INTRODUCTION

DRONE TECHNOLOGY

2024 - BY SUSHANT SATISH SAWANT 1

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Course Objectives
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) or Drones are used in crucial array of
applications from defense
weapon systems and surveillance to providing relief and aid to
distressed humanity. This course
introduces hardware and software design of drones which will instill
confidence to develop
Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) for various applications.

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Course outcome
After the successful completion of this course, the student will be
able to -

1. Describe fundamental concepts of UAV,

2. Explain drone system design flow by considering electrical and
mechanical parameters,
3. Classify drone’s sensors and communication technologies,
4. Implement the model of Mini Quadrotor Vehicle.

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Detailed Syllabus
Unit 1: Introduction - 06
Introduction to Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), aviation history and
overview
of UAV systems, UAV fundamentals, Definitions and terminology , Classes
and
missions of UAVs, Examples of UAV systems - very small, small, medium and
large, Parts of the drone - Hardware, Software and Mechanical subsystems,
Ground based controllers, Use cases in Military, Industrial, Commercial
applications.

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Detailed Syllabus
Unit 2: Drone system design flow - 08
System Design - requirement specification, Architecture,
Mechanical design – Propeller, X-frame, Mylar, MB, Shielding and TIM,
Heat spreader, FPC (flexible PCB) etc.
Hardware Design – Drone hardware block diagram, A typical drone
system stack-up,
Drone Power Architecture and Estimation - SOC power requirements,
power devices – Linear regulator,
Switching regulator and battery estimation, battery constraints, watt
hours and energy density, battery capacity, and cost.

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Detailed Syllabus
Unit 3: Drone hardware devices - 06
UAV sensors - accelerometers, rate gyros, pressure sensors, digital
compasses, GPS.
Communication Module: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,
fundamentals of 3G/4G mobile communication,
RF communications,
Drone communication system,
Drone imaging system,
Flight Controllers based on MCU/MPU, FPGA.

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Detailed Syllabus
Unit 4: Autonomous control of a Mini Quadrotor Vehicle - 10
Introduction of Mini Quadrotor Vehicle,
Description of the Experimental Platform,
Embedded Control System, Sensor units,
Control unit, Wireless Camera and Modem unit,
Design of controller and its Modelling.

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Text Book:
Neeraj Kumar Singh, Poselvan Muthukrishnan, satyanarayanasanpini, industrial system Engineering for
Drones, 1sted., Press publication 2019.

Reference Book:
Richard K Barnhart, Stephen B Hottman, Douglas M. Marshall, Eric Shappee, Introduction to
Unmanned Aircraft Systems 1st edt CRC Press 2012.
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What is UAV’s
• An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is an aircraft that carries no human pilot
or passengers UAVs sometimes called drones can be fully or partially
autonomous but are more often controlled remotely by a human pilot
• A unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is defined as a "aerial vehicle that does
not carry a human operator, uses aerodynamic forces to provide vehicle
lift, can fly autonomously or be piloted remotely, can be expendable or
recoverable, and can carry a lethal or nonlethal payload
• A UAV, commonly known as a drone, unpiloted aerial vehicle, or remotely
piloted aircraft has its flight controlled either autonomously by on board
computers or by the remote control of a pilot on the ground or in another
vehicle
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UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE (UAV)
• Rapid development of autonomous unmanned aircraft equipped with
autonomous control devices are called unmanned aerial vehicles.
• UAVs offer major advantages when used for aerial surveillance,
reconnaissance, and inspection in complex and dangerous
environments.
• UAVs are better suited for dull, dirty, or dangerous missions than
manned aircraft
• *AIAA: “an aircraft which is designed or modified, not to carry a
human pilot and is operated through electronic input initiated by the
flight controller or by an onboard autonomous flight management
control system that does not require flight controller intervention.”
2024
*American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
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 AVIATION HISTROY
• first UAV was manufactured by the Americans Lawrence and Sperry in 1916.
• They developed a gyroscope to stabilize the body - “attitude control,” which came to
be used for the automatic steering of an aircraft.
• They called their device the “aviation torpedo” and Lawrence and Sperry actually flew
it a distance that exceeded 30 miles.
• However, because of their practical technical immaturity, were not used in World
Wars.

• The development of UAVs began at the end of the 1950s (Vietnam War) a UAV called
Firebee.
• The U.S. and Israel began to develop smaller and cheaper UAVs. They carried video
cameras and transmitted images to the operator’s location. It seems that the
prototype of the present UAV can be found in this period.

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AVIATION HISTROY
• UAVs practical use in the Gulf War in 1991. The
most famous UAV for military use is the
Predator.
• NASA was at the center of the research for civil
use during this period. ERAST (Environmental
Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology)
project.
• 1990s synthetic research endeavor for UAV
that included the development of the Predator Helios
technology needed to fly at high altitudes of
up to 30,000 m, along with a prolonged flight
technology, engine, sensor, etc. The aircraft
that were developed in this project included
Helios, Proteus, Altus, Pathfinder, etc.
• These were designed to carry out
environmental measurements.

Proteus Altus
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ELEMENTS OF UAV SYSTEM

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Unmanned aircraft
• Unmanned aircraft are fixed-wing, rotor-wing, or lighter-than-air
vehicles that fly without a human on board.
• Fixed-wing UAS platforms have the advantage of offering operators long flight
duration for either maximizing time on station or maximizing range. The
disadvantages of fixed-wing UAS platforms are that the logistics require for
launch and recovery (L&R) can be very substantial.
• A VTOL platform can be in the form of a helicopter, a fixed-wing aircraft that
can hover, or even a tilt-rotor. Advantages of very rapid deployment times.
Disadvantages of battery technology - beyond 30 to 60 minutes.

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COMMAND AND CONTROL ELEMENT
• Autopilot: autonomous UAS is able to fly without operator
intervention from takeoff to touchdown. The aircraft is stabilized by
autopilot.
• Autopilot system are programmed with redundancy technology. The
system can perform lost-link procedure if communication becomes
severed between ground control station and air vehicle.
• This is established by creating lost-link profile where the mission flight
profiles (altitudes, flight path, speed) are loaded into the memory of
system prior to aircraft launch.

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COMMAND AND CONTROL ELEMENTS
• Ground Control Station: it is a land or sea based control center that
provides the facilities for human control of unmanned vehicles in air
or space.
• GSC consists of at least a pilot station and a sensor station. The sensor
station is for the operation of the sensor payload and radio
communications.

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COMMUNICATION DATA LINK
• Data link describe how command and control information is sent and
received both to and from GCS and autopilot.
• Line-Of-Sight: it refer to operating RPA (remotely piloted aircraft) via direct
radio waves. Depending on the strength of transmitter and receiver and
obstacles in between these communications can travel several miles.
• Signal strength is improved utilizing a directional tracking antenna. These
antenna uses location of RPA to continuously adjust the direction in which
it is pointed in order to always direct its signal at RPA.
• Frequency hopping is a basic signal modulation technique used to spread
the signal across the frequency spectrum. During hopping a short burst of
data is transmitted on a narrowband, then the transmitter tunes to
another frequency and transmits again.
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COMMUNICATION DATA LINK
• Beyond Line-Of-Sight (BLOS): it refer to operating the RPA via satellite
communications or using a relay vehicle.
• Military BLOS operates on encrypted Ku band in 12 – 18 GHz.
• Its launch phase is usually conducted using LOS and then transferred
to BLOS data link. It is then transferred back to LOS for its recovery.
• Drawback of BLOS operations is that there can be several seconds of
delay time once a command is sent to the aircraft, for it to respond to
that command. This delay caused by the many relays and system it
must travel through.

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PAYLOAD
• The payload can be related to surveillance, weapons delivery,
communications, aerial sensing or cargo. UASs are designed around
intended payload.
• The mission of surveillance and aerial sensing, sensor payloads come
in many different forms for different missions.
• Electro-Optical Camera: these camera use electronics to pivot, zoom
and focus the image. These cameras operate in visible light spectrum.
EO sensor is used for many mission and combined with different
types of sensors to create blended images. They are operated in
daylight.

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PAYLOAD
• Infrared Camera: it operated in infrared range of EM spectrum (1 –
400 THz).
• Two types of IR camera used for UAS payloads are cooled and
noncooled.
• Cooled camera are expensive and heavier,

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Launch and Recovery
• most labor intensive aspects of the UAV operation
• Some UASs have very elaborate LRE procedures, whereas others have
virtually none. Larger systems have procedures and dedicated
personnel that prepare, launch, and recover the RPA.
• There are many ways to conduct launch and recovery operations for
current UASs. Some of the most common involves using a catapult
system to get the aircraft to flight speed in a very short distance
• For the landing phase it can “belly land” on grass or hard surfaces, or
it can recover into a moving net.

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Human Element
• Most important element of UAS
• Human element is required for operation of UAS.
• It consists of pilot, sensor, and supporting ground crew
• The UAS pilot in command is responsible for the safe operation of the
aircraft.

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Drone Classification
• By wing type
• By sensor type
• By weight
• By range
• By automation
• By application

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Drone Classification – by wing type
• Fixed Wing • Rotary Wing

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• Fixed-wing UAVs – that require runway to take-off and land or catapult
launching. They have long endurance and can fly at high cruising speeds.

• Rotary-wing UAVs – can vertical take-off and land. Which have advantage
of hovering and high maneuverability. These capabilities are useful for
many robotic missions in civilian application

• Blimps such as ballons and airship which are lighter than air and have long
endurance, fly at low speed and generally large sized.

• Flapping-wing UAV have flexible and/or morphing small wings inspired by

birds and flying insects.

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Rotary Wing Types Drones

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• Multirotor
• Flying height: up to 500m.
• Flying time: 20 – 30 mins.
• Coverage: 0.4 – 0.8 km2 per flight
• Range: 5 km

• Fixed-wing
• Flying height: upto 1000m
• Flying time: 50 – 60 km2 per flight
• Wing span: 1 – 2 m
• Range: 30 – 60 km

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 Multi-rotor Fixed-wing
Cheap Relatively expensive
Easier to operate Need experienced operators
Vertical and easy landing Horizontal landing and need sufficient
space
Short flight and low coverage Long flight and high coverage
Suitable for local mapping Suitable for large area mapping
Comply with aviation regulations Often needs permission to fly

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Classification of Drones – by weight
• Drones are classified by weight
• Small Unmanned Aircraft System < 55 lbs (25 Kg)
• “micro” < 4.4 lbs (2Kg)

• Model Aircrafts classified by the purpose of only recreation

• Racing drones are classified by size.

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• Nano: < 250 g
• Micro: 250 g < w < 2 kg
• Small: 2 kg < w < 25 kg
• Medium: 25 kg < w < 150 kg
• Large: > 150 kg

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Classification as per Weight and Range
Type Maximum Weight Maximum Range Category
Nano 200g 5 km Fixed wing, multirotor
Micro 2 kg 25 km Fixed wing, multirotor
Mini 20 kg 40 km Fixed wing, multirotor
Light 50 kg 70 km Fixed wing, multirotor
Small 150 kg 150 km Fixed wing
Tactical 600 kg 150 km Fixed wing
MALE (medium altitude 1000 kg 200 km Fixed wing
long endurance)
HALE (high altitude long 1000 kg 250 km Fixed wing
endurance)
Heavy 2000 kg 1000 km Fixed wing
Super Heavy 2500 kg 1500 km Fixed wing
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UAVs categorized by size
a) Very Small / Micro / Nano UAVs
• Very small UAVs can range from just two centimeters long to about 50
centimeters long Their size and weight make them inconspicuous, so
they are often used for surveillance applications
• Because their natural design is so effective, many of the popular very
small UAVs are modeled after insects with wings that either flap or
rotate to keep them aloft
• Size limits the ranges at which these UAVs can be detected by both
radars and electro optical infrared (EO IR) sensors Their size also limits
their altitude and speed, as they are usually flown at less than 125
meters high and speeds less than 50 meters per second
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Very small / micro / nano UAVs
Specifications Very Small tactical Miniature Micro
Size < 10 m <5m < 15 cm
GTOW (gross takeoff 10 – 25 kg < 10 kg < 100 g
weight)
Speed < 130 m/s < 50 m/s < 15 m/s
Altitude (above ground < 3500 AGL < 1200 AGL < 100 AGL
level)
Range < 50 km < 25 km < 10 km

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Terms used in UAVs
• Endurance for an UAV can be described as the total time taken during
flight.
• For an electric fixed-wing aircraft or quadrotor this is directly related to the
capacity of the battery and the amount of current the motor produces to
keep the aircraft in the air.

• Above Ground Level (AGL) describes the literal height above the
ground over which drone flies.

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UAVs categorized by size
2) Small / Mini UAVs
• Small UAVs are slightly larger, spanning from just over 50 centimeters
long to about two meters long They typically feature either a fixed
wing or rotary wing style
• Because of their small size, most small UAVs are flown at altitudes
near 125 meters at speeds less than 50 meters per second

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Examples of small UAVs

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UAVs categorized by size
3) Medium UAVs
• Medium UAVs are classified as being longer (or broader) than two
meters They are capable of flying at altitudes less than 5500 meters at
speeds up to 125 meters per second They typically have a length or
wingspan of five to 10 meters.
• Like small UAVs, they often feature a fixed wing or rotary wing style
But unlike small UAVs, they are typically too heavy to be launched
manually by a single person They either require several people to
carry them, or are launched by another method

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Examples of Medium UAVs

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UAVs categorized by size
4) Large UAVs
• Large UAVs are what most people picture when talking about types of
UAVs They are the standard for combat operations in the military.
• Large UAVs provide the advantage of being able to be flown into
protected airspaces from very long distances thanks to their
sophisticated electronic system payloads (like radar, electronic
warfare, and communications systems).
• Their size also allows them to fly at altitudes greater than 5500
meters at speeds greater than 125 meters per second

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Examples of Large UAVs

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Classifications – As per Range
• Very close – range UAVs
• Close – range UAVs
• Short – range UAVs
• Mid – range UAVs
• Endurance UAVs

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UAVs categorized by range
UAVs can also be categorized by the goals and missions they can help
achieve When power and range are more important than concealment,
UAV types are typically categorized by range.

Close - Range
• Close range UAVs have a range of up to 50 km and can typically
remain airborne for up to six hours Due to their small size and close
range, they are often used for close quarters reconnaissance missions

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UAVs Categorized by Range
Short Range
• These UAVs can travel slightly further, up to 150 km. The best short
range UAVs can stay in flight for up to 12 hours
• They are used in similar contexts to close range UAVs, but their
extended range and endurance make them a better option for many
missions
• However they are significantly more expensive than many close range
options

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UAVs Categorized by Range
Mid Range
• Mid range UAVs can travel up to 650 km from their controller. At
around 12 hours, they typically have a similar flight time as short
range UAVs
• There is also a subclass of mid range UAVs that are built for
endurance
• Their range is between that of short and mid range UAVs, but they
can fly for nearly two days at a time These endurance UAVs are great
for longer surveillance missions

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UAVs Categorized by Range
Endurance UAVs
• The endurance class includes UAVs that have an endurance of 36
hours and a working radius of 300 km

• This class of UAVs can operate at altitudes of 30,000 feet. They are
also used for reconnaissance and surveillance purposes

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UAVs Categorized by Altitude

LALE (Low Altitude, Long Endurance)

• Typically at the upper end of the UASs weight designation by the
United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), these UAS may
carry payloads of several kg at altitudes of a few thousand meters for
extended periods

MALE (Medium Altitude, Long Endurance)

• aircraft are typically much larger than low altitude classes of UAVs,
operating at altitudes up to 9,000 m on flights hundreds of km from
their ground stations lasting many hours

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UAVs Categorized by Altitude
HALE (High Altitude, Long Endurance)
• These are the largest and most complex of the UAS, with aircraft
larger than many general aviation manned aircraft
• These UAVs may fly at altitudes of 20 000 m or more on missions that
extend thousands of km Some HALE aircraft have flight durations over
30 h and have set records for altitude and flight duration

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UAVs Categorized by weight
Drones can be categorized into several types based on their weight The
weight classification for drones is a significant factor as it often
corresponds to their size, capabilities, and legal regulations Here are
the main types of drones based on their weight
1. Micro Drones (Less than 250 grams)
• These are the smallest and lightest drones
• Typically used for indoor flying and as beginner drones
• Minimal regulations and registration requirements in many regions
• Limited payload capacity and shorter flight times

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UAVs Categorized by weight
2. Mini Drones (250 grams to 2 kilograms)
• Slightly larger than micro drones, but still relatively small
• Often used for recreational purposes, such as aerial photography and
racing
• May require registration and adherence to certain flight restrictions,
depending on the region
3. Small Drones (2 to 25 kilograms)
• Small but more versatile drones that can carry heavier payloads
• Suitable for various applications, including aerial photography, surveying,
and surveillance
• Typically subject to more stringent regulations, including registration and
restricted flight areas
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UAVs Categorized by weight
4. Medium Drones (25 to 150 kilograms)
• Medium sized drones with increased payload capacity. Used for
professional applications, such as agriculture, search and rescue, and
industrial inspections
• Regulations and flight restrictions become more significant, including the
need for certifications and licenses in many cases
5. Large Drones (150 kilograms and above)
• These drones are often quite substantial in size and capability
• Commonly used in military, industrial, and research applications
• Subject to rigorous regulations, including airspace control, flight planning,
and specialized licenses
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Drone Classification – By Sensor Type

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Drone Classification – By Sensor Type
Photogrammetric Drone
• RGB
• Multispectral
• Thermal
• Hyperspectral

LiDAR Drone

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• LiDAR or Light Detection and Ranging is an active remote sensing system that can
be used to measure vegetation height across wide areas.
• LiDAR is an active remote sensing system. An active system means that the
system itself generates energy - in this case, light - to measure things on the
ground. In a LiDAR system, light is emitted from a rapidly firing laser. Light quickly
strobing from a laser light source which travels to the ground and reflects off of
things like buildings and tree branches. The reflected light energy then returns to
the LiDAR sensor where it is recorded.
• A LiDAR system measures the time it takes for emitted light to travel to the
ground and back. That time is used to calculate distance traveled. Distance
traveled is then converted to elevation. These measurements are made using the
key components of a lidar system including a GPS that identifies the X,Y,Z location
of the light energy and an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) that provides the
orientation of the plane in the sky.

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• The distribution of energy that
returns to the sensor creates what
we call a waveform. The amount of
energy that returned to the LiDAR
sensor is known as "intensity". The
areas where more photons or more
light energy returns to the sensor
create peaks in the distribution of
energy. Theses peaks in the
waveform often represent objects
on the ground like - a branch, a
group of leaves or a building.

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Comparison in photo UAV and LiDAR UAV
Photo UAV LiDAR UAV
• Technology:
• Camera-Based: Uses high-resolution • Laser-Based: Uses LiDAR (Light Detection
cameras to capture images. and Ranging) sensors that emit laser
• Visual Data: Provides RGB (color) images pulses and measure the time it takes for
or video, which can be used for various the reflections to return.
types of visual analysis. • Point Cloud Data: Creates a detailed 3D
• Processing: Requires photogrammetry point cloud of the environment, capturing
software to process images into 2D maps precise distance measurements.
or 3D models. • Processing: Requires specialized LiDAR
processing software to convert point
clouds into usable 3D models or digital
elevation models.

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Comparison in photo UAV and LiDAR UAV
Photo UAV LiDAR UAV
• Applications
• Mapping and Surveying: Used for • Topographic Mapping: Excellent for
creating orthophotos, 2D maps, and 3D generating accurate digital elevation
models. models and detailed topographic maps.
• Inspection: Ideal for inspecting • Forestry and Vegetation Analysis: Can
infrastructure, agriculture, and penetrate through vegetation to map the
construction sites where visual detail is ground surface and tree canopy
crucial. structure.
• Surveying: Often used in agriculture, real • Archaeology and Heritage: Used for
estate, and environmental monitoring. detecting and mapping archaeological
sites and features hidden under
vegetation or soil.

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Comparison in photo UAV and LiDAR UAV
Photo UAV LiDAR UAV
• Advantages
• Detail: Provides high-resolution • Accuracy: Offers high precision
visual detail which is useful for and accuracy for measuring
visual inspections and aesthetic distances and elevations.
purposes. • Penetration: Can penetrate
• Cost: Generally less expensive through vegetation, making it
than LiDAR systems. useful for mapping areas with
• Ease of Use: Easier to set up and dense foliage.
operate; photogrammetry tools • Data Richness: Produces
are more commonly available and comprehensive 3D data that can
user-friendly. reveal complex surface details and
features.
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 Comparison in photo UAV and LiDAR UAV
Photo UAV LiDAR UAV
• Limitations
• Accuracy: May struggle with • Cost: Typically more expensive due
accuracy in dense vegetation or to the advanced technology and
complex terrain without sensors.
additional ground control points. • Data Volume: Generates large
• Lighting Dependence: Image amounts of data, which can
quality can be affected by lighting require significant processing
conditions, shadows, and weather. power and storage.
• Complexity: Requires specialized
software and expertise to process
and interpret LiDAR data.

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Parts of Drone

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• X Frame
• Propellers
• Electronic Speed Controller
• Power Distribution board
• Flight Controller
• Radio transmitter
• Drone Motor
• Battery, electronics and power distribution cables:
• Landing gear

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X frame
• This is a structure in which all the other parts fit. It functions as a
skeleton with various components arranged in such a way that the
drone’s center of gravity is evenly distributed.
• Different drone frame structure are used for different drone designs,
with a minimum of three propellers fitting gaps. They come in a
variety shapes and sizes.

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The X frame design often features four arms arranged in a cross pattern, with two arms
extending forward and two arms extending backward. This configuration can offer some
advantages:
• Symmetry: The X shape provides a symmetrical layout, which can contribute to better
stability during flight.
• Agility: The X frame design is often associated with agile and acrobatic flying. This makes
it popular among drone racing enthusiasts and freestyle pilots who require quick and
responsive maneuvers.
• Compact Design: The X frame tends to be more compact compared to other frame
designs, which can be beneficial for maneuverability and fitting into tight spaces.
• Balanced Weight Distribution: The X frame design often allows for a balanced
distribution of weight, contributing to stable flight characteristics.
It's important to note that there are various other frame designs for drones, each with its
own set of advantages and disadvantages. Other common frame configurations include H
frames, HX frames, and stretched X frames. The choice of frame design depends on factors
such as the intended use of the drone, flight characteristics desired, and personal
preferences of the pilot or builder.
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Propellers
• Propellers are cloves like blades
structured to create a different
in air pressure. They cut the air
when in motion, creating a
pressure difference between
the top and bottom of the
rotors. Low pressure on the top
side compared to the bottom
side causes the drone to lift into
the air.

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Propellers : its working
• Propellers are devices that transform rotary motion into linear thrust Drone propellers
provide lift for the aircraft by spinning and creating an airflow, which results in a pressure
difference between the top and bottom surfaces of the propeller
• Drone propellers provide lift for the aircraft by spinning and creating an airflow, which
results in a pressure difference between the top and bottom surfaces of the propeller
This accelerates a mass of air in one direction, providing lift which counteracts the force
of gravity
• Drone propellers work by spinning from the force applied by the motor The higher air
pressure on the bottom of the propellers creates lift for the entire drone Their rotation
also keeps the drone stable and propels it to move forwards These features are made
possible by their unique design
• Drone propellers can be constructed with two, three, or four blades Propellers with more
blades provide greater lift due to more surface area moving through the air per rotation,
but are more inefficient due to increased drag Smaller drones with limited battery life are
best suited to propellers with fewer blades

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 Operation of a propeller with a clear diagram
1 Blade Shape The shape of the propeller
blades is designed to create a pressure
difference between the front and rear
surfaces of the blade as it rotates This
pressure difference is what generates
thrust
2 Rotation The propeller is attached to an
engine or motor, which provides the
necessary power to rotate the blades As
the engine runs, it turns the propeller
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3 Aerodynamic Principles When the propeller blades rotate, they cut through
the air (or water in the case of marine propellers) The shape and angle of the
blades are designed to exploit the principles of aerodynamics
4 Airflow As the blades move through the air, they accelerate and decelerate
the air around them This process creates areas of high and low pressure on
the blade surfaces
5 Thrust Generation The pressure difference between the front and rear
surfaces of the blades results in a net force directed forward (or backward,
depending on the direction of rotation) This force is thrust, which propels
the vehicle forward
6 Variable Pitch Some propellers, particularly those on aircraft, may have
variable pitch mechanisms that allow the angle of the blades to be adjusted
during flight This adjustment can optimize the propeller's efficiency across
different flight conditions
7 Direction Control By changing the direction of rotation or adjusting the
pitch of the blades, the pilot or operator can control the direction of thrust,
allowing the vehicle to move forward, backward, or change its course

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• Weight: Due to the mass of the drone, the body mass force always acts in the direction
of gravity. Higher the weight of the drone, more power is required to lift and move the
drone Weight of drone = mass of drone × acceleration due to gravity.
• Lift: The vertical force acting on the drone is called lift. This force is due to pressure
differences across the drone (in the vertical direction). Hence, the speed, size, and shape
of the propeller blade decide the amount of lift force. Lift is essential to lift the body
against the gravity. To create this force, all four propellors run at high speed to lift the
drone
• Thrust: The force acting on the drone in the direction of motion is called thrust. However,
for drone dynamics, it is normal to the rotor plane. During hovering, the thrust is purely
vertical. If thrust is inclined then the drone will tilt forward or backward. This force is
essential to move the drone in the desired direction at equal speed. To get desired
motion, two propellors have been given high speed.
• Drag: The force acting on the drone in the opposite direction of motion due to air
resistance is called drag. This may be because of pressure difference and viscosity of air.
To reduce the drag, the aerodynamic shape of the drone is selected

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 Throttle/ Hover: up and down movement of the drone is called
throttle. If all four propellors run at normal speed, then the drone
will move down. If all four propellors run at a higher speed, then
the drone will move up. This is called the hovering of a drone.
Pitch: movement of a drone about a lateral axis (either forward or
backward) is called pitching motion If two rear propellors run at
high speed, then the drone will move in a forwarding direction. If
two front propellors run at high speed, then the drone will move
in the backward direction
Roll: movement of a drone about the longitudinal axis is called
rolling motion. If two right propellors run at high speed, then the
drone will move in the left direction. If two left propellors run at
high speed, then the drone will move in the right direction.
Yawn: the rotation of the head of the drone about the vertical axis
(either the left or right) is called Yawning motion. If two propellors
of a right diagonal run at high speed, then the drone will rotate in
an anti-clockwise direction. If two propellors of a left diagonal run
at high speed, then the drone will rotate in a clockwise direction

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Electronic Speed Controller (ESC)
• The ESCs are connected to the power distribution board (the battery)
and the flight controller, as the ESCs receive signals from the flight
controller it changes the amount of power given to each of the
motors

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Power Port Module
• This monitors the amount of power coming from the battery and
distributes it to the drone’s ESCs and the fight controller.

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Power Distribution Board connections with
controller
• Power Distribution Board is a special board which allows transferring
the power from the battery to ESCs Motors and generate power
supply for the flight controller and other peripherals with different
voltage levels
• Also, PDB provides the functionality for battery voltage current
measurements SmartAP PDB makes high power lines connections
easier and much more reliable

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Functions of the Power Distribution Board
1. Power Routing
• The primary function of a PDB is to distribute electrical power from the
drone's main battery to various components, such as the flight controller,
electronic speed controllers ( and other auxiliary devices It ensures that
each component receives the appropriate voltage and current to operate
efficiently
2. Voltage Regulation
• Many PDBs have built in voltage regulators that provide a stable and
regulated voltage output to components like the flight controller, ensuring
that they receive a consistent power supply This is particularly important in
preventing voltage spikes and dips, which can affect the drone’s stability
and performance
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3. Current Monitoring
• Some advanced PDBs are equipped with current sensors that can
measure the electrical current passing through the board. This data is
often relayed to the flight controller, allowing for real time monitoring
of the drone's power consumption and performance.
4. Protection Circuitry:
• PDBs often include protective features, such as reverse voltage
protection and short circuit protection, to safeguard the components
connected to the board These protections help prevent damage to
the electronics in the event of a power related issue.
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5. Clean Wiring
• PDBs simplify the wiring of a drone by consolidating the connections
for power distribution This not only reduces clutter but also makes
maintenance and troubleshooting more accessible
6. LED Indicators
• Some PDBs have integrated LED indicators that can show the status of
various power related functions, like voltage levels or possible issues
with the power supply

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7. Distribution of Additional Power
• Beyond the primary components, PDBs can also distribute power to
auxiliary devices, such as LED lights, cameras, gimbals, or other
accessories, allowing them to run off the same battery source
8. Integration with ESCs
• In many drone configurations, PDBs work in conjunction with ESCs to
manage power distribution and motor control This coordination
ensures synchronized operation of the motors and other electronics

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9. Wiring Organization
• PDBs often include labeled pads or solder points for connecting wires
from various components, helping users organize and route wires
neatly within the drone’s frame

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1. Main Battery Connection
• The primary connection between the PDB and the controller (flight controller) is through
the main battery leads The PDB is connected to the drone's main battery, which provides
power to the entire system
2. Output Connections
• The PDB is equipped with multiple output terminals or pads These outputs typically
include
• Power Outputs: These are connected to the flight controller's power input to supply it
with the necessary voltage
• ESC (Electronic Speed Controller) Outputs: These are linked to the ESCs on the drone,
which control the motors
• Other Accessories: Depending on the specific configuration, there may be additional
outputs for peripherals like LEDs, gimbal stabilizers, or auxiliary equipment

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3. Ground Connections
• The PDB is connected to the controller through ground wires to
complete the circuit and ensure proper grounding. These connections
are crucial for electrical stability.
4. Signal Connections
• While the primary function of the PDB is power distribution, it may
also have signal wires for communication between the PDB and the
flight controller. These signals can include current and voltage
sensing, telemetry data, or status information.

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Flight controller boards:
• The drone’s take off location is recorded on the flight board in case
the drone must return to its take off location without being guided
• This is known as the return to home feature It also determines and
calculates the drone’s altitude for the amount of power it consumes

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Most commonly used Flight controller boards
• Openpilot CC3D FC
• APM 2.8 FC board
• KK 2.1.5 Multi rotor LCD Flight Control Board.

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Radio transmitter:
• It is a channeled transmitter and a communicator to the drone. Each
channel has s specific frequency capable of steering the drone in a
certain motion Drones require at least 4 channels for effective
operation.

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Drone Motor
• Drones (quadcopters) have two clockwise motors and two counter
clockwise motors to equalize the turning force produced by the
rotating propellers.
• This is because of Newton’s Third Law which states that for every
action there is an equal and opposite reaction
• So having an equal number of motors counteracting each other
provides stability through equalizing the turning force. This is why on
helicopters there is a tail rotor to counteract the turning force from
the single main rotor
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Motors:
• Motors are essential for the propeller’s rotation. This enhances the
thrust force for propelling the drone. The number of motors should
however be equal to the number of propellers.
• The drone motors are also mounted in such a way that the controller
can easily rotate them. Their rotation improves the direction control
of the drone. For the drone’s efficiency, selecting the right motor is
critical.
• Various parameters, such as voltage and current, thrust and thrust to
weight ratio, power efficiency, speed must all be carefully examined.
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Battery, electronics and power distribution cables:
• Lipo batteries are among the most common battery types used for drones
because they offer the advantage of high energy density to their size and
weight, with a higher voltage per cell, so they can power the drone’s
onboard systems with fewer cells than other rechargeable.
• The electrical and electronic part is a crucial part pertaining to the control
and operation of the drone.
• However with respect to the purpose of the drone, other components can
be either included or omitted.
• The drone may be functional without these parts, through for multitasking
purposes it advised to include them.

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Landing gear
• This is a structure for landing the drone safely. It can however, be
exempted because an experienced user can balance the motor’s
speed for a safe landing in an emergency. There are 2 major types of
the landing gear.
• One is fixed landing gear and other is the retractable landing gear.

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Applications of drone
Military:
• Military usage of drones has become the primary use in today's
world. Used as target decoys, for combat missions, research and
development, and for supervision, drones have been part and parcel
of the military forces worldwide.
• According to a recent report by Goldman Sachs, military spending will
remain the main driver of drone spending in the coming years.
• Goldman estimates that global militaries will spend 70 billion on
drones by 2020 and these drones will play a vital role in the resolution
of future conflicts and in the replacement of the human pilot.
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Commercial:
• Commercial usage of drones is gaining steady momentum and has become the
talk of the hour, as multiple industries are working with drones as part of their
daily regular business functions.
• The market for commercial and civilian drones will grow at a compound annual
growth rate (CAGR) of 19% between 2015 and 2020 compared with 5% growth on
the military side, according to BI Intelligence, Business Insider's premium
research service.
• The commercial drone industry is still young, but it has begun to see some
consolidation and major investments from industrial conglomerates, chip
companies, IT consulting firms, and major defense contractors For now, the
industry leaders are still a handful of early stage manufacturers in Europe, Asia,
and North America.
• As it becomes cheaper to customize commercial drones, the door will be opened
to allow new functionality in a wide array of niche spaces.
• Sophisticated drones could soon be doing everyday tasks like fertilizing crop fields
on an automated basis, monitoring traffic incidents, surveying hard to reach
places, or even delivering pizzas.

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Industrial
• The novelty of an industrial drone or UAV or Unmanned Aircraft System or
Remotely Piloted Aircraft is to monitor regions or terrains inside or outside a
manufacturing plant which generally cannot be inspected by human workers,
either due to their hazardous setting or inaccessibility due to size or environment.
• Factories, refineries, power grids, wastewater treatment, mines, and other similar
industrial sites are complex ecosystems requiring inspection and maintenance for
optimal operation and regulatory compliance.
• Onsite inspection by human workers can be time consuming and in explosive
environments, next to impossible unless some complex computer systems are
used.
• As an example, power grids have millions of miles of cables and systems that
require monitoring Using human workers has proven time and again to be an
inefficient approach.
• Consider another example of the intricate pipe connections in refineries that
requires heavy leak detection inspection of pipes, interconnects, flanges and
systems across.

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