Introduction to

Computers
Welcome to the exciting world of computers! In this lesson, we will
learn about what computers are, what they do, and how they are
used in our daily lives. We will also explore different types of
computers and their unique features.

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What is a Computer?
Electronic Device
A computer is an electronic device that processes data according to
set of instructions called a program. It can store, retrieve, and
manipulate data to perform tasks.

Instructions and Programs

Computers follow instructions called programs. These programs tell
the computer what to do with the data.

Input, Processing, Output

Computers receive data through input devices like keyboards and
mice. They process the data and provide results through output
devices like monitors and printers.
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Evolution of Computers Over Time
Early Computers:
Early computing machines like Charles Babbage’s “Difference Engine”
and “;Analytical Engine” were mechanical devices that could perform
basic arithmetic or logical operations
arithmetic operations.
ENIAC (1940s):
The first truly electronic general-purpose computer, ENIAC
(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), was developed during
World War II.
It was massive, filling an entire room, and used thousands of vacuum
Modern Computers:
tubes to perform
Today’s computers are millions of times faster than early
its operations.
machines and are small enough to fit in your pocket. Advances in
technology have made it possible to create smartphones and tablets that
have processing power far greater than those early machines.
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 Types of Computers
Supercomputers Mainframes Minicomputers

These are the most powerful These large computers are used by These smaller computers are used
computers, used for complex big organizations like banks and by medium-sized businesses for
scientific calculations, weather airlines to handle huge amounts of specific tasks like inventory
forecasting, and research. data. management and customer
The 7 most powerful supercomputers in the
world right now databases.
● Frontier.
● Aurora.
● Eagle.
● Fugaku.
● LUMI.
● Leonardo.
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● Summit.
Microcomputers (PCs)

1 Desktop Computers
These are stationary computers used for everyday tasks, work, and
entertainment.

2 Laptops
These portable computers are perfect for students, travelers, and people
who need to work on the go.

3 Tablets
These touchscreen devices are great for browsing the internet, reading
books, and watching videos.

4 Smartphones
These mobile phones with powerful processors and internet connectivity
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Uses of Computers

E-commerce Communication Organization Entertainment

Computers are used for Computers are used for Computers are used for Computers are used for
buying and selling goods sending emails, video calls, scheduling appointments, playing video games,
online. and messaging. managing finances, and watching movies, and
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Importance of Computers
Education
Computers are used for research, online learning, and educational games.

Healthcare
Computers are used for medical diagnosis, treatment, and patient records.

Science and Engineering

Computers are used for research, simulations, and design.

Art and Design

Computers are used for graphic design, animation, and music production.

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The Future of Computers
Computers are constantly evolving. In the future, we can expect even more powerful and intelligent computers that will
change the way we live, work, and interact with the world.

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Generations of Computers

First Generation (1940-1956)

● Technology: Vacuum Tubes
● Characteristics:
○ Used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic
drums for memory.
○ Large in size, consumed a lot of electricity, and
produced a lot of heat.
○ Programming was done in machine language.
● Examples: ENIAC, UNIVAC, EDVAC

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Generations of Computers

Second Generation (1956-1963)

● Technology: Transistors
● Characteristics:
○ Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, making
computers smaller, faster, and more energy-
efficient.
○ Assembly language was used for programming.
○ Input was provided through punched cards and
output was obtained on printouts.
● Examples: IBM 7090, UNIVAC II

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Generations of Computers

Third Generation (1964-1971)

● Technology: Integrated Circuits (IC)
● Characteristics:
○ Integrated Circuits (ICs) allowed computers to
become more powerful, reliable, and efficient.
○ Increased the use of high-level programming
languages like COBOL and FORTRAN.
○ Operating systems allowed multiple tasks to be
performed simultaneously (multiprogramming).
● Examples: IBM 360, Honeywell 6000

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Generations of Computers

Fourth Generation (1971-Present)

● Technology: Microprocessors
● Characteristics:
○ Use of microprocessors led to the creation of
personal computers (PCs).
○ Very large-scale integration (VLSI) allowed
millions of transistors to be packed on a single
chip.
○ GUI-based operating systems like Windows and
macOS became standard.
● Examples: IBM PC, Apple Macintosh
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Generations of Computers

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond)

● Technology: Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Quantum
Computing
● Characteristics:
○ Focus on AI, machine learning, natural language
processing, and neural networks.
○ Quantum computers aim to solve problems that
classical computers cannot solve efficiently.
○ Integration of advanced technologies like
robotics, IoT, and cloud computing.
● Examples: IBM Watson, Google Quantum
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Hardware of a Computer
● Input Unit

01 Functional Units of a Computer

●
●
Output Unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
● Storage Unit

● Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

02 Components of the CPU

●
●
Control Unit (CU)
Registers

● Memory Hierarchy
● Types of Memory
Primary Memory (RAM, ROM)
03 Memory in a Computer Secondary Memory (Hard Drive, SSD)
Cache Memory
Virtual Memory

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Functional Units of a Computer
Input Output
We use input devices like keyboards, mice, and touch The processed information is displayed on output
screens to give instructions to the computer. devices like monitors, printers, and speakers.

1 2 3 4

Processing Storage
The computer uses its central processing unit (CPU) to Computers store data and programs on hard drives,
process the information and follow the instructions in SSDs, and other storage devices.
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Components of the CPU
The CPU is the core of every computing device. It is composed of
several sub-units, each responsible for different tasks. Understanding
these components can help us grasp how the CPU processes data and
executes instructions.

1 2 3

Arithmetic Logic Unit Control Unit Registers

The ALU performs all The CU acts as the Registers are small
arithmetic operations like “traffic manager” of the storage locations that
addition, subtraction, CPU. It directs the flow hold data and
multiplication, division of data between the CPU, instructions temporarily
and logical operations memory, and during the execution of
input/output devices tasks

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Memory in a Computer
Memory in computers refers to the components or
devices that store data, either temporarily or
permanently. Memory is essential for storing both the
data and instructions that the CPU needs to execute
programs.

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Characteristics of Computer
Memory
❑ It is faster computer memory as compared
to secondary memory.

❑ It is semiconductor memories.

❑ It is usually a volatile memory, and main

memory of the computer.

❑ A computer system cannot run without

primary memory.
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Memory Hierarchy
Memory Hierarchy Levels:
1. Registers (Fastest, Most Expensive)
2. Cache Memory (L1, L2, L3)
3. Main Memory (RAM)
4. Secondary Storage (HDD/SSD)

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Registers
Computer registers are small, high-speed storage
locations within the CPU (Central Processing Unit)
that store data temporarily. They are critical to the
operation of the processor, enabling it to perform
calculations, control operations, and manage data
flow between the CPU and memory. Registers
operate much faster than other forms of memory
(like RAM), which is why they are used for the most
frequently accessed data by the CPU.
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Types of Registers
1. General-Purpose Registers (GPRs):

❖ These registers store temporary data for

the CPU, such as intermediate results from
calculations or addresses.

❖ In modern processors, examples of

GPRs include the AX, BX, CX, and DX
registers in x86 architecture.

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Types of Registers
2. Special-Purpose Registers:

•These have specific functions related to the CPU's

operations:

❖ Program Counter (PC): Holds the address of

the next instruction to be executed.
❖ Instruction Register (IR): Contains the
current instruction being executed.
❖ Stack Pointer (SP): Points to the top of the
stack, used for managing function calls and
local variables.
❖ Status or Flag Register (FR): Holds flags
that indicate the state of the processor (e.g.,
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 Types of Registers
3. Data Registers:

❖ Temporarily hold data that is being processed by the CPU.

These are used during arithmetic or logical operations.

4. Address Registers:

❖ Hold memory addresses that the CPU uses to access data

in main memory (RAM).

5. Control Registers:

❖ Store information used to control various aspects of the

CPU's operations, such as mode control, debugging, and
exception handling.
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Cache Memory
Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory
located close to or within the CPU that temporarily
stores frequently accessed data and instructions. Its
primary purpose is to speed up data retrieval by
reducing the time it takes for the CPU to access
data from the main memory (RAM), which is slower
than the cache.

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Levels of Cache Memory
1. L1 Cache (Level 1):

❖ This is the fastest and smallest type of cache,

located directly within the CPU core.

❖ It's divided into two sections:

• Instruction Cache: Stores instructions that the
CPU is likely to execute.
• Data Cache: Stores data that the CPU will
need soon.

❖ Typical size: 32 KB to 128 KB per core.

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Levels of Cache Memory
2. L2 Cache (Level 2):

❖ Slightly slower than L1, but larger in size.

❖ It can be located either inside or close to the
CPU core, depending on the architecture.
❖ L2 cache serves as a middle layer between L1
and main memory, storing more data that
doesn't fit in L1.
❖ Typical size: 256 KB to several MB.
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Levels of Cache Memory
3. L3 Cache (Level 3):
❖ Larger and slower than L2, but still much faster
than RAM.
❖ Usually shared between all CPU cores in a
multi-core processor.
❖ It acts as a buffer to store data that didn’t fit into
L2 caches of individual cores.
❖ Typical size: Several MB to tens of MB.

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How Cache Memory Works
When the CPU needs to access data, it first looks
for it in the closest cache (L1). If the data isn’t found
(a "cache miss"), it moves to L2, then L3, and finally
to the main memory if necessary. Retrieving data
from the cache (a "cache hit") is much faster than
accessing the main memory.

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Main Memory
Main memory, also known as primary memory or
RAM (Random Access Memory), is a crucial
component of a computer that temporarily stores
data and instructions needed by the CPU to
execute programs. It acts as the working area
where the processor accesses and processes
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information in real time.

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Characteristics of Main Memory:

1. Volatile Storage:
loses all stored data when the power is turned off.
2. Fast Access:
Compared to secondary storage devices (like HDDs or
SSDs), main memory offers much faster access speeds.
3. Direct Access:
The CPU can directly access any memory location in RAM
using its address
4. Dynamic Nature:
Most modern main memory is Dynamic RAM (DRAM),
which stores data in capacitors
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Types of Main Memory:

1. Dynamic RAM (DRAM):

❖ The most common type of RAM in modern

computers.
❖ It stores data in capacitors, which require
continuous refreshing (periodically recharging
the capacitors) to prevent data loss.
❖ While DRAM is relatively cheap and can store
large amounts of data, it is slower than other
types of memory due to the need for refresh
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Types of Main Memory:

2. Static RAM (SRAM):

❖ Unlike DRAM, SRAM uses flip-flop circuits to

store data, which makes it faster and more
reliable but also more expensive and less dense
in terms of storage capacity.
❖ SRAM is commonly used in smaller quantities for
CPU caches (L1, L2, L3) rather than as main
memory.

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How Main Memory Works:

When you open a program or access a file, the

operating system loads the required data from
secondary storage (e.g., hard drive or SSD) into the
main memory. The CPU can then access the data
directly from RAM, where it performs operations
much faster than if it had to retrieve it from the hard
drive.

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Types of Memory

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