MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

MODULE 4 Ilocos Sur Polytechnic

I. 0Data and Information
The kind of information we get from statistics is called data and
the people who collect, organize, and analyze the data are called
researchers.
o Data usually refers to facts concerning things such as status in
life of people, defectiveness of objects or effects of an event to
the society.

o Information is a set of data that have been processed and presented

in a form suitable for human interpretation, usually with a purpose
of revealing trends or patterns about the population.

2 TYPES OF DATE

1. Qualitative Data - Also called attribute data are typically associated

with inherent characteristics of the items under consideration.
However, attribute data are not easy to analyze using numerical
techniques.
o Example: If we are studying human beings, the following
characteristics may be considered attributes: color of the
hair, race, color of the eyes, types of car driven, etc.

2. Quantitative Data - Also called as numerical data result from a

process that quantifies which includes counts of (how many) or
measurements (length, weight, and so on).
Classification of Quantitative data
 Discrete numerical data - data that represents counts
o Example: The number of people living in Brgy. San Isidro,
the score in a basketball game, the number of books in ICCT
Cainta Library

 Continuous numerical data - data that represents measurement

o Example: IQ, scores of the students in Ms. Berces’ Math
class, the height of the basketball player, the volume of
weekly garbage produced by Brgy. 123
Sources of Data

Primary Sources Secondary Sources

 First-hand information  Information taken from
 Obtained usually by means of other’s work
personal interview  Examples are news report, and
data from National Statistics
Office, SSS, and other
government and private
agencies.

PREPARED BY: PRISCALY ANN O. CASTILLO

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE 4 Ilocos Sur Polytechnic

Scales of Measuring Data

1. Nominal Scale Classifies objects or peoples’ responses so that all of

those in a single category are equal with respect to some
attributes and then each category is coded numerically

Example: Respondents can be grouped according to marital

status based on four nominal scales,
Single -1
Married -2
Separated -3
Widow -4

2. Ordinal Scale Classifies objects or individual’s responses according to

degree or level, and then each level is coded
numerically.

Example: Customers’ responses regarding their

satisfaction towards company’s services can fall between
an ordinal scale,
Excellent -1
Very Satisfactory -2
Satisfactory -3
Fair -4
Poor / Needs improvement -5

3. Interval Scale Refers to quantitative measurements in which lower and

upper control limits are adapted to classify relative
order and differences of item numbers or actual scores.

Example: Household’s socioeconomic status are classified

based from what income level and age bracket they belong.

4. Ratio Scale Takes into account the interval size and ratio of two
related quantities, which are usually based on a standard
measurement.

Example: Weights, time, height, rate of change in

production, return on investments, and economic order
quantity.

Methods of Collection Data: Its Advantage and Disadvantage

Advantage Disadvantage
1. Direct or Interview Precise and consistent It is time, money, and
Method – is a person- answers can be obtained effort consuming and it
to-person interaction by modifying or is applicable only for

PREPARED BY: PRISCALY ANN O. CASTILLO

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE 4 Ilocos Sur Polytechnic

between an rephrasing the questions small population, except

interviewer and an especially to illiterate when conducting census.
interviewee. respondents or to
children under study.

2. Indirect / Lesser time, money, and Many responses may not

Questionnaire Method efforts are consumed. be consistent due to the
- Is an alternative poor construction of the
for the interview questionnaire. The
method. Written meaning of the questions
responses are may be different from
obtained by each respondents.
distributing Inconsistent responses
questionnaires (a can no longer be
list of questions modified, thus, it
intended to elicit reduces valid number of
answers to a given respondents.
problem) to the
respondents through
mail or hand-carry.

3. Registration Method – Organized data from an Problem arises only when

is enforced by institution can serve as an agency doesn’t have a
private organizations ready references for Management Information
or government future study or for System and if the system
agencies for personal claims or or process registration
recording purposes. people’s records. is not implemented well.

4. Observation Method – Usually applied to Subjectivity of

is a scientific respondents that cannot information sought
method of be asked or need not cannot be avoided.
investigation that speak, especially when
makes possible use of behaviors of persons/
all senses to measure culture of organization/
or obtain performance outcomes of
outcomes/responses employees are to be
from the object of considered.
study.
5. Experimentation – is There is an objectivity It’s too difficult to
used when the of information since a find respondents with
objective is to scientific method of almost similar
determine the cause- inquiry is used. An equal characteristics. The
and-effect of a number of respondents whole method must be
certain phenomenon with relatively similar repeated if the desired
under some controlled characteristics are being outcome is not reached.
conditions. examined to obtain the
different effects of
something applied to the
experimental group.

II. POPULATION AND SAMPLE

Population is a finite or infinite collection of objects, events, or
individuals with specified class or characteristics under consideration, such

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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE 4 Ilocos Sur Polytechnic
as students in a certain university, legitimate taxi drivers in Metro Manila,
cellular phone users, etc.
A sample is a finite or limited collection of objects, events, or
individuals selected from a population. This sample is expected to possess
characteristics identical to those of the population, otherwise, the validity
and reliability of information regarding the population will be in question.

A capital letter "N" is used to denote population size whereas small

letter "n" denotes sample size.

A. SLOVIN’S FORMULA
Let N be the population size and the margin of error e denotes the
allowed probability of committing an error in selecting a small
representative of the population.
The sample size n can be obtained by the formula

N
n= 2
1+ Ne
Example Problem:
Suppose a lawyer wants to estimate the proportion of individuals
in a certain neighborhood who are in favor of a new law.
Suppose he knows there are 10,000 individuals in this neighborhood
and it would take far too long to survey each individual, so he would
instead like to take a random sample of individuals.
Assume that he would like to estimate this proportion with a
margin of error of .05 or less.

He can use Slovin’s formula to figure out the minimum number of

individuals he must include in his sample:

N
n= 2
1+ Ne
10,000
n= 2
1+10,000 (0.05)
n=384.615
To be conservative, the lawyer should round up to the nearest
integer and include 385 individuals in his sample.

This margin of error, e, could range between 1% and 10% depending on the
desire or intention of the researcher. However, the researcher should be
aware of the Law of Large Numbers which states, "The larger the size of the
sample, the more certain we can be sure that the sample mean will be good
estimate of the population mean." The larger the size of the sample, the

PREPARED BY: PRISCALY ANN O. CASTILLO

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE 4 Ilocos Sur Polytechnic

closer its characteristics would be to the characteristics of the entire

population.

B. Random and Non-random Sampling

Sampling is a process in statistical analysis where researchers take a
predetermined number of observations from a larger population.
Random sampling is the most commonly used sampling technique in which
each member in the population is given an equal chance of being selected in
the sample.
Non-random sampling is a method of collecting a small portion of the
population by which not all the members in the population are given the
chance to be included in the sample. Certain elements in the population are
deliberately left out from the selection for varied reasons.

Random sampling is usually called fair sampling while non-random

sampling is a bias sampling.

C. Sampling Techniques
A. Random Sampling Techniques
1. Lottery or Fishbowl Sampling - This is done by simply writing the
names or numbers of all the members of the population on small
rolled pieces of paper which are later placed in a container. The
researcher shakes the container thoroughly and then draws n out of N
pieces of paper as desired for a sample. This is usually done in a
lottery.

2. Sampling with the use of a Table of Random Numbers - If the

population is large, a more practical procedure is the use of a
Table of Random Numbers which contains rows and columns of digits
randomly ordered by a computer. A sample of size n can be generated
by beginning at an arbitrary point in the Table of Random Numbers,
closing your eyes and haphazardly pointing at an entry in the Table.
Then proceed in any direction, vertically, horizontally, or
diagonally until n distinct numbers could represent the numerically
coded elements in the population.

3. Systematic Sampling - This method of sampling is done by taking

every kth element in the population. It applies to a group of
individuals arranged in a waiting line or in a methodical manner.
For instance, the objective is to get the opinion of employees
regarding employee- management relations, a sample of size n will be
selected from a list of employees arranged alphabetically or
according to age, experience, position or academic rank. By
systematic sampling, every kth employee from the listed order will
be included in a sample. If N is known, k value can be calculated as

PREPARED BY: PRISCALY ANN O. CASTILLO

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE 4 Ilocos Sur Polytechnic

N
k=
n
Where N, the population size
n, the sample size

4. Stratified Random Sampling - When the population can be partitioned

into several strata or subgroups, it may be wiser to employ the
stratified technique to ensure a representative of each group in the
sample. Random samples will be selected from each stratum. Selecting
a sample with this technique is quite difficult and costly since it
requires a complete listing, called frame, of all elements in the
population. There are two kinds of stratified random sampling as
illustrated below.

a. Simple Stratified Random Sampling

When the population is grouped into more or less
homogeneous classes, that is, different groups but with a
relatively common characteristic, then each can be sampled
independently by taking an equal number of elements from each
stratum. This method is called simple random sampling. Suppose a
population of students taking History of size N = 800 can be
grouped according to year levels, then using simple random
sampling, 50 students will be taken randomly from each of the 4
groups and that comprises a sample size of 200 students.
Table 1
POPULATION SAMPLE
Fourth Year 185 50
Third Year 200 50
Second Year 215 50
Third Year 200 50
Total N=800 n=200

b. Stratified Proportional Random Sampling

In some cases, the characteristic of the population is
such that the proportions of the subgroups are grossly equal.
The researcher may wish to maintain these characteristics in the
sample with the use of the stratified proportion technique.
Table 2
POPULATION PROPORTION SAMPLE
Fourth Year 185 23% 46
Third Year 200 25% 50
Second Year 215 27% 54
Third Year 200 25% 50
Total N=800 100% n=200

PREPARED BY: PRISCALY ANN O. CASTILLO

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE 4 Ilocos Sur Polytechnic
5. Multi-stage and Multiple Sampling - This technique uses several
stages or phases in getting the sample from the population. However,
selection of the sample is still done at random. This method is an
extension or a multiple application of the stratified random
sampling technique. The number of stages depends on the number of
population and the sample size needed in the survey.

B. Non-random Sampling Techniques

1. Judgement or Purposive Sampling - This method is also referred as
non-random or non-probability sampling. It plays a major role in the
selection of a particular item and/or in making decisions in cases
of incomplete responses or observation. This is usually based on a
certain criteria laid down by the researcher or his adviser.

2. Quota Sampling -This is a relatively quick and inexpensive method to

operate since the choice of the number of persons or elements to be
included in a sample is done at the researcher's own convenience or
preference and is not predetermined by some carefully operated
randomizing plan.

3. Cluster Sampling - This is sometimes referred to as an area sampling

because it is usually applied on a geographical basis. The
population is grouped into cluster or small units, e.g., blocks or
districts, in city or municipality. Area sampling usually requires
larger samples of elementary units than those required in simple
random sampling. It is not a common practice, however, that every
individual located in selected area is interviewed. Often additional
sampling stages are introduced.

4. Incidental Sampling -This design is applied to those samples which

are taken because they are the most available. The investigator
simply takes the nearest individuals as subjects of the study until
it reaches the desired size. In an interview, for instance, an
interviewer can simply choose to ask those people around him or in a
coffee shop where he is taking a break.

5. Convenience Sampling - This method has been widely used in

television and radio programs to find out opinions of TV viewers and
listeners regarding a controversial issue. While the issue is being
discussed in a talk show, the hosts will immediately get responses
and comments from those who will call their telephone operators.
This method, of course, is bias against those without telephones in
their houses.

6. Snowball sampling - is a non-probability sampling method where new

units are recruited by other units to form part of the sample.
Snowball sampling can be a useful way to conduct research about
people with specific traits who might otherwise be difficult to
identify (e.g., people with a rare disease).
Also known as chain sampling or network sampling, snowball
sampling begins with one or more study participants. It then

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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE 4 Ilocos Sur Polytechnic
continues on the basis of referrals from those participants. This
process continues until you reach the desired sample, or a
saturation point.

I. FORMS OF PRESENTATION OF DATA

A. Textual – This form of presentation combines text and numerical facts in
a statistical report.

B. Tabular – This provides numerical facts in a more concise and systematic

manner than textual presentation. Statistical tables are constructed to
facilitate the analysis of relationships.

C. Graphical Presentation – This is the most effective means of organizing

and presenting statistical data because the important relationships are
brought out more clearly and creatively in virtually solid and colorful
figures.
Kinds of Graphs / Charts
1. Line Graph – It shows
relationship between two sets of
quantities. This is done by
plotting point of X set
quantities along the horizontal
axis against the Y set of
quantities along the vertical
axis in a Cartesian coordinate
plane.
2. Bar Graph – It consists of bars
or rectangles of equal widths,
either drawn vertically or
horizontally, segmented or non-
segmented. This is done by
drawing rectangles with length
proportional to the frequencies
observed items or magnitude of
classes under study.
3. Circle Graph or Pie Chart – It
represents relationship of
different components of a single
total (100%) as revealed in the
sector of a circle.

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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE 4 Ilocos Sur Polytechnic

4. Picture Graph or Pictogram – It

is a visual presentation of
statistical quantities by means
of drawing pictures or symbols
related to the subject under
study.

5. Map graph of Cartogram –This kind

of graph is always accompanied by
a legend which tells us the
meaning of the lines, colors, or
other symbols used and positioned
in a map.

6. Scatter Plot Diagram – It is a

graphical device to show the
degree of relationship between
two quantitative variables.
Unlike the line graph, the
plotted points for every pair of
X and Y set of quantities are not
connected by line segments but
simply scattered on the Cartesian
coordinate plane

~END OF MODULE~
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

*** For Ungrouped Data ***

A. MEAN
Mean is the most commonly used measure of central tendency. It
actually represents the average of the given collection of data. It is
applicable for both continuous and discrete data.
It is equal to the sum of all the values in the collection of data
divided by the total number of values.
Suppose we have n values in a set of data namely as x 1, x2, x3,…,
xn, then the mean of data is given by:
x 1+ x 2 + x 3+ …+ x n
x=
n
B. MEDIAN
Generally median represents the mid-value of the given set of data
when arranged in a particular order.
Given that the data collection is arranged in ascending or

PREPARED BY: PRISCALY ANN O. CASTILLO

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE 4 Ilocos Sur Polytechnic

descending order, the following method is applied:

 If the number of values or observations in the given data is
odd, then the median is given by [(n+1)/2]th observation.
 If in the given data set, the number of values or observations
is even, then the median is given by the average of (n /2)th and
[(n /2)+1]th observation.
C. MODE
The most frequent number occurring in the data set is known as the
mode.

Example: Refer to the raw data below.

Scores of 10 students in a Math test over 50 points

15 20 21 24 28 38 45 47 50 50

A. Mean
x 1+ x 2 + x 3+ …+ x n
x=
n
15+20+21+24 +28+38+ 45+47 +50+50
x=
10
x=33.8∨34

B. Median
Scores of 10 students in a Math test over 50 points
15 20 21 24 28 38 45 47 50 50

28+ 38
Mdn=
2
Mdn=33

C. Mode
Mo=50 −which appeared twice∈the set of scores

*** For Grouped Data ***

Refer to the raw data below.

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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE 4 Ilocos Sur Polytechnic

15 48 54 26 60 30 30 35 36 30
35 42 39 42 55 20 17 59 28 45
32 26 48 16 22 50 41 33 31 27

Step 1: Find the range of the values.

 Range (R)
Range=highest value+lowest value
R = 60-15
R = 45

 number of classes (k).

k =1+3.322 log n
k = 1+ 3.322 log 30
k = 5.90 or k 6 approximately 6 class
intervals

 class size (C).

range
C=
desired number of class interval
45
Thus, C=
6
C = 7.5 or C 8
 class mark (X’)
 Less than cf (<cf)

Step 2: Multiply f and X’ in each in class interval

Step 3: Get the sum of fX’, which is ƩfX’

Class Frequenc Class Mark Cumulative fX’

Interval y (X’) Frequency
(f) (<)
55-62 3 58.5 30 175.5
47-54 4 50.5 27 202
39-46 5 42.5 23 212.5
31-38 6 34.5 18 207
23-30 7 26.5 12 185.5
15-22 5 18.5 5 92.5
N=30 ∑ f X ' =1075
A. Mean ( x ¿
Given: ∑ f X ' =1075

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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE 4 Ilocos Sur Polytechnic

N=30

Solution: x= ∑
f X'
N
1075
x=
30
x=35.83∨36

Class Frequenc Class Mark Cumulative fX’

Interval y (X’) Frequency
(f) (<)
55-62 3 58.5 30 175.5
47-54 4 50.5 27 202
39-46 5 42.5 23 212.5
31-38 6 34.5 18 207 MEDIAN CLASS
BOUNDARY

23-30 7 26.5 12 185.5

15-22 5 18.5 5 92.5
N=30 ∑ f X ' =1075
B. Median (Mdn)

Mdn=L +
( N
2
−∑ f )
i
m−1

m
fm
Where:
N = the number of cases
Lm = the lower limit boundary of the median class
∑ f m−1= The sum of all frequencies before the median class
frequency or
the cumulative frequency before that of the median class
fm = the frequency of the median class
i = the interval

Given:
N = 30
Lm = 30.5
∑ f m−1= 7+5 =12
fm = 6
i = 8

Solution:

Mdn=L +
( N
2
−∑ f ) m−1

m
fm

Mdn=30.5+
( 30
2
−12 )
8
6
Mdn=34.5∨35

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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE 4 Ilocos Sur Polytechnic

C. Mode (Mo)
Mo=Lmo + ( ∆1+∆ 1∆ 2 ) i
Where:
Lmo = the lower limit boundary of the modal class
∆ 1= the difference between the highest frequency and the
frequency
just below it
∆ 2 = the difference between the highest frequency and the
frequency just above it.
i=¿ the interval

Given:
Lmo = 22.5
∆1 = 2
∆2 = 1
i=8

Solution:

( ∆1+∆ 1∆ 2 ) i
Mo=Lmo +

Mo=22.5+ (
2+ 1 )
2
8
Mo=27.833∨28

PREPARED BY: PRISCALY ANN O. CASTILLO