IGCSE CAIE BIOLOGY
IGCSE Biology Chapter 07 Summary
Notes
Chapter 7 – Human Nutrition
Balanced Diet
A balanced diet consists of all of the food groups in the correct proportions
The necessary food groups are:
o Carbohydrates
o Proteins
o Lipids
o Vitamins
o Minerals
o Dietary Fibre
o Water
Food Groups Table
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Vitamin and Mineral Requirements Table
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Varying Dietary Needs of Individuals Table
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Scurvy & Rickets
Scurvy
Scurvy is the name for a severe vitamin C deficiency
o It is caused by a lack of vitamin C in the diet for over 3 months
Its symptoms include:
o Anemia
o Exhaustion
o Spontaneous bleeding
o Pain in the limbs
o Swelling
o Gum ulcerations
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o Tooth loss
It is a condition that was commonly seen in sailors between the 15th to 18th
centuries
o Long sea voyages made it very hard to access a ready supply of fresh
produce
Scurvy can be treated with oral or intravenous vitamin C supplements
Rickets
Rickets is a condition in children characterised by poor bone development
Symptoms include:
o Bone pain
o Lack of bone growth
o Soft, weak bones (sometimes causing deformities)
Rickets is caused by a severe lack of vitamin D
o Vitamin D is required for the absorption of calcium into the body
Calcium is a key component of bones and teeth
Vitamin D mostly comes from exposure to sunlight but it can also be found in
some foods (fish, eggs and butter)
The treatment for rickets is to increase consumption of foods containing
calcium and vitamin D
o Alternatively vitamin D supplements can be prescribed
Digestive system: organs
The digestive system is an example of an organ system
Some of the digestive system organs make up the alimentary canal; food
passes directly through these organs as it moves through the body:
o mouth
o oesphagus
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o stomach
o small intestine, including the duodenum and the ileum
o large intestine, including the colon, rectum and anus
Some of the organs of the digestive system do not form part of the route travelled
by food, but are still involved with digestion; these are the associated organs, or
accessory organs, and include the:
o salivary glands
o pancreas
o liver
o gall bladder
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Digestive system organs diagram
The organs of the human digestive system work together to digest food and
absorb nutrients
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Digestive system: function
The function of the digestive system is to digest food and absorb nutrients
The digestive system carries out its function in several stages:
o ingestion: food and drink are taken into the body through the mouth
o mechanical digestion: food is broken down into smaller pieces without
chemical change to the food molecules
o chemical digestion: large, insoluble molecules are broken down into
small, soluble molecules
o absorption: small food molecules and ions move through the wall of the
intestine into the blood
o egestion: food that has not been digested or absorbed passes out of the
body as faeces
Once nutrients have been absorbed into the blood by the digestive system they
can be assimilated into the body; this occurs when they are taken up by the
cells of the body
Digestive system functions table
Structure Function
Food is ingested here and the teeth break it down into smaller pieces
Mouth
during mechanical digestion
Saliva is secreted into the mouth
Salivary glands The enzyme amylase in saliva begins to digest starch into maltose
Saliva lubricates the food for easy swallowing
This tube connects the mouth to the stomach
Oesophagus
Contractions of the walls of the oesophagus force the food downwards; this is
peristalsis
Churning of the muscular stomach walls continues the process of mechanical
digestion
Stomach Protease enzymes begin protein digestion
Hydrochloric acid provides a suitable pH for the enzymes and also destroys any
pathogens in food
Liver Bile is produced here
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Bile aids the digestion of fats, as well as neutralising stomach acid as it exits the
stomach
Gall bladder Bile is stored here before being released into the duodenum via the bile duct
Amylase, protease and lipase enzymes are produced here before being released
Pancreas
into the duodenum
Food enters the small intestine from the stomach here
Small intestine:
The acidic stomach contents are neutralised by bile and become slightly alkaline
duodenum
Enzymes complete chemical digestion here
Small intestine:
Food and water are absorbed into the blood via villi in the lining of the ileum
ileum
Large intestine: Remaining water is absorbed from food into the blood, and the solid waste left
colon behind in the colon forms faeces
Large intestine:
Faeces are stored here prior to egestion
rectum
Large intestine: anus Faeces leave the body via the anus; this is egestion
Physical Digestion
Physical digestion (sometimes referred to as mechanical digestion) is the
breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change to the food
molecules
The processes that take place during physical digestion help to increase the
surface area of food for the action of enzymes during chemical digestion
It is mainly carried out by the chewing action of the teeth, the churning action of
the stomach and the emulsification of fats by bile in the duodenum.
Types of Human Teeth
Mechanical digestion is the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without
chemical change to the food molecules
It is mainly carried out by the chewing action of the teeth, the churning action of
the stomach and the emulsification of fats by bile in the duodenum
Teeth are held firmly in the bone of the jaw
o They are used for chewing to increase the surface area of the food so
that it can be exposed to saliva and other digestive juices and broken
down more quickly
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The differing shapes and sizes of teeth enable them to perform slightly different
functions:
o Incisors - chisel-shaped for biting and cutting
o Canines - pointed for tearing, holding and biting
o Premolars and molars - larger, flat surfaces with ridges at the edges for
chewing and grinding up food
Types of teeth
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Structure of a Tooth
Str
ucture of a typical tooth
The Stomach
The stomach is one of a number of organs that make up the digestive system
The role of the digestive system is to break down large insoluble molecules into
smaller, soluble food molecules to provide the body with nutrients
The stomach lining contains muscles which contract to physically squeeze and
mix the food with the strong digestive juices that are present
o Also known as "stomach churning"
Food is digested within the stomach for several hours
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Three types of tissue found in the stomach are muscular, epithelial and glandular.
These tissues work together to allow the stomach to carry out its role.
Emulsification of Fats & Oils: Extended
Extended Tier Only
Cells in the liver produce bile which is then stored in the gallbladder
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Bile production and secretion
Bile has two main roles:
It is alkaline to neutralise the hydrochloric acid which comes from the
stomach
The enzymes in the small intestine have a higher (more alkaline) optimum pH
than those in the stomach
It breaks down large drops of fat into smaller ones. This is known
as emulsification. The larger surface area allows lipase to chemically break
down the lipid into glycerol and fatty acids faster
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Examiner Tips and Tricks
Emulsification is the equivalent of tearing a large piece of paper into smaller pieces of
paper.This is an example of mechanical digestion, not chemical digestion – breaking
something into smaller pieces does not break bonds or change the chemical structure of
the molecules which make it up, which is the definition of chemical digestion.
Chemical Digestion
Stages of food breakdown
Food taken into the body goes through 5 different stages during its passage
through the alimentary canal (the gut):
o Ingestion - the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body
through the mouth
o Mechanical digestion - the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without
chemical change to the food molecules
o Chemical digestion - the breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into
small, soluble molecules
o Absorption - the movement of small food molecules and ions through the
wall of the intestine into the blood
o Assimilation - the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of
the body where they are used, becoming part of the cells
o Egestion - the passing out of food that has not been digested or
absorbed, as faeces, through the anus
The role of chemical digestion is to produce small soluble molecules that can be
absorbed
Enzymes in Digestion
Amylases
Amylases are produced in the mouth and the pancreas (secreted into
the duodenum)
Amylases digest starch into smaller sugars
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The digestion of starch
Proteases
Proteases are a group of enzymes that break down proteins into amino
acids in the stomach and small intestine (with the enzymes in the small intestine
having been produced in the pancreas)
The digestion of proteins
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Lipases
Lipase enzymes are produced in the pancreas and secreted into
the duodenum
They digest lipids into fatty acids and glycerol
The digestion of lipids
Hydrochloric Acid
The stomach produces several fluids which together are known as gastric juice
One of the fluids produced is hydrochloric acid
This kills bacteria in food and gives an acid pH for enzymes to work in the
stomach
How is a low pH helpful in the stomach?
The low pH kills bacteria in food that we have ingested as it denatures the
enzymes in their cells, meaning they cannot carry out any cell reactions to
maintain life
Pepsin, produced in the stomach, is an example of an enzyme which has a very
low optimum pH - around pH 2
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The hydrochloric acid produced in the stomach ensures that conditions in
the stomach remain within the optimum range for pepsin to work at its fastest
rate
Digestion of Starch: Extended
Extended Tier Only
Amylases are produced in the mouth and the pancreas (secreted into
the duodenum)
Amylases digest starch into smaller sugars
The digestion of starch
Amylase is secreted into the alimentary canal in the mouth and
the duodenum (from the pancreas) and digests starch to maltose (a
disaccharide)
Maltose is digested by the enzyme maltase into glucose on the membranes of
the epithelium lining of the small intestine.
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Digestion of Protein: Extended
Extended Tier Only
Proteases are a group of enzymes that break down proteins into amino
acids in the stomach and small intestine (with the enzymes in the small intestine
having been produced in the pancreas)
The digestion of proteins
Protein digestion takes place in the stomach and duodenum with two main
enzymes produced:
o Pepsin is produced in the stomach and breaks down protein in acidic
conditions
o Trypsin is produced in the pancreas and secreted into
the duodenum where is breaks down protein in alkaline conditions.
Bile: Extended
Extended Tier Only
Cells in the liver produce bile which is then stored in the gallbladder
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Bile production and secretion
Bile has two main roles:
It is alkaline to neutralise the hydrochloric acid which comes from the
stomach
The enzymes in the small intestine have a higher (more alkaline) optimum pH
than those in the stomach
It breaks down large drops of fat into smaller ones. This is known
as emulsification. The larger surface area allows lipase to chemically break
down the lipid into glycerol and fatty acids faster
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Emulsification is the equivalent of tearing a large piece of paper into smaller pieces of
paper. This is an example of mechanical digestion, not chemical digestion – breaking
something into smaller pieces does not break bonds or change the chemical structure of
the molecules which make it up, which is the definition of chemical digestion.
Absorbing Nutrients
Absorption is the movement of digested food molecules from the digestive
system into the blood (glucose and amino acids) and lymph (fatty acids and
glycerol)
Nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine
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Absorbing Water
Water is absorbed in both the small intestine and the colon, but most
absorption of water (around 80%) happens in the small intestine
Adaptations of the Small Intestine: Extended
Extended Tier Only
The ileum is adapted for absorption as it is very long and has a highly folded
surface with millions of villi (tiny, finger like projections)
These adaptations massively increase the surface area of the ileum, allowing
absorption to take place faster and more efficiently
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Adaptations of the small intestine
Microvilli on the surface of the villus further increase surface area for faster
absorption of nutrients
Wall of the villus is one cell thick meaning that there is only a short distance for
absorption to happen by diffusion and active transport
Well supplied with a network of blood capillaries that transport glucose and
amino acids away from the small intestine in the blood
Lacteal runs through the centre of the villus to transport fatty acids and glycerol
away from the small intestine in the lymph
Examiner Tips and Tricks
The way in which the structure of a villus is related to its function comes up
frequently in exam questions so it is worth ensuring you have learned these
adaptations.
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