; 7 ions; 8 unavailable; 9 mineral photosynthesis: (lack of) water.

Plant nutrient: potassium Practical way to improve: provide

additional irrigation.
6
b 
Factor preventing optimum
Decreases Increases Remains photosynthesis: low light levels.
the same
Practical way to improve: provide
Drainage of
 additional lighting (to increase
water
light intensity).
Soil pH 
c 
Factor preventing optimum
Gas content  photosynthesis: low temperature.
Ease of
cultivation  Practical way to improve: provide heat
(and shelter).
Soil density 
d 
Factor preventing optimum
7 Loam soil: a soil that is a mixture of sand, silt photosynthesis: day length.
and clay, combining the best properties of each.
Practical way to improve: use additional
lights (to increase the duration of
photosynthesis).

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Exercise 3.2
1 arable farming  A farming system that focuses on the production of crops.
commercial farming  A farming system where most of the food is sold to others.
intensive production  A farming system that produces large amounts from small areas of land.
mixed farming  A farming system that both rears livestock and grows crops.
monoculture  A farming system that only grows one type of crop.
pastoral farming  A farming system that focuses on breeding and rearing livestock.
subsistence farming  A farming system that supplies food for the farmers and their families.
2 Producing sufficient food for the present generation in a way that allows future generations to also
farm on the same land.
3 Responses should include the following ideas:
• It is more efficient to grow a smaller range in larger quantities.
• This reduces costs.
• Less experience/knowledge is needed of a wide range of crops.
• The change is due to a shift from subsistence to commercial farming/more intensive farming.
4 Three from: more profit/greater income; less waste/more efficient; it feeds more people/less starvation
or malnutrition; improved health.
5 a
220

200

180

160
Rice yield / million tonnes

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year

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Marking criteria: 7 a cotton

• Both axes labelled (with b salinisation
appropriate units).
c fertilisers
• Linear scale using at least half the
allocated space on the graph paper. d resurgence
• Data plotted accurately. e biodiversity
• Bars of equal width and not touching.
f overgrazing
b 
Learners should mention the
8 Learner’s own answer, but must be supported
following trends:
by valid evidence. They may suggest some of
• Rice production increased between the following ideas:
1960 and 2020.
• The global population is continuing to grow.
• There was an increase of 155 million
• Much of the world population is already
tonnes/258% increase.
short of food.
• The increase is rapid but has slowed
• Therefore, it is important to maximise yields.
since 1990.
• Using sustainable agricultural practices is
c 
Two from: less than optimum weather/ less efficient and will need more land.
poor weather; increase in pests or diseases;
natural disaster; smaller area of rice sown; • Agricultural land area cannot be increased
no new varieties (unlike other years). without removing natural vegetation.
• However, much of the current production
d 
1960 = 60 and 2020 = 215
is wasted.
difference = (215 – 60) = 155 • Some countries have excess food/consume
(155 ÷ 60) × 100 = 258.333 too much.
• If shared equally, there may be enough
258% (learners should round their answer for everyone.
appropriately)
• Unsustainable production cannot be
6 a 
Crop rotation reduces the chances of pests continued as resources will run out.
and diseases and allows nutrients to be
• Current unsustainable production is a
used by other crops, such as legumes.
cause of soil erosion/ desertification.
b 
Trickle-drip irrigation provides water • Some crop production (such as livestock)
efficiently to roots, enabling photosynthesis. is inefficient, but efficiencies are possible if
c 
Genetically modified organisms people change their diet.
demonstrate increased vigour, and
are designed to grow in specific/ Exercise 3.3
harsher environments, combining
1 a Responses may consider the status of
beneficial qualities.
continents or the location of levels of soil
d 
Insecticides kill pests that eat crops. degradation. Descriptions should note
the following:
e 
Herbicides kill plants that are competing
for water/nutrients/light. • There are areas with no vegetation in
North Africa.
f 
Biological control of pests will reduce the
• It is variable on every continent.
numbers of pests that are damaging the
crop, without harming beneficial organisms. • Northern Asia/Russia and the north
of North America/Canada have
g 
Agroforestry uses trees to shelter other stable soil.
crops, which means that roots retain soil/
• Most soil in Europe is degraded or
prevent erosion.
very degraded.
• Accept other valid observations.

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b 
These are areas where the population There are numerous other ways of helping to
is lower/less dense; these areas are not reduce erosion. Leaving soil covered with the
suitable for farming; weather conditions vegetation from a crop, for example, means
in these areas result in less erosion. that soil is retained by the roots of the plants.
Bare soil increases the risk of erosion. Lack of
2 Impacts in the field: loss of topsoil; less topsoil may increase the risk of desertification
opportunity for vegetation to grow; uneven in an area, increasing famine and malnutrition
ground/gulleys form; the field is harder to the local population.
to cultivate.
Impacts downstream: eroded soil is deposited
downstream; crops/vegetation may be covered;
water courses/rivers silt up; flooding occurs;
Chapter 4
increased depth of fertile soil. Exercise 4.1
3 Example spider diagram (allow other valid 1 a intercepted
responses in any order):
b surface run-off
Lack of roots Lack of organic
to bind soil matter in soil c evaporation
d infiltration
2 a and b
Drought/
Animal/human Soil lightweight
foot traffic erosion soil particles

Precipitation Condensation
Excess Lack of
water windbreaks

Eva
por
4 The following should be circled: animal

atio
manure; composted plant material; food
Interception

n
waste; dead leaves; recycled paper.
5 Farmers need to cultivate land efficiently
if they are to maximise its yield. If the Run-off
techniques they use result in the loss of the
topsoil, fertility is lost. One way in which
the impact of erosion on a steep slope may
Infiltration
be reduced is by terracing. This reduces the
speed of the water and allows it to infiltrate
the soil. Contour ploughing works on a 3 Run-off would be expected to increase due to
similar principle, the ridges and troughs the impermeable surfaces of the roads, paved
following the contours of the land. The use of areas and buildings in the newly created hotel
bunds – artificial banks at the edges of growing complex, which would mean the water could
spaces – also helps to hold back water. not infiltrate.
Wind erosion may also be reduced by planting 4 a Southern
natural vegetation as wind breaks at the edges
b 
Atlantic
of fields. These act as permeable barriers that
reduce the speed of the wind. c 
Arctic
d 
Indian
e 
Pacific
5 Limestone and sandstone

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Exercise 4.2 8 It is on a river not long after the river has

emerged from very high mountainous terrain.
1 3% is fresh water, so 97% is saline. This means the river will be fast flowing and
thus be an excellent source of the power
97% = 0.97
needed to drive turbines to generate HEP.
0.97 × 1.4 billion km3 = 1.358 billion km3 It is also quite near two large cities, so the
electricity generated can be quite easily taken
2 Total water on Earth = 1.4 billion km3 to where it is needed.
Water vapour in Earth’s
atmosphere = 13 000 km3 Exercise 4.3
1.4 billion km3 = 1 400 000 000 km3 1 Sewage wastewater is urine and faecal material
that contains pathogens and organic material.
Water vapour in Earth’s atmosphere ÷ Total
water on Earth 2 (5) nutrients enter water  (3) stimulate algal
growth (algal bloom)  (1) algae die  (6)
= 13 000 ÷ 1 400 000 000 bacteria decompose dead algae  (2) oxygen
= 9.3 × 10−6 = 0.00093% used up and levels lowered  (4) fish and
other aquatic creatures die
3 An aquifer
3 a 
It is likely that the factory was carrying
4 0 out a process that caused it to dispose of
90 10
Irrigation 68 mercury-contaminated substances into
80 20 the river. This did not cause immediate
Domestic 7 problems because, although poisonous, the
Industry 25 70 30 mercury was initially at such low levels it
60 40 did not constitute a problem. Eventually
50 though, due to biomagnification, it reached
toxic levels in fish, causing their death.
5 Salt water is heated, causing water vapour to
be given off. This then forms pure liquid water b 
Eating fish caught from the river may
as it cools/condenses. cause mercury to build up in the villagers’
bodies to levels at which it becomes
6 Learners may note some of the following poisonous to them.
arguments: distillation uses more energy
than reverse osmosis (RO); in this respect 4 Sewage is treated to reduce the amount of
RO is more sustainable. RO is probably organic material. If this is not done before
more efficient than distillation (distillation the sewage is sent to a river, then bacteria
is 10–30% efficient, RO is 30–50% efficient). will break it down, producing a biological
Brine is produced as a waste product in both. oxygen demand. To make river water potable,
it is passed through a water treatment plant.
7 Three from: The water is filtered to remove larger particles.
• hydro-electric power (HEP) It is disinfected with chlorine to kill bacteria.
• flood control 5 These metals can enter the bodies of primary
• irrigation consumers and cause them direct harm but
also the metals build up in their bodies by
• water storage
bioaccumulation.
• transport
When higher/secondary consumers eat these
• recreation primary consumers the metal is passed along.
• reservoir for tourist activities. As organisms higher up the food chain eat

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more of the lower organisms the amount 2

of the metal is increased in concentration,
this is termed biomagnification. The top Strategy Malaria Cholera
carnivore will receive the most amount of the Sleeping under a net 
toxic substance. Boiling water before

6 Take equal volumes of water from each drinking it
lake. Place these in a suitable container. Vaccination  
Add to each container a known number of Covering the surface of
duckweed plants. Place the two containers 
water with a layer of oil
under the same source of light and at the same
temperature. Count the number of duckweed Washing your hands 
plants over a period of a few days, enough to Using insect repellent 
allow a change in number to occur. Calculate Chlorinating water 
the rate of change in duckweed plant numbers.
Sterilising targeted insects 
This result forms a baseline for each lake.
Now set up the same experiment but with the
water from each lake enriched with nitrate
Exercise 4.5
at the same concentration for each. Again, 1 c continental shelf
count the number of duckweed plants over a
period of time which would be sufficient to 2 Fish that are the wrong size, sex or species.
show a significant change in both samples. Non-food fish.
Calculate the new rate of change in duckweed 3 An increase in demand for fish; the use of
numbers. Compare the rates of change under bigger boats; the use of bigger nets.
enrichment with that in un-enriched water.
4 Difference in mass = 5.1 – 3.2 = 1.9
Exercise 4.4 Percentage difference in mass = 1.9 ÷ 5.1 × 100
1 Vector: Adult female mosquito = 37.3%

Reason: Rice is grown in flooded fields.

The larvae (young stages) of mosquitoes live
in water, where the female lays her eggs.
The flooded rice fields provide a highly
suitable environment for the larvae. The water
is more or less still, which makes it an even
better environment for mosquitoes to breed.

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Exercise 4.6
1 1 Q 2 E

U X

O 3 B Y C A T C H

T L
4 A Q U A C U L T U R E

S
5 T I
6 S E A S O N S

R N

2 Fish; crustaceans; seaweed. b 

The largest decrease occurred in 2002:
0.21 sea cucumbers per metre squared.
3 The main food fish from the sea are
carnivorous species. This means that they are c 
Every year in the graph shows the same
part of complex food webs and it is difficult pattern of fewer sea cucumbers after
for humans (as fish farmers) to supply them the fishing season than before. This is
with all the different species that they eat. not surprising, as the sea cucumber
In addition, many carnivorous fish change population probably would not have
their feeding habits as they age. This makes had time to recover from the fishing.
providing them with food even more difficult. Every year also shows the same pattern
of an increase in sea cucumber numbers
4 a 
The survey will have to be done using a between the end of fishing and the
sampling method. Since the sea cucumber beginning of the next fishing season.
is a slow-moving, bottom-living animal,
quadrats would be a suitable sampling d 
There appear to be two trends. There is
method. The quadrats chosen would need a general rise in sea cucumber numbers
to be of a suitable size which depends between 1999 and 2002 and then a fall in
on the size of the sea cucumbers and numbers between 2002 and 2005.
their density on the seabed. Quadrats
should be positioned randomly on the 5 a 
Limitations (two from):
seabed. Laying out a grid in the area to be • The tanks are of different sizes.
sampled and choosing quadrat positions • The description does not say how many
with random number tables could do young sea cucumbers were placed in the
this. The data required is numbers of sea tank at the start of the experiment.
cucumbers in a defined area. The quadrat
constitutes a defined area and so numbers • The flow rate of seawater varies
within this simply need to be recorded. between the two tanks.
A suitable number of quadrats would • The description does not state how
need to be used to get a representative much food was placed in each of
sample. The location and date of all the tanks.
samples would need to be recorded. • It might also be sensible to have a
look at a wider range of diets than
just two.

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• There is no control. Exercise 4.7

• The experiment has not been repeated
to check results. 1 1 A C C I D E N T
2 M A R I N E
Suggestions for improvement:
3 O F F S H O R E
• Have tanks of the same size to ensure
that the inlet and outlet pipes are also 4 C R U D E
the same size to ensure equal flow. 5 O I L
• Have the same number of young sea
6 C O L L I S I O N
cucumbers placed in each.
7 A I R
• Provide the same mass of food in
each tank. 8 D E A T H
• Have at least three replicates of both 9 I N D U S T R Y
tanks – six tanks in all.
10 Z E R O
• Include a control (perhaps a tank
in which the young sea cucumbers
Name of incident: Amoco Cadiz
were given no food but had to rely on
that in the seawater flowing through 2 Oil tends to float on the top of water and
the tank). spreads thinly (and widely). A small amount
of oil will spread a great distance. On land,
b Both show an increase in mass over the
oil does not spread as far. Marine organisms
45 days of the experiment. The increase in
have difficulty getting sufficient oxygen after
mass of the sea cucumbers fed on shrimp
an oil spill as the oil forms a coating on the
starter as a food starts straightaway
sea surface.
whereas over the first 15 days those fed
on chicken manure showed no mass gain
at all. The growth rate from day 15 to
day 30 is the same in both sets of sea
cucumbers. But after 30 days those fed on
shrimp starter as a food grew faster than
those fed on chicken manure again. These
differences in growth rate meant that after
45 days sea cucumbers fed on shrimp
starter as a food were over twice as heavy
as those that were fed on chicken manure.

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3 Example answers:

Method Advantage Disadvantage

Floating booms No use of chemicals, the oil slick Does not work in rough sea
is contained conditions. Large booms needed to
capture large slicks
Skimmers Does not use chemicals (which Not particularly effective in rough
might also harm the environment) seas. Oil is not contained and may
still be spreading
Detergent sprays Disperses oil slicks more rapidly Detergents may damage marine life.
than other methods. Can be applied Bioaccumulation (build-up of the
in most weather conditions. Can be chemical in the food chain) of the
applied over large areas by aircraft detergent may occur
Sorbents Can be used to finally clear the Adds more chemicals to the oceans,
small remaining quantity of oil which could be toxic to organisms
Controlled Relatively easy to do, no additional Atmospheric pollution is caused
burning chemicals used

4 a The spills are not evenly spread but c 

Transportation reached a peak in around
are clustered near coasts rather than in 1977. There was a sharp decline until
the open sea. Most are in the northern around 1985. Since then there has been a
hemisphere and particularly in the gradual increase to around 10 000 transport
Atlantic and especially Western Europe. movements / arbitrary units, which is still
less than the peak figure of around 11 500
b 
Five from: transport movements / arbitrary units.
• In general, oil poisons marine life due
to toxic substances within it. d 
The main design change has been the
introduction of double-hulled ships.
• It can kill organisms such as fish This means that a hole in the outer skin
by reducing their ability to absorb does not mean a release of oil.
oxygen due to blockage of the gills.
6 The MARPOL treaty did not ban the use of
• In sea birds, it penetrates feathers so
older-style ships, so they were still in use and
they cannot fly to search for food or
vulnerable. It is also hard to police the treaty
a mate.
in the middle of the oceans so some illegal
• Prey and mate finding can also be dumping may occur. The treaty was not signed
compromised because oil can make by all countries.
them blind and unable to smell.
• In filter feeders, such as mussels, oil Exercise 4.8
blocks filter-feeding apparatus.
1 Plastics exist in many different types. Some
• Plants are affected by the fact can be broken down by microorganisms and
that the oil layer on the surface are called biodegradable. The first types of
blocks sunlight and slows plastic were non-biodegradable and relied
down photosynthesis. on the fossil fuel industry. Some plastics
All of these can lead to major disruption to are less than 5 mm in length and are called
marine food webs. microplastics. Some bioplastics are made from
biological raw materials such as starch.
5 a 
Graph to include a plot for 2002 at 7800
transport movements / arbitrary units. 2 Answers might include the following initiatives:
The line should also be completed. • Avoid single use plastic: use a refillable
(The result should show a reduction in bottle rather than a plastic bottle.
this year.)
• Reduce packaging: replace plastic wrap
b 
1974 on food with paper packaging.

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• Reduce littering: collect plastic products and recycle them.

• Introduce legislation on manufacturers: such as a requirement to set up a collection system
of their packaging used in their products.
3 The chicks will get less food than perceived by the adults, so will not grow healthily.
This may result in them not reaching maturity.
4 a 37 ÷ 72 = 0.51388889 = 0.51 g
b 
Learners may suggest:
• Less plastic might be deposited in the area due to efficient recycling management.
• Local plastic usage might be more of biodegradable types and so last less time in the ocean.
• Weather conditions such as tides or wind might move the plastics to other areas of the ocean.

Chapter 5
Exercise 5.1
1 B only
2
Statement Letter
This gas is used by plants in photosynthesis B
Ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by this gas D
The most abundant gas in the atmosphere and a product of volcanic eruptions E
This gas is produced by photosynthesis and is used in respiration A
Keeping cattle can increase levels of this gas I

3
Thermosphere

Mesopause
Mesosphere
Altitude (km)

Stratopause

Stratosphere
Temperature
inversion
Tropopause

Troposphere

Temperature (°C) and pressure

Pressure
Temperature

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Exercise 5.2
1 Radiation from the Sun is called short-wave (or solar) radiation. Almost half of this radiation is
absorbed by Earth’s surface and makes Earth warmer. Long-wave radiation is emitted by Earth.
This radiation is absorbed by greenhouses gases such as carbon dioxide and the atmosphere heats up.
2 a Carbon dioxide
b 
Carbon dioxide = 84%; methane = 163%; nitrous oxides = 22%
c 
Scientists are particularly concerned about carbon dioxide because it has the highest concentration
in ppm and the longest lifespan in the atmosphere.
3 a 
There is a positive correlation. As carbon dioxide emissions increase, so do average surface
temperatures. In 1960, carbon dioxide emissions were about 315 ppm and the temperature anomaly
was −0.10 °C. By 2013, carbon dioxide emissions were 395 ppm and the temperature anomaly was
0.65 °C. (Note that a positive correlation does not ‘prove’ a causal relationship between the two
variables, but most scientists agree that there is one here.)
b 
Carbon dioxide fluctuates due to changes in rates of photosynthesis, respiration and decay.
4 An increase in carbon dioxide can lead to temperature rise because of increased absorption by carbon
dioxide of the long-wave or infrared radiation that is emitted from Earth.
5 a Key:
Electricity
generation
Industry
Transport
Residential
Other

b 
electricity generation and industry (68%)
6 a
20
Carbon emissions per capita / tCO2

15
Key:
USA
China
10
UK
World
India
Bangladesh
5
Kenya

0
2002 2006 2010 2014 2018 2022
Year
b 
LICs on the graph have lower values than HICs. For example, in 2002, India had 1.1 tonnes of
CO2 per person while the USA had 19.6 tonnes CO2 per person. HIC values are declining;
LIC values are increasing.

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c 
7.5 times
d 
Three
e 
Learners may suggest the following:
• LICs’ increasing industrial development.
• Increasing population and burning of fossil fuels for cooking in LICs.
• In LICs, there is less investment in non-renewable fuels than in developed countries.
• There is more car ownership in LICs.
• HICs have tighter controls on emissions than LICs.
7 Learners may suggest the following reasons:
• Low-lying countries such as Bangladesh are likely to be flooded and, if the country is densely
populated, people and resources will be affected.
• This could lead to forced migration into cities and the resulting problems of overpopulation.
• Malnutrition and famine may occur as land and crops are flooded.
• Some more-developed countries may have to spend money on extra defences against coastal
erosion and rising sea levels.
• The disappearance of glaciers and ice sheets could reduce water supply.
• Impacts of tropical cyclones would be more frequent and intense.
• Countries at a low level of economic development find it harder to cope with such problems as
they lack the necessary financial resources.
8 a 
Mitigation strategies (two from): international agreements; climate modelling; decreased use of
fossil fuels/increased use of renewable resources; carbon sequestration; transport policies; energy
conservation; use of artificial intelligence (AI); reforestation/agroforestry; reduced fertility rates;
changes to agricultural practices; more sustainable lifestyle choices.
b 
Adaptation strategies (two from): changes to agricultural practices; improved flood defences;
land-use zoning; new building designs.

Exercise 5.3
1 1 2 3 4
Fossil fuels Gases mix with
Sulfur dioxide water vapour
burnt in
and nitrogen Dry deposition and oxygen in
power stations
oxides released the atmosphere
and transport

5 6 7 8

Weak solutions Blown by wind

of nitric and Falls to earth Wet deposition
over large as acid rain
sulfuric acids distances
created

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2 One from:
• Flue-gas desulfurisation. Limitations include that it uses a lot of energy and that sometimes water is
used in the process, which needs to be treated afterwards and which may lead to water pollution.
• Catalytic converters. Limitations include that they are expensive and can increase
fuel consumption.
• Transport policies. Limitations include that it is not always possible to improve public transport to
an extent that people will use it instead of cars. Also, government policies may be unpopular.
3 Power generation
4
Key:
Agriculture
Burning of waste
Industry
Land use change
and deforestation
Power generation

0 20 40 60 80 100

5 a 88 ÷ 10 = 8.8 micrograms per cubic metre 4 The graph shows an upward trend
with fluctuations. The trend also levels off and
b 
15 – 4 = 11 micrograms per cubic metre fluctuations continue.
6 a The rainy season meant that there would 5 Increased ultraviolet radiation could lead to
be precipitation to test. sunburn, skin cancers, retina damage, cataracts
b 
To prevent insects contaminating the and reduce immunity in humans. It can also
precipitation samples. cause leaf damage and plankton damage.

c 
To avoid rain splash or animals knocking 6 a 
Use of alternative materials and processes,
equipment over. such as pump-action sprays.

d 
C because it has the highest pH mean and Limitation (one from): more expensive;
maximum and minimum values. HFCs are greenhouses gases that stay in
the atmosphere a long time.
e 
They could improve by including more
sampling sites across the city, more spread b 
More responsible waste disposal and
out, and by including samples taken recycling, such as draining CFCs
during the dry season. from refrigerators.
Limitation: facilities not available in
Exercise 5.4 all countries.
1 The ozone hole refers to the thinning of the 7 Across: 6 acid rain; 9 nitrogen; 10 troposphere;
ozone layer, leading to depletion across a large 11 stratosphere; 12 sulfur dioxide; 13 ozone;
area, especially over Antarctica. The natural 14 catalytic converter
seasonal thinning was made worse by certain
human activities. Down: 1 methane; 2 four; 3 short wave;
4 gravity; 5 decrease; 7 carbon dioxide;
2 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 8 mesopause; 14 CFCs
3 CFCs are broken down by ultraviolet
radiation and chlorine is released. Chlorine
reacts with ozone, depleting the ozone layer.

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Chapter 6
Exercise 6.1
1 ecosystem: All the living things (biotic components) together with all the non-living things
(abiotic components) in an area. These biotic and abiotic components interact with each other.
population: All the organisms of one species living in a defined area.
community: A group of populations of different species that live together in an area and
interact with each other.
habitat: The place within an ecosystem where an organism lives, finds food and reproduces.
niche: The role of a species within its ecosystem.
2 Accept any valid answer, for example:
biotic: oak tree and deer
abiotic: light intensity and humidity
3 a pollination
b competition
c predation.
4 The components listed allow the plant to make only carbohydrates. The plant also needs proteins, for
which it needs nitrogen and sulfur, and other compounds such as chlorophyll, for which magnesium
is needed.
5 Chlorophyll absorbs light energy, which causes carbon dioxide and water to react together to
make sugars.
6
Feature Flowers pollinated by wind Flowers pollinated by insects
Petals Small, insignificant, dull Large, bright, showy, highly coloured
Anthers and stamens Hanging outside flower, hinged to Inside flower
move in wind
Stigma Feathery Inside flower; usually sticky
Pollen Light, abundant Not so light; less abundant; sticky
Scent Unscented Often scented
Nectar None Often produced in abundance

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Exercise 6.2
1 Oystercatcher

Dog whelks Starfish

Barnacles Mussels

Phytoplankton

2 a
1

103

1 000 020

b 
The primary producers are phytoplankton. These occur in many millions and are microscopic,
so it would be impossible to get figures for them.
3 Organism Mass of one Energy content Total energy in the area (kJ)
specimen (g) (kJ per gram)
Barnacle 0.05 6 0.05 × 6 × 1 000 000 = 300 000
Mussel 10 7 10 × 7 × 20 = 1 400
Dog whelk 5 5 5 × 5 × 100 = 2 500
Starfish 500 8 500 × 8 × 3 = 12 000
Oystercatcher 500 10 500 × 10 × 1 = 5 000

Primary consumers (barnacles and mussels) 5 In photosynthesis, the energy used to combine
= 301 400 kJ carbon dioxide and water comes from visible
light. In respiration, the energy is released
Secondary consumers (dog whelks and starfish) from glucose in the form of chemical energy
= 14 500 kJ and heat energy.
Tertiary consumer (oystercatcher) = 5 000 kJ
Exercise 6.3
5 000
1 0.52% = 0.0052
14 500 18 857 ÷ 0.0052 × total area

301 400 Total area = 18 857 ÷ 0.0052

= 3 626 346.154 km2
4 A = glucose 2 Protected = 12%; unprotected = 27%
B = manufacture of starch
C = starch
D = respiration

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3 a i 
The lake has got much smaller in Exercise 6.4
size over the time. It is now a narrow
ribbon compared with its previous 1 In this context, ‘sustainable’ means that when
size. It has also been split into these plants and animals are harvested, it
two parts. is to meet the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations
ii 
The rainforest has reduced in size by to meet their needs.
about half of the area shown in the
map. However, dense forest represents 2 1310 ÷ 590 = 2.22 times more productive
only about a quarter of the original
3 a
size. The rest is degraded forest.
b 
The removal of the forest through
deforestation is likely to have led to
considerable soil erosion, and much of
that soil has been washed by the rivers
into the basin in which the lake is found.
This material is the alluvium shown in
the south and west areas of the lake and
its accumulation is referred to as silting.
Deforestation has occurred due to the
needs of the people for farmland, where
cultivated rice, a grass, is grown.
4 A carbon sink is an area which absorbs more
carbon dioxide than it produces. An immature
forest is a carbon sink. A carbon store is an
area in which a lot of carbon is locked up, for b 
Two from: they can encourage the spread
example, in massive tree trunks and branches. of invasive species; they may lead to an
A mature forest is a carbon store. increased fire risk; they may create a
bottleneck, leading to increased predation.
5 The leaves, branches and even trunks of trees
will intercept a lot of the rain that falls on 4 A studbook allows anyone wanting to breed
an area. This reduces its power to erode the from the animals to make sure that close
soil. Any rain that does reach the ground is relatives are not allowed to mate and produce
likely to infiltrate rather than run off if the offspring. This avoids inbreeding, which
ground is covered in leaves and substantial would lead to a reduction in genetic diversity.
humus. Finally, the roots of the trees bind This helps the species to survive.
the soil, making it less likely to be washed or 5 A seed bank requires much less work and
blown away. takes up much less space than cultivating
6 The trees in the mature forest carry out both live plants over many generations. So a
photosynthesis, which takes in carbon dioxide, seed bank will cost much less to set up and
and respiration, which produces it. If there run. It will insulate the plants from the
is more photosynthesis than respiration, vagaries of the weather and guard against
this means the forest is not yet mature. In a reproductive failure.
mature forest, respiration and photosynthesis 6 a Key:
are equal and therefore no carbon dioxide is Cereals
gained or lost from the atmosphere in a net Legumes
sense. When the trees are finally burnt, carbon Vegetables
dioxide is produced as a by-product. Grasses used for
grazing cattle (forage)
Fruits and nuts
Industrial crops
Others

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b 
The site is suitable because the area is cold, which will render the seeds dormant.
The sleeve protects the seeds from even major geological and climatic events. The airlock prevents
the entry of microbes, which may cause disease in the seeds. Norway is a relatively politically stable
country so there is little likelihood of political unrest, which may threaten the security of the seeds.
This is further ensured by the remoteness of the site.
7 a 10 429 998 ÷ 12 977 218 × 100% = 80.4%
b

5 000 000
4 500 000
Numbers whale watching

4 000 000
3 500 000
3 000 000
2 500 000
2 000 000
1 500 000
1 000 000
500 000
0

a
lia

nd
da

il
A

ds

in

az
ric

in
an
US

ra

la
na

nt
an

Ch

Br
Af
st

al

ot
ge
Ca

Isl
Au

Ze

Sc
h

Ar
ry

ut

ew
na

So

N
Ca

8 a Tourism has grown at a more or less Exercise 6.5

steady rate from 2000 until 2019.
In this time the number of tourists has 1 A transect line should be laid out at right
approximately doubled from 680 million angles to the ant trail. Quadrats can then
to 1462 million. Slowest growth was be laid out on this line at regular intervals.
between 2000 and 2003. There was a slight The size of the quadrat would need to be
fall between 2008 and 2009, probably due chosen and this would depend on the size of
to the financial crisis. There was a massive the trail, which is not known. The quadrats
fall between 2019 and 2020, this was due can be used to estimate the number of plants
to COVID-19 travel restrictions. at each point or their percentage cover.
This information could be recorded for each
b 
Increased tourism means more travel, quadrat and then presented as a bar chart
which will lead to increased carbon with quadrat position along the bottom and
dioxide emissions. At the tourist sites, percentage cover or numbers up the side for
there will have been habitat loss due to the each plant species.
provision of hotels and other facilities,
which will lead to the removal of natural 2 a B
vegetation. The increased numbers of
b B
people in these areas will also have given
rise to more water pollution. c C
c 
Three from: carbon offsetting; the use of d A
more environmentally friendly methods
of transport; encouraging recycling at
resorts; designating areas that tourists are
not allowed to visit.

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3 Benefits Limitations Once you have the number of squares the

species is in then you can convert this to
A, C, E, J A, B, D, F, G, H, I a percentage by simply dividing the total
Additional: Additional: if the trap number of squares you have counted for
disturbance of fails or the batteries the species by the total number of squares
the wildlife is low run out there will be in the quadrat and then multiplying by
to zero no data and this may 100. In this case it would be, for method 2,
go unappreciated for species A: 58 ÷ 100 × 100 = 58%
weeks or months The point is that any such measure will be an
estimate and subject to personal judgement.
4 A grid could be set up to isolate the meadow
area within the trees. Quadrats could then be e Quadrat number 1 2 3 4 5
placed, using random number tables to find
coordinates in the grid where the quadrats Distance from 0 20 40 60 80
should be placed. start (m)
Species A
5 a The transect at position A runs through
vegetation that is all the same because it Species B
is at the same distance from the forest. A Species C
transect at position B runs from the area Species D
furthest from the forest into the forest
edge. This means that B will give a much Species E
better idea of the effect of forest removal Species F
on biodiversity. Species G
b 
From the map, the transect at B is Species H
240 metres long, so 13 quadrats would be
needed to have one every 20 metres. f 
The area in question could be thought
of as being divided into just two regions.
c 
Species A is abundant, species B and C One is that where the trees have been
are frequent and species D is occasional. removed and the other where they have
d 
There are several ways this could be done. not. A grid could be set out in each region
For example: and then quadrats placed using random
number tables. Plant abundance would
Method 1: count the number of squares be ascertained in each quadrat and then
that the species appears in at all. So, on averages for each species would be worked
the topline A is clearly in seven squares. out and compared for each site.
But, on the fifth line from the top some
may judge it to be in eight but it also 6 a 
Independent variable: concentration of
might be possible to justify seven, as there toxic chemical in water
is only a very tiny part of the second from Dependent variable: number of plants
the left with A in it. after two weeks
Method 2: do not count it as being in a b 
As the concentration of toxic chemical
square unless it occupies at least half of it. increases, the number of duckweed
Then A is in about 58 squares. plants changes.
Method 3: estimate how much of each c 
To find out how toxic chemicals in the
small square it occupies, then add them water affect the growth of duckweed.
all up. So, for example, going across the
second row down for A we get one plus d 
Two from: pH; temperature; volume of
about three-quarters plus about half plus water in the container; light intensity;
about half plus about one plus about one, number of plants in the container.
equalling four and three-quarters. e 
A number of readings of growth of
duckweed plants should be taken at each
You may think of other ways too.
concentration, any anomalous results will
then stand out.

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7 a Concentration of Number of duckweed Number of duckweed Change in number of

toxic chemical plants on day 1 plants on day 14 duckweed plants
0.0 10 18 8
0.5 10 21 11
0.75 10 25 15
1.0 10 15 5
2.0 10 13 3
5.0 10 11 1

b 
An increase in toxic chemical concentration increases the number of duckweed plants formed
over the two weeks over a range of concentrations from 0.0 ppm, to 0.75 ppm. After this, further
increases in toxic chemical concentration led to a decrease in the number of duckweed plants
formed over the two weeks.

Chapter 7
Exercise 7.1
1
180° W
160° W
140° W
120° W
100° W

100° E
120° E
140° E
160° E
180° E
80° W
60° W
40° W
20° W

20° E
40° E
60° E
80° E
0°

80° N Arctic Ocean

60° N
North Europe
Asia
America
40° N
Atlantic Pacific
Pacific
Ocean Ocean Ocean
20° N
Africa

0° South
Indian
America
Ocean
20° S Oceania

40° S
Southern Ocean N
60° S
W E
80° S Antarctica
S
2 a lithosphere
b destructive
c fold mountains
d oceanic
e oceanic trench

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3 Eurasian
Volcano
Plate
North American Mid ocean (oceanic)
Plate (oceanic) ridge
Ocean

Direction
of plate
movement Convection current
Mantle

4 South American plate Fold mountain

Nazca plate (continenlae plate) (Ancles)
(oceanic plate)
Ocean trench Volcano

Rising
Subduction magma
Mantle
zone
Direction of
plate movement

Exercise 7.2
1 The focus is the location below Earth’s surface • Many people are subsistence farmers
where an earthquake originates; the epicentre and farm near volcanoes because of
is the point on Earth’s surface directly above fertile soil.
the focus. • Climate – monsoon rains can
2 A = ash cloud; B = crater; C = vent; trigger landslides.
D = magma chamber • Less money to spend on prediction
and responses so more deaths from
3 a 1%
5% 0.5% Key: injuries, starvation, disease and lack
6.5%
South and of clean water.
Central America
Asia 4 Primary cause of Number of deaths
Oceania death
29% Africa
North America Landslides 23 000
58% Europe Pyroclastic flows 8 466
Gas 1 700
Tsunami 437
b 
South and Central America. Reasons Ashfall 300
might include:
• More volcanoes because of 5 Strategies might include: monitoring
destructive plate boundaries. and warning systems; land-use zoning;
• The eruptions are unpredictable hazard-proof building structures; disaster
and violent. preparation; evacuation and shelter;
international aid after the hazard has struck.
• Higher population density.

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6 Learners may suggest some of the Listen to the radio or watch TV: so they get
following reasons: information and advice on when and how
• Because family or friends live there or to evacuate.
they have always lived there and do not Store enough food to last for a few days: to
want to move. avoid hunger as crops/livestock destroyed and
• Impossible to move away due to lack infrastructure for supplies destroyed.
of money.
• They do not perceive any danger as the Exercise 7.4
volcano has not erupted for a long time or 1 River flooding is when the discharge of a river
they do not think it will happen to them. exceeds the capacity of the river’s channel.
• Lack of space due to population pressure. When this occurs, the river overflows the
• Jobs in tourism such as souvenir seller banks and covers the adjacent floodplain.
or guide. 2 One from:
• Fertile soils are created, which produce • The floods may deposit nutrient-rich silt
high crop yields. on farmland.
• Scenery can be spectacular and is worth • Recharge of groundwater and surface
the risk of staying. stores of water.
• Geothermal power can supply a cheap
3 deforestation  If trees are removed there is
form of power.
less interception and infiltration.
• Mining minerals such as sulfur, diamonds
and gold. previous weather  The more saturated the
soil the less infiltration can take place.
• The volcano may be a symbolic or
religious icon. rock type  Impermeable rock leads to
greater overland flow.
Exercise 7.3 relief  Steeper gradients lead to faster
1 Tropical cyclones are low-pressure weather overland flow.
systems that produce winds of 119 km per heavy rainfall  The infiltration capacity
hour or greater. They develop in the tropics is quickly exceeded and overland flow
between latitudes 5° to 30° north or south takes place.
of the equator where the surface ocean
temperatures are greater than 27 °C. In the urbanisation  Concrete and tarmac are
northern hemisphere, winds rotate around an impermeable and lead to more overland flow.
area of calm called the eye in an anticlockwise
4 a Very heavy rainfall.
direction. Tropical cyclones are called
typhoons if they form over the north-west b 
Deforestation results in a lack of
Pacific Ocean. interception; lack of leaf litter slows the
movement of water into the soil; no trees
2 a February
to absorb soil moisture; ground becomes
b 
August hard and compact leading to an increase
in overland flow; more sediment is washed
c 
22.14% into the river channels, reducing capacity.
d 
July to October c 
Deaths were much higher in Pakistan.
3 Stay indoors away from windows and glass Over 1000 died in Pakistan compared to
doors: to avoid injury from broken glass 13 in Australia.
caused by strong winds.
Ensure a water supply – fill large containers:
people need a supply of clean water to reduce
the risk of water contamination and disease.

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d 
Students may note the following: 2 a
• Effects are usually longer lasting 280
and more severe in an LIC than an
260
HIC (or an MIC) because of the
240
lack of financial resources to deal

Mean monthly precipitation (mm)

Mean monthly temperature (°C)

with a flood before, during and after 220
an event. 200 20
180 18
• LICs are more dependent on aid
160 16
for recovery.
140 14
• HICs can afford better flood defences 120 12
and are likely to have better flood
100 10
warnings. People can be evacuated
80 8
when warnings are given.
60 6
• The population may be more dense 40 4
in an LIC.
20 2
• In LICs, more people depend on 0
farming as a livelihood, so loss of J F M A M J J A S O N D
Months
crops and livestock can lead to food
shortages and force migration. b 
1065 mm
• Diseases can spread more quickly in
c 
3 °C
an LIC due to inadequate medical
facilities and infrastructure. d 
November to December. This is when
there is the lowest amount of precipitation
5 Students may argue yes or no.
for crops and livestock.
Yes: Strategies can be long-lasting and
3 a Compare: the failure of spring rains in
effective in a short period of time after
Ethiopia and lack of rain in China.
construction. Schemes such as dams are
multipurpose – for example, fishing, tourism Contrast: in Ethiopia, the drought was
and electricity. Levees can be used for made worse by atmospheric conditions,
transport routes. People may ignore warnings and in China higher temperatures made
and not evacuate. the drought worse.
No: They can be expensive and unsustainable. b 
In Ethiopia, crop and animal loss led to
Often construction relies on aid. Visual malnutrition and deaths. People were
pollution and reservoirs behind dams may forced to sell off livestock and migrate.
displace people or flood farmland and wildlife They were dependent on emergency
habitats. Eventually the reservoirs will silt up food aid.
and reduce deposition of silt on farmland.
Money would be better spent on, for example, In China, the loss was reported as a
flood warnings, evacuation procedures, financial loss. No lives were in danger and
flood shelters, improving infrastructure. some of the impacts were lack of power
Soft engineering strategies may be more for industries.
appropriate to the skills of local people and 4 Two from: groundwater supply water pump;
encourage wildlife. rainwater storage tank; percolation ponds;
building of bunds; afforestation. Accept other
Exercise 7.5 valid ideas.
1 Drought is when there is a lack of rain
a 
over a long period of time.
Droughts can occur anywhere in the world.
b 
Drought is associated with high-
c 
pressure systems.

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Chapter 8
Exercise 8.1
1 Population density: the number of people living in an area.
Population distribution: how people are spread over an area.
Sparsely populated: containing few people.
Densely populated: containing many people.
2 The highest populations are in Southeast Asia. There are very few people in the far north and the far
south. Western Asia and Europe also have very high populations.
3 a 
Density = 217 431 446 ÷ 8 520 000 = 26 people per km2
b 
Density of Bangladesh = 174 406 748 ÷ 147 570 = 1182 people per km2
Bangladesh’s population density is 1182 ÷ 26 = 45.5 times that of Brazil.
4 Province Area (km2) Population Density (people per km2)
Heredia 2 657 433 677 163.2
Cartago 3 124 490 903 157.1
San José 4 966 1 404 242 282.8
Limón 9 189 386 862 42.1
Alajuela 9 757 885 571 90.8
Guanacaste 10 141 354 154 34.9
Puntarenas 11 266 410 929 36.5

Highest: San José

Lowest: Guanacaste
5 Liechtenstein is a surprising inclusion because it is an HIC, and typically low population densities,
such as that found in Liechtenstein, are associated with LICs.
6 Rank out of these 10 Country or region GNI per capita ($) LIC, MIC or HIC
4 French Polynesia (France) 18 560 HIC
5 New Caledonia (France) 13 210 HIC
3 Greenland (Denmark) 34 800 HIC
1 Liechtenstein 116 600 HIC
8 South Sudan 1 050 LIC
9 Yemen 840 LIC
2 Andorra 46 530 HIC
6 Cuba 8 920 MIC
7 Turkmenistan 7 080 MIC
10 Syria 760 LIC

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Exercise 8.2 3500

1 Age and sex

3000
2 a b
2500

2000

Numbers
1500
Growing Declining
3 a dependent 1000

b dependent
500
c independent
d independent 0
2 4 6 8 10 12
e dependent Time / years

4 The USA has a very large number of older c 

Exponential growth
people (over 70), whereas Kenya has only d
very few, about one-fifth that of the USA, as 3500
a percentage. More than 20% of the Kenyan
population is under 5; in the USA it is only 8%. 3000

5 a 13.7 million
2500
b 
Number = 6.2 million; so percentage
= 6.2 ÷ 128 × 100 = 4.8% 2000
Numbers

Exercise 8.3 1500

1 birth rate  The total number of live births
over time. 1000

death rate  The total number of deaths

500
over time.
rate of natural increase  The birth rate 0
minus the death rate. 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time / years
life expectancy  The length of time that a
living thing, especially a human being, is likely 3 a 72 years
to live.
b 
1 billion
fertility rate  The number of children born
c i 2 billion in 1930; 4 billion in 1975
to each woman.
ii 45 years
2 a A pair of animals, male and female, is
introduced into an area. They produce d 
Low = will not double
four young, two males and two females.
The parents die after one year. The Medium = will not double
population will now number 4. If these High = 75 years
four young produce four young for each
pair, and then die, the population will be 8 e 
The change could be attributed to
after two years. If the pattern repeats itself, improved medical treatment and
the population will be 64 after five years, improved sanitation.
512 after 8 years and 2048 after 10 years.

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4 Population Birth rate Death rate Increase/decrease Increase/decrease percentage

per year per year per year
1 000 000 10 000 5 000 Increase by 5 000 Increase by 0.5%
per year
10 000 000 50 000 30 000 Increase by 20 000 Increased by 20 000/10 000 000
per year equals 0.2%
5 000 000 80 000 60 000 Increase by 20 000 Increased by 20 000/5 000 000
per year equals 0.4%
20 000 000 150 000 100 000 Increase by 50 000 Increase by 0.25%
per year
15 000 000 100 000 115 000 Increase by 15 000 Decrease by 0.1%
per year

5 b>d 2 Loss of employment in river fishing and

farming is a push factor. It is unlikely that
6 The clear overall trend is that life expectancy things will get any better as silt deposits are
is rising in all parts of the world. Europe, no longer happening and the soils are being
with the highest expectancy in 1950, has risen damaged by salt. Firewood collection is
by just over 14 years over the period (23%). unsustainable. There will also be pull factors
Africa, which had the lowest, has risen by as cities can always offer things which rural
just over 24 years (64%). In 2021 Oceania environments cannot.
had the highest expectancy, having overtaken
Europe sometime between 1975 and 2000. 3 Learners may suggest impacts such as: the
If you average the figures for 1950 and 2021, creation of urban settlements; the rise in
we see that world life expectancy has gone up megacities; difficulties of providing adequate
by 73 − 52.4 = 20.6 years or 39%. sanitation, waste management, water, facilities
and infrastructure for an increased urban
Exercise 8.4 population; traffic congestion; pollution.
1 a 4 100 − 82 = 18% live in rural areas. 18% of
Push factors Pull factors
11 000 000 is 11 000 000 × 0.18 =
Not enough jobs Attractive climate 1 980 000 people
Poor medical care Better 5 a 6
educational
Mean fertility rate

Desertification 5
opportunities
4
Drought More services 3
and amenities 2
High levels
1
of pollution Better job 0
opportunities 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Poor housing
Mean school years for females
War Political freedom
b 
There is a clear link with a very good
negative correlation between school years
b  he push factor would be most
T
for females and fertility rate. However,
important, as rural poverty is often very
it might be that a third factor, such as
severe in such places. (An argument could
financial situation, is important too.
be made for pull, too.)
That is, girls who have more years in
school are in better off families, and it
may be that which is driving the fall in
fertility rates. There may be other factors
too. Correlation does not equal causation.

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c 
Learners may make the following arguments.
Benefits include:
• It gives women opportunities outside of the home such as more employment opportunities –
they could have careers and later marriages.
• Educated women pass their knowledge on to children.
• Education gives women information about birth control.
• Women would have more choices.
Limitations include:
• There are cultural barriers to overcome and women in remote communities can be educated but
still not have access to contraception or other life choices.
• In addition families may need financial encouragement or fines from government to encourage
a reduction in the number of children.
• In some countries people are encouraged to have more children and some countries have an
ageing population so need more children.

Exercise 8.5
1 An educated woman may be more likely to have a career, which in turn may mean that they are
likely to have fewer children. Both women and men may better understand the consequences for
themselves and society of having many children. Education tends to lead to later marriage and thus
fewer children.
2 Family planning covers all the ways in which people and authorities think about how many children to
have and when to have them. Contraception is one aspect of family planning. It involves techniques to
prevent the conception of a baby.
3 People tend to have more children when death rates are high because the children act as an insurance
policy and a pension for the parents, so it is vital that some survive until adulthood to perform
this role.
4 In MICs there is a high standard of living. Rather than children providing support in later life, their
upbringing and education cost a lot of money. The state tends to provide support in later life with
pensions and other measures, thus reducing the incentive to have many children.
5 If the population of a country is declining, then a pronatalist policy would make sense.
6 a
40
Percentage of those answering

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly Do not Do not
support support oppose oppose care know

b 
Learners may suggest: age; sex; income level; political affiliations.

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