Unit 5 notes

File System and File Organization

In any computer system, data is stored in files, and how these files are organized on
storage media is called file organization. Efficient file organization is crucial because it
affects the speed and ease of data retrieval and updates.

Heap File Organization

A heap file is an unordered collection of records. New records are inserted at the end of
the file. It is the simplest form of file organization. There is no order, so searching for a
particular record requires scanning the entire file. Heap files are efficient for bulk
insertions but inefficient for searches and deletions.

Sequential File Organization

In sequential file organization, records are stored in a sorted order based on a key field.
This method makes it easier and faster to perform operations such as sequential
access and range queries. However, insertion and deletion become complicated, as the
file must maintain the sorted order, often requiring rewriting large parts of the file.

Hash File Organization

In hash file organization, a hash function is used to compute the address of the block
where the record should be stored. This method allows for direct access to data, which
makes it very efficient for searches, insertions, and deletions based on the hash key.
However, hash collisions (when two records hash to the same location) must be
handled using methods like chaining or open addressing.

Clustered File Organization

Clustered file organization groups related records together, often physically storing
them on the same block or nearby blocks. This is useful when records are frequently
accessed together, as it minimizes the number of I/O operations. Clustering can be
based on physical proximity or logical grouping, improving the performance of complex
queries that involve joins.

File Operations

File operations are the basic functions performed on files, and they include:

• Creation: Allocating space and setting up the structure for a new file.

• Reading: Fetching the contents of a file or record.

• Writing: Adding or modifying data in a file.

• Deletion: Removing records or files from the storage.

• Appending: Adding new records at the end of the file.

These operations are supported by file management systems and are critical for
maintaining data consistency and integrity.

Indexing

Indexing is a data structure technique used to quickly locate and access the data in a
database file. It creates a data structure (usually a tree or hash) that stores pointers to
the original records. Indexing improves search performance by reducing the number of
data blocks to be scanned.

There are different types of indexes:

• Primary Index: Built on the primary key; entries are in the same order as the file.

• Secondary Index: Built on non-primary key fields; used for fast lookups.

• Clustering Index: Records are physically stored in the order of a clustering field.

B-tree

A B-tree is a self-balanced tree data structure that maintains sorted data and allows for
efficient insertion, deletion, and search operations. It is widely used in databases and
file systems to organize large blocks of data.

Key characteristics of a B-tree:

• Each node can have multiple keys and children.

• All leaves are at the same level.

• Insertion and deletion operations are designed to maintain balance.

• The tree grows in height only when the root is split.

B-trees are preferred when data is stored on disks because they minimize the number of
disk reads.

B+ Tree
A B+ tree is an extension of a B-tree and is commonly used in database indexing. It
differs in that:

• Internal nodes only store keys (no data).

• Leaf nodes store both keys and data and are linked using a pointer for fast
sequential access.

• All data is stored in leaf nodes, and internal nodes only act as a guide.

This structure makes B+ trees more efficient for range queries and sequential access,
which is why they are widely used in file systems and database indexing.

Introduction to Data Mining

Data mining is the process of discovering patterns, correlations, and useful information
from large sets of data using statistical and computational techniques. It is an
interdisciplinary field involving database systems, machine learning, and artificial
intelligence.

Data mining aims to extract knowledge from data to aid in decision-making. Common
tasks include:

• Classification

• Clustering

• Association rule mining

• Regression analysis

• Anomaly detection

Data mining is used in various domains such as marketing, fraud detection, and
healthcare.

Data Farming

Data farming is the process of generating data through simulation models and analyzing
it to gain insights and make decisions. Unlike data mining, which deals with existing
data, data farming is about creating and experimenting with data to explore complex
systems.

It is particularly useful in systems that are too complex to model analytically, such as
military operations or large-scale industrial systems. The idea is to "farm" different
scenarios and study outcomes to improve strategies and planning.
Data Warehousing

Data warehousing involves collecting and managing data from various sources to
provide meaningful business insights. A data warehouse is a centralized repository that
stores current and historical data in an organized manner for analysis and reporting.

Key features of data warehousing:

• Subject-oriented: Organized around key subjects like customers or sales.

• Integrated: Combines data from different sources.

• Time-variant: Contains historical data to track changes over time.

• Non-volatile: Once entered, data is not updated or deleted.

Data warehousing is a foundational concept in business intelligence, allowing