COURSE OBJECTIVES:

For embedded systems, the course will enable the students to:

1. Understand the basics of an embedded system.

2. Understand the typical components of an embedded system.

3. To understand different communication interfaces.

4. To learn the design process of embedded system applications.

5. To understands the RTOS and inter-process communication.

TEXT BOOKS:

1. Introduction to Embedded Systems - shibu k v, Mc Graw Hill Education.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Embedded Systems – Raj Kamal, TMH

ECE Dept
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EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN

Dr. Mangala Gowri ECE Dept

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1. Introduction to Embedded Systems

What is Embedded System? (DEC2016, March-2017.)

An Electronic/Electro mechanical system which is designed to perform a specific function and is

a combination of both hardware and firmware (Software)

E.g. Electronic Toys, Mobile Handsets, Washing Machines, Air Conditioners, Automotive
Control Units, Set Top Box, DVD Player etc…

Embedded Systems are:


Unique in character and behavior

With specialized hardware and software
Embedded Systems Vs General Computing Systems: (March-2017)

General Purpose Computing System Embedded System

A system which is a combination of generic A system which is a combination of special

hardware and General Purpose Operating System purpose hardware and embedded OS for
for executing a variety of applications executing a specific set of applications
Contain a General Purpose Operating System May or may not contain an operating system
(GPOS) for functioning
Applications are alterable (programmable) by The firmware of the embedded system is
user (It is possible for the end user to re-install the pre-programmed and it is non-alterable by
Operating System, and add or remove user end-user
applications)
Performance is the key deciding factor on the Application specific requirements (like
selection of the system. Always „Faster is Better‟ performance, power requirements, memory
usage etc) are the key deciding factors
Less/not at all tailored towards reduced operating Highly tailored to take advantage of the
power requirements, options for different levels power saving modes supported by hardware
of power management. and Operating System
Response requirements are not time critical For certain category of embedded systems
like mission critical systems, the response
time requirement is highly critical
Execution behavior is deterministic for
Need not be deterministic in execution behavior certain type of embedded systems like „Hard
Real Time‟ systems
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History of Embedded Systems:


First Recognized Modern Embedded System: Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) developed by
Charles Stark Draper at the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory.
⚫
It has two modules
⚫
1.Command module(CM) 2.Lunar Excursion
module(LEM)
⚫
RAM size 256 , 1K ,2K words
⚫
ROM size 4K,10K,36K words
⚫
Clock frequency is 1.024MHz
⚫
5000 ,3-input RTL NOR gates are used
⚫
User interface is DSKY(display/Keyboard)


First Mass Produced Embedded System: Autonetics D-17 Guidance computer for Minuteman-I missile

Classification of Embedded Systems:


Based on Generation (March-2017)

Based on Complexity & Performance Requirements


Based on deterministic behavior


Based on Triggering

1. Embedded Systems - Classification based on

Generation

First Generation: The early embedded systems built

around 8-bit microprocessors like 8085 and Z80 and 4-bit
microcontrollers
EX. stepper motor control units, Digital Telephone Keypads etc.

Second Generation: Embedded Systems built around 16-bit microprocessors and 8 or

16-bit microcontrollers, following the first generation embedded systems
EX.SCADA, Data Acquisition Systems etc.

Third Generation: Embedded Systems built around high performance 16/32 bit
Microprocessors/controllers, Application Specific Instruction set processors like Digital
Signal Processors (DSPs), and Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs).The
instruction set is complex and powerful.
EX. Robotics, industrial process control, networking etc.
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 Fourth Generation: Embedded Systems built around System on Chips (SoC’s), Re-
configurable processors and multicore processors. It brings high performance, tight
integration and miniaturization into the embedded device market
EX Smart phone devices, MIDs etc.

2. Embedded Systems - Classification based on Complexity & Performance


Small Scale: The embedded systems built around low performance and low cost 8 or 16
bit microprocessors/ microcontrollers. It is suitable for simple applications and where
performance is not time critical. It may or may not contain OS.


Medium Scale: Embedded Systems built around medium performance, low cost 16 or 32
bit microprocessors / microcontrollers or DSPs. These are slightly complex in hardware
and firmware. It may contain GPOS/RTOS.


Large Scale/Complex: Embedded Systems built around high performance 32 or 64 bit
RISC processors/controllers, RSoC or multi-core processors and PLD. It requires
complex hardware and software. These system may contain multiple
processors/controllers and co-units/hardware accelerators for offloading the processing
requirements from the main processor. It contains RTOS for scheduling, prioritization
and management.

3. Embedded Systems - Classification Based on deterministic behavior: It is applicable for

Real Time systems. The application/task execution behavior for an embedded system can be
either deterministic or non-deterministic

These are classified in to two types

1. Soft Real time Systems: Missing a deadline may not be critical and can be
tolerated to a certain degree

2. Hard Real time systems: Missing a program/task execution time deadline can have
catastrophic consequences (financial, human loss of life, etc.)

4. Embedded Systems - Classification Based on Triggering:

These are classified into two types

1. Event Triggered : Activities within the system (e.g., task run-times) are dynamic and
depend upon occurrence of different events .

2. Time triggered: Activities within the system follow a statically computed schedule (i.e.,
they are allocated time slots during which they can take place) and thus by nature are
predictable.
Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems:

Consumer Electronics: Camcorders, Cameras etc.


Household Appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, Fridge, Microwave Oven
etc.


Home Automation and Security Systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, Intruder detection
alarms, Closed Circuit Television Cameras, Fire alarms etc.


Automotive Industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS), Engine Control, Ignition Systems,
Automatic Navigation Systems etc.


Telecom: Cellular Telephones, Telephone switches, Handset Multimedia Applications etc.

Computer Peripherals: Printers, Scanners, Fax machines etc.

Computer Networking Systems: Network Routers, Switches, Hubs, Firewalls etc.

Health Care: Different Kinds of Scanners, EEG, ECG Machines etc.


Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters, Digital CROs, Logic Analyzers PLC
systems etc.


Banking & Retail: Automatic Teller Machines (ATM) and Currency counters, Point of Sales
(POS)

Card Readers: Barcode, Smart Card Readers, Hand held Devices etc.

Purpose of Embedded Systems: (DEC2016)

Each Embedded Systems is designed to serve the purpose of any one or a combination of the
following tasks.

o Data Collection/Storage/Representation

o Data Communication
o Data (Signal) Processing

o Monitoring
o Control

o Application Specific User Interface

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1. Data Collection/Storage/Representation:-


Performs acquisition of data from the external
world.


The collected data can be either analog or
digital


Data collection is usually done for storage,
analysis, manipulation and transmission

 The collected data may be stored directly in the system or may be transmitted to some
other systems or it may be processed by the system or it may be deleted instantly after
giving a meaningful representation

2. Data Communication:-

Embedded Data communication systems are deployed in

applications ranging from complex satellite communication
systems to simple home networking systems

Embedded Data communication systems are dedicated for data

communication

The data communication can happen through a wired

interface (like Ethernet, RS-232C/USB/IEEE1394 etc)
or wireless interface (like Wi-Fi, GSM,/GPRS,
Bluetooth, ZigBee etc)

Network hubs, Routers, switches, Modems etc are

typical examples for dedicated data transmission embedded systems

3. Data (Signal) Processing:-

Embedded systems with Signal processing

functionalities are employed in applications
demanding signal processing like Speech
coding, synthesis, audio video codec,
transmission applications etc

Computational intensive systems

Employs Digital Signal Processors (DSPs)

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4. Monitoring:-

Embedded systems coming under this

category are specifically designed for
monitoring purpose

They are used for determining the state of

some variables using input sensors

They cannot impose control over variables.

Electro Cardiogram (ECG) machine for

monitoring the heart beat of a patient is a
typical example for this

The sensors used in ECG are the different Electrodes connected to the patient‟s body

Measuring instruments like Digital CRO, Digital Multi meter, Logic Analyzer etc used in
Control & Instrumentation applications are also examples of embedded systems for
monitoring purpose

5. Control:-

Embedded systems with control

functionalities are used for imposing
control over some variables according to
the changes in input variables

Embedded system with control

functionality contains both sensors and
actuators

Sensors are connected to the input port for capturing the changes in environmental
variable or measuring variable

The actuators connected to the output port are controlled according to the changes in input
variable to put an impact on the controlling variable to bring the controlled variable to the
specified range

Air conditioner for controlling room temperature is a typical example for embedded
system with „Control‟ functionality

Air conditioner contains a room temperature sensing element (sensor) which may be a
thermistor and a handheld unit for setting up (feeding) the desired temperature

The air compressor unit acts as the actuator. The compressor is controlled according to the
current room temperature and the desired temperature set by the end user.
 ESD UNIT-1 NOTES
6. Application Specific User Interface:-

Embedded systems which are designed for a specific

application

Contains Application Specific User interface (rather than

general standard UI ) like key board, Display units etc

Aimed at a specific target group of users

Mobile handsets, Control units in industrial applications etc

are examples

EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESS:

This section provides an overview of the embedded system design process aimed at two
objectives. First, it will give us an introduction to the various steps in embedded system design
before we delve into them in more detail. Second, it will allow us to consider the design
methodology itself. A design methodology is important for three reasons. First, it allows us to
keep a scorecard on a design to ensure that we have done everything we need to do, such as
optimizing performance or performing functional tests. Second, it allows us to develop
computer-aided design tools. Developing a single program that takes in a concept for an
embedded system and emits a completed design would be a daunting task, but by first breaking
the process into manageable steps, we can work on automating (or at least semi automating) the
steps one at a time. Third, a design methodology makes it much easier for members of a design
team to communicate.
The below Figure summarizes the major steps in the embedded system design process. In this top–down
view, we start with the system requirements.

Fig: Major levels of abstraction in the design process

Requirements:
Clearly, before we design a system, we must know what we are designing. The initial stages of
the design process capture this information for use in creating the architecture and components.
We generally proceed in two phases: First, we gather an informal description from the customers
known as requirements, and we refine the requirements into a specification that contains enough
information to begin designing the system architecture.
 ESD UNIT-1 NOTES

Requirements may be functional or nonfunctional. We must of course capture the basic

functions of the embedded system, but functional description is often not sufficient. Typical
nonfunctional requirements include:
■ Performance: The speed of the system is often a major consideration both for the usability of
the system and for its ultimate cost. As we have noted, performance may be a combination of
soft performance metrics such as approximate time to perform a user-level function and hard
deadlines by which a particular operation must be completed.
■ Cost: The target cost or purchase price for the system is almost always a consideration. Cost
typically has two major components: manufacturing cost includes the cost of components and
assembly; nonrecurring engineering (NRE) costs include the personnel and other costs of
designing the system.
■ Physical size and weight: The physical aspects of the final system can vary greatly depending
upon the application. An industrial control system for an assembly line may be designed to fit
into a standard-size rack with no strict limitations on weight. A handheld device typically has
tight requirements on both size and weight that can ripple through the entire system design.
■ Power consumption: Power, of course, is important in battery-powered systems and is often
important in other applications as well. Power can be specified in the requirements stage in terms
of battery life—the customer is unlikely to be able to describe the allowable wattage.
A sample requirements form that can be filled out at the start of the project. We can use the form
as a checklist in considering the basic characteristics of the system. Let’s consider the entries in
the form:
■ Name: This is simple but helpful. Giving a name to the project not only simplifies talking
about it to other people but can also crystallize the purpose of the machine.
■ Purpose: This should be a brief one- or two-line description of what the system is supposed to
do. If you can’t describe the essence of your system in one or two lines, chances are that you
don’t understand it well enough.
■ Inputs and outputs: These two entries are more complex than they seem. The inputs and
outputs to the system encompass a wealth of detail:
— Types of data: Analog electronic signals? Digital data? Mechanical inputs?
— Data characteristics: Periodically arriving data, such as digital audio
samples? Occasional user inputs? How many bits per data element?
— Types of I/O devices: Buttons? Analog/digital converters? Video displays?
■ Functions: This is a more detailed description of what the system does. A good way to
approach this is to work from the inputs to the outputs: When the system receives an input, what
does it do? How do user interface inputs affect these functions? How do different functions
interact?
Performance: Many embedded computing systems spend at least some time controlling physical
devices or processing data coming from the physical world. In most of these cases, the
computations must be performed within a certain time frame. It is essential that the performance
requirements be identified early
since they must be carefully measured during implementation to ensure that the system works
properly.
■ Manufacturing cost: This includes primarily the cost of the hardware components. Even if you
don’t know exactly how much you can afford to spend on system components, you should have
some idea of the eventual cost range. Cost has a substantial influence on architecture: A machine
that is meant to
sell at $10 most likely has a very different internal structure than a $100 system.
■ Power: Similarly, you may have only a rough idea of how much power the system can
consume, but a little information can go a long way. Typically, the most important decision is

N SURESH, Dept of ECE Page 9

 ESD UNIT-1 NOTES

whether the machine will be battery powered or plugged into the wall. Battery-powered
machines must be much more careful about how they spend energy.

■ Physical size and weight: You should give some indication of the physical size of the system
to help guide certain architectural decisions. A desktop machine has much more flexibility in the
components used than, for example, a lapel mounted voice recorder.

GPS MODULE:

REQUIREMENTS FORM OF GPS MOVING MAP MODULE:

Name : GPS moving map
Purpose: Consumer-grade moving map for driving use
Inputs : Power button, two control buttons
Outputs : Back-lit LCD display 400 _ 600
Functions : Uses 5-receiver GPS system; three user-selectable resolutions;
always displays current latitude and longitude
Performance: Updates screen within 0.25 seconds upon movement
Manufacturing cost:$30
Power: 100mW
Physical size and weight: No more than 2” _ 6, ” 12 ounces

Specification
The specification is more precise—it serves as the contract between the customer and the
architects. As such, the specification must be carefully written so that it accurately reflects the
customer’s requirements and does so in a way that can be clearly followed during design.
The specification should be understandable enough so that someone can verify that it meets
system requirements and overall expectations of the customer.
A specification of the GPS system would include several components:
 Data received from the GPS satellite constellation.
 Map data.
 User interface.
 Operations that must be performed to satisfy customer requests.
 Background actions required to keep the system running, such as operating the GPS
receiver.
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Architecture Design
The specification does not say how the system does things, only what the system does.
Describing how the system implements those functions is the purpose of the architecture. The
architecture is a plan for the overall structure of the system that will be used later to design the
components that make up the architecture. The creation of the architecture is the first phase of
what many designers think of as design.
This block diagram is still quite abstract—we have not yet specified which operations will be
performed by software running on a CPU, what will be done by special-purpose hardware, and
so on. The diagram does, however, go a long way toward describing how to implement the
functions described in the specification. We clearly see, for example, that we need to search the
topographic database and to render (i.e., draw) the results for the display. We have chosen to
separate those functions so that we can potentially do them in parallel—performing rendering
separately from searching the database may help us update the screen more fluidly.

FIG: BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR THE MOVING MAP

The hardware block diagram clearly shows that we have one central CPU surrounded by memory
and I/O devices. In particular, we have chosen to use two memories: a frame buffer for the pixels
to be displayed and a separate program/data memory for general use by the CPU. The software
block diagram fairly closely follows the system block diagram, but we have added a timer to
control when we read the buttons on the user interface and render data onto the screen. To have a
truly complete architectural description, we require more detail, such as where units in the
software block diagram will be executed in the hardware block diagram and when operations
will be performed in time.
 ESD UNIT-1 NOTES

Fig : Hardware and software architectures for the moving map.

The architectural description tells us what components we need. The component design effort
builds those components in conformance to the architecture and specification. The components
will in general include both hardware—FPGAs, boards, and so on—and software modules. Some
of the components will be ready-made. The CPU, for example, will be a standard component in
almost all cases, as will memory chips and many other components .In the moving map, the GPS
receiver is a good example of a specialized component that will nonetheless be a predesigned,
standard component. We can also make use of standard software modules.

System Integration:
Only after the components are built do we have the satisfaction of putting them together and
seeing a working system. Of course, this phase usually consists of a lot more than just plugging
everything together and standing back. Bugs are typically found during system integration, and
good planning can help us find the bugs quickly. By building up the system in phases and
running properly chosen tests, we can often find bugs more easily. If we debug only a few
modules at a time, we are more likely to uncover the simple bugs and able to easily recognize
them. Only by fixing the simple bugs early will we be able to uncover the more complex or
obscure bugs that can be identified only by giving the system a hard workout
 ESD UNIT-1 NOTES

Characteristics of Embedded systems: (DEC2016, March-2017)

Embedded systems possess certain specific characteristics and these are unique to each
Embedded system.

1. Application and domain specific

2. Reactive and Real Time

3. Operates in harsh environments

4. Distributed

5. Small Size and weight

6. Power concerns

7. Single-functioned

8. Complex functionality

9. Tightly-constrained

10. Safety-critical

1. Application and Domain Specific:-

• Each E.S has certain functions to perform and they are developed in such a manner to do
the intended functions only.

• They cannot be used for any other purpose.

• Ex – The embedded control units of the microwave oven cannot be replaced with AC‟S
embedded control unit because the embedded control units of microwave oven and AC
are specifically designed to perform certain specific tasks.
 ESD UNIT-1 NOTES
2. Reactive and Real Time:-

• E.S are in constant interaction with the real world through sensors and user-defined input
devices which are connected to the input port of the system.

• Any changes in the real world are captured by the sensors or input devices in real time
and the control algorithm running inside the unit reacts in a designed manner to bring the
controlled output variables to the desired level.

• E.S produce changes in output in response to the changes in the input, so they are referred
as reactive systems.

• Real Time system operation means the timing behavior of the system should be
deterministic ie the system should respond to requests in a known amount of time.

• Example – E.S which are mission critical like flight control systems, Antilock Brake
Systems (ABS) etc are Real Time systems.

3. Operates in Harsh Environment :–

• The design of E.S should take care of the operating conditions of the area where the
system is going to implement.

• Ex – If the system needs to be deployed in a high temperature zone, then all the
components used in the system should be of high temperature grade.

• Also proper shock absorption techniques should be provided to systems which are going
to be commissioned in places subject to high shock.

4. Distributed: –

• It means that embedded systems may be a part of a larger system.

• Many numbers of such distributed embedded systems form a single large embedded
control unit.

• Ex – Automatic vending machine. It contains a card reader, a vending unit etc. Each of
them are independent embedded units but they work together to perform the overall
vending function.

5. Small Size and Weight:-

• Product aesthetics (size, weight, shape, style, etc) is an important factor in choosing a
product.

• It is convenient to handle a compact device than a bulky product.

 ESD UNIT-1 NOTES

6. Power Concerns:-

• Power management is another important factor that needs to be considered in designing

embedded systems.

• E.S should be designed in such a way as to minimize the heat dissipation by the system.

7. Single-functioned:- Dedicated to perform a single function

8. Complex functionality: - We have to run sophisticated algorithms or multiple algorithms in

some applications.

9. Tightly-constrained:-

Low cost, low power, small, fast, etc

10. Safety-critical:-

Must not endanger human life and the environment

Quality Attributes of Embedded System: Quality attributes are the non-functional

requirements that need to be documented properly in any system design.(DEC16,March-2017)

Quality attributes can be classified as

I. Operational quality attributes

II. Non-operational quality attributes.

I. Operational Quality Attributes: The operational quality attributes represent the relevant
quality attributes related to the embedded system when it is in the operational mode or online
mode.

Operational Quality Attributes are:

1. Response :-

It is the measure of quickness of the system.

It tells how fast the system is tracking the changes in input variables.

Most of the E.S demands fast response which should be almost real time.

Ex – Flight control application.

 ESD UNIT-1 NOTES

2. Throughput :-

It deals with the efficiency of a system.

It can be defined as the rate of production or operation of a defined process over a

stated period of time.

The rates can be expressed in terms of products, batches produced or any other
meaningful measurements.

Ex – In case of card reader throughput means how many transactions the reader
can perform in a minute or in an hour or in a day.

Throughput is generally measured in terms of “Benchmark”.

A Benchmark is a reference point by which something can be measured

3. Reliability :-

• It is a measure of how much we can rely upon the proper functioning of the system.

• Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) and Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) are the
terms used in determining system reliability.

• MTBF gives the frequency of failures in hours/weeks/months.

• MTTR specifies how long the system is allowed to be out of order following a
failure.

• For embedded system with critical application need, it should be of the order of
minutes.

4. Maintainability:-

• It deals with support and maintenance to the end user or client in case of technical issues
and product failure or on the basis of a routine system checkup.

• Reliability and maintainability are complementary to each other.

• A more reliable system means a system with less corrective maintainability requirements
and vice versa.

• Maintainability can be broadly classified into two categories

1. Scheduled or Periodic maintenance (Preventive maintenance)

2. Corrective maintenance to unexpected failures

 ESD UNIT-1 NOTES

5. Security:-

• Confidentiality, Integrity and availability are the three major measures of information
security.

• Confidentiality deals with protection of data and application from unauthorized

disclosure.

• Integrity deals with the protection of data and application from unauthorized
modification.

• Availability deals with protection of data and application from unauthorized users.

6. Safety :-

Safety deals with the possible damages that can happen to the operator, public and the
environment due to the breakdown of an Embedded System.

The breakdown of an embedded system may occur due to a hardware failure or a

firmware failure.

Safety analysis is a must in product engineering to evaluate the anticipated damages and
determine the best course of action to bring down the consequences of damage to an
acceptable level.
II. Non-Operational Quality Attributes: The quality attributes that needs to be addressed for
the product not on the basis of operational aspects are grouped under this category.

1. Testability and Debug-ability:-

• Testability deals with how easily one can test the design, application and by which means
it can be done.

• For an E.S testability is applicable to both the embedded hardware and firmware.

• Embedded hardware testing ensures that the peripherals and total hardware functions in
the desired manner, whereas firmware testing ensures that the firmware is functioning in
the expected way.

• Debug-ability is a means of debugging the product from unexpected behavior in the

system

• Debug-ability is two level process

• 1.Hardware level 2.software level

• 1. Hardware level: It is used for finding the issues created by hardware problems.

• 2. Software level: It is employed for finding the errors created by the flaws in the software.
 ESD UNIT-1 NOTES

2. Evolvability :-

• It is a term which is closely related to Biology.

• It is referred as the non-heritable variation.

• For an embedded system evolvability refers to the ease with which the embedded product
can be modified to take advantage of new firmware or hardware technologies.

3. Portability:-

• It is the measure of system independence.

• An embedded product is said to be portable if the product is capable of functioning in

various environments, target processors and embedded operating systems.

• „Porting‟ represents the migration of embedded firmware written for one target processor
to a different target processor.

4. Time-to-Prototype and Market:-

• It is the time elapsed between the conceptualization of a product and the time at which
the product is ready for selling.

• The commercial embedded product market is highly competitive and time to market the
product is critical factor in the success of commercial embedded product.

• There may be multiple players in embedded industry who develop products of the same
category (like mobile phone).

5. Per Unit Cost and Revenue:-

• Cost is a factor which is closely monitored by both end user and product manufacturer.

• Cost is highly sensitive factor for commercial products

• Any failure to position the cost of a commercial product at a nominal rate may lead to the
failure of the product in the market.

• Proper market study and cost benefit analysis should be carried out before taking a
decision on the per-unit cost of the embedded product.

• The ultimate aim of the product is to generate marginal profit so the budget and total cost
should be properly balanced to provide a marginal profit.
 ESD UNIT-1 NOTES

SUMMARY
1. An embedded system is an electronic/electromechanical system designed to perform a
specific function and is a combination of both hardware and firmware (software).
2. A general purpose computing system is a combination of generic hardware and general
purpose operating system for executing a variety of applications, whereas an embedded
3. System is a combination of special purpose hardware and embedded OS/firmware for
executing a specific set of applications.
4. Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) is the first recognized modern embedded system and
Autonetics D-17, the guidance computer for the Minuteman-I missile, was the first mass
produced embedded system.
5. Based on the complexity and performance requirements, embedded systems are classified
into small-scale, medium-scale and large-scale/complex.
6. The presences of embedded system vary from simple electronic system toys to complex
flight and missile control systems.
7. Embedded systems are designed to serve the purpose of any one or combination of data
collection/storage/representation, data processing, monitoring, control or application
specific user interface.

8. Wearable devices refer to embedded systems which are incorporated into accessories and
apparels. It envisions the bonding of embedded technology in our day to day lives.

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Embedded systems are
(a) General Purpose (b) Special Purpose
2. Embedded system is
(a) An electronic system (b) A pure mechanical system
(c)An electro-mechanical system (d) (a) or (c)
3. Which of the following is not true about embedded systems?
(a) Built around specialized hardware (b) Always contain an operating system
(c)Execution behavior may be deterministic (d) All of these (e) none of these
4. Which of the following is not an example of small scale embedded system?
(a) Electronic Barbie doll (b) Simple calculator
(c) Cell Phone (d) Electronic toy car
 ESD UNIT-1 NOTES

5. The first recognized modern embedded system is

(a) Apple computer (b) Apollo Guidance Computer
(c) Calculator (d) Radio navigation system
6. The first mass produced embedded system is
(a) Minuteman-I (b) Minuteman-II
(c) Autonetics D17 (d) Apollo Guidance Computer
7. Which of the following is (are) an intended purpose of embedded systems?
(a) Data collection (b) Data processing
(c) Data communication (d) All of these (e) None of these
8. Which of the following is an example of an embedded system for data communication?
(a) USB mass storage device (b) Network router (c) Digital camera
(d)Music player (e) All of these (f) None of these
9 . A digital multimeter is an example of embedded system for
(a) Data communication (b) Monitoring (c) Control
(d) All of these (e) None of these
10. Which of the following is an example of an embedded system for signal processing?
(a) Apple iPOD (b) Sandisk USB mass storage device
(c) both a and b (d) None of these

Reference Text Books:-

1. Introduction to Embedded Systems – Shibu K.V Mc Graw Hill

2. Computers as Components –Wayne Wolf-morgan Kaufmann publications

 IV ECE

EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN

UNIT-II
TYPICAL EMBEDDED
SYSTEM
ELEMENTS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:
An embedded system is a combination of 3 things, Hardware Software Mechanical
Components and it is supposed to do one specific task only. A typical embedded system contains
a single chip controller which acts as the master brain of the system. Diagrammatically an
embedded system can be represented as follows:

FPGA/ASIC/DSP/SoC
Embedded
Microprocessor/controller
Firmware

Memory

Communication Interface

System
I/p Ports Core O/p Ports
(Sensors)
(Actuators)

Other supporting
Integrated Circuits &
subsystems

Embedded System

Real World

Embedded systems are basically designed to regulate a physical variable (such

Microwave Oven) or to manipulate the state of some devices by sending some signals to the
actuators or devices connected to the output port system (such as temperature in Air
Conditioner), in response to the input signal provided by the end users or sensors which are
connected to the input ports. Hence the embedded systems can be viewed as a reactive
system.
The control is achieved by processing the information coming from the sensors and user
interfaces and controlling some actuators that regulate the physical variable.
Keyboards, push button, switches, etc. are Examples of common user interface input
devices and LEDs, LCDs, Piezoelectric buzzers, etc examples for common user interface
output devices for a typical embedded system.The requirement of type of user interface
changes from application to application based on domain.
Some embedded systems do not require any manual intervention for their operation.
They automatically sense the input parameters from real world through sensors which are
connected at input port. The sensor information is passed to the processor after signal
conditioning and digitization. The core of the system performs some predefined operations
on input data with the help of embedded firmware in the system and sends some actuating
signals to the actuator connect connected to the output port of the system.
The memory of the system is responsible for holding the code (control algorithm and
other important configuration details). There are two types of memories are used in any
embedded system. Fixed memory (ROM) is used for storing code or program. The user
cannot change the firmware in this type of memory. The most common types of memories
used in embedded systems for control algorithm storage are
OTP,PROM,UVEPROM,EEPROM and FLASH
An embedded system without code (i.e. the control algorithm) implemented memory has
all the peripherals but is not capable of making decisions depending on the situational as well
as real world changes.
Memory for implementing the code may be present on the processor or may be
implemented as a separate chip interfacing the processor
In a controller based embedded system, the controller may contain internal memory for
storing code such controllers are called Micro-controllers with on-chip ROM, eg. Atmel
AT89C51.
 The Core of the Embedded Systems: The core of the embedded system falls into any one
of the following categories.


General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors
o Microprocessors

o Microcontrollers

o Digital Signal Processors


Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)

Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)


Commercial off the shelf Components (COTS)

GENERAL PURPOSE AND DOMAIN SPECIFIC PROCESSOR:

Almost 80% of the embedded systems are processor/ controller based.
The processor may be microprocessor or a microcontroller or digital signal processor,
depending on the domain and application.
Microprocessor:
A silicon chip representing a Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is capable of
performing arithmetic as well as logical operations according to a pre-defined set of
Instructions, which is specific to the manufacturer

In general the CPU contains the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit and
Working registers

Microprocessor is a dependant unit and it requires the combination of other hardware like
Memory, Timer Unit, and Interrupt Controller etc for proper functioning.

Intel claims the credit for developing the first Microprocessor unit Intel 4004, a 4 bit
processor which was released in Nov 1971

· Developers of microprocessors.
Intel – Intel 4004 – November 1971(4-bit)
Intel – Intel 4040.
Intel – Intel 8008 – April 1972.
Intel – Intel 8080 – April 1974(8-bit).
Motorola – Motorola 6800.
Intel – Intel 8085 – 1976.
Zilog - Z80 – July 1976
 Microcontroller:

A highly integrated silicon chip containing a CPU, scratch pad RAM, Special and
General purpose Register Arrays, On Chip ROM/FLASH memory for program storage,
Timer and Interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports

Microcontrollers can be considered as a super set of Microprocessors


Microcontroller can be general purpose (like Intel 8051, designed for generic applications
and domains) or application specific (Like Automotive AVR from Atmel Corporation.
Designed specifically for automotive applications) 

Since a microcontroller contains all the necessary functional blocks for independent working,
they found greater place in the embedded domain in place of microprocessors

Microcontrollers are cheap, cost effective and are readily available in the market

Texas Instruments TMS 1000 is considered as the world‟s first microcontroller

Microprocessor Vs Microcontroller:

Microprocessor Microcontroller
A silicon chip representing a Central Processing Unit A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that
(CPU), which is capable of performing arithmetic as contains a CPU, scratch pad RAM, Special and
well as logical operations according to a pre-defined set General purpose Register Arrays, On Chip
of Instructions ROM/FLASH memory for program storage, Timer
and Interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports
It is a dependent unit. It requires the combination of It is a self contained unit and it doesn’t require
other chips like Timers, Program and data memory external Interrupt Controller, Timer, UART etc for
chips, Interrupt controllers etc for functioning its functioning

Most of the time general purpose in design and Mostly application oriented or domain specific
operation
Doesn‟t contain a built in I/O port. The I/O Port Most of the processors contain multiple built-in I/O
functionality needs to be implemented with the help of ports which can be operated as a single 8 or 16 or 32
external Programmable Peripheral Interface Chips like bit Port or as individual port pins
8255
Targeted for high end market where performance is Targeted for embedded market where performance is
important not so critical (At present this demarcation is invalid)

Limited power saving options compared to Includes lot of power saving features
microcontrollers
General Purpose Processor (GPP) Vs Application Specific Instruction Set Processor (ASIP)


General Purpose Processor or GPP is a processor designed for general computational tasks


GPPs are produced in large volumes and targeting the general market. Due to the high
volume production, the per unit cost for a chip is low compared to ASIC or other specific
ICs

A typical general purpose processor contains an Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and Control
Unit (CU)


Application Specific Instruction Set processors (ASIPs) are processors with architecture
and instruction set optimized to specific domain/application requirements like Network
processing, Automotive, Telecom, media applications, digital signal processing, control
applications etc.

ASIPs fill the architectural spectrum between General Purpose Processors and Application
Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)


The need for an ASIP arises when the traditional general purpose processor are unable to meet the
increasing application needs


Some Microcontrollers (like Automotive AVR, USB AVR from Atmel), System on
Chips, Digital Signal Processors etc are examples of Application Specific Instruction Set
Processors (ASIPs)

ASIPs incorporate a processor and on-chip peripherals, demanded by the application requirement,
program and data memory

Digital Signal Processors (DSPs):

Powerful special purpose 8/16/32 bit microprocessors designed specifically to meet the
computational demands and power constraints of today's embedded audio, video, and
communications applications

Digital Signal Processors are 2 to 3 times faster than the general purpose microprocessors
in signal processing applications

DSPs implement algorithms in hardware which speeds up the execution whereas general
purpose processors implement the algorithm in firmware and the speed of execution
depends primarily on the clock for the processors

DSP can be viewed as a microchip designed for performing high speed computational
operations for „addition‟, „subtraction‟, „multiplication‟ and „division‟
 A typical Digital Signal Processor incorporates the following key units

Program Memory

Data Memory


Computational Engine

I/O Unit

Audio video signal processing, telecommunication and multimedia applications are

typical examples where DSP is employed

RISC V/s CISC Processors/Controllers:

RISC CISC
Lesser no. of instructions Greater no. of Instructions
Instruction Pipelining and increased execution Generally no instruction pipelining feature
speed
Orthogonal Instruction Set (Allows each instruction Non Orthogonal Instruction Set (All instructions
to operate on any register and use any addressing are not allowed to operate on any register and
mode) use any addressing mode. It is instruction
specific)
Operations are performed on registers only, the Operations are performed on registers or
only memory operations are load and store memory depending on the instruction

Large number of registers are available Limited no. of general purpose registers
Programmer needs to write more code to execute a . A programmer can achieve the desired
task since the instructions are simpler ones functionality with a single instruction which in
turn provides the effect of using more simpler
single instructions in RISC
Single, Fixed length Instructions Variable length Instructions

Less Silicon usage and pin count More silicon usage since more additional
decoder logic is required to implement the
complex instruction decoding.
With Harvard Architecture Can be Harvard or Von-Neumann Architecture
Harvard V/s Von-Neumann Processor/Controller Architecture

The terms Harvard and Von-Neumann refers to the processor architecture design.

Microprocessors/controllers based on the Von-Neumann architecture shares a single

common bus for fetching both instructions and data. Program instructions and data are
stored in a common main memory

Microprocessors/controllers based on the Harvard architecture will have separate data

bus and instruction bus. This allows the data transfer and program fetching to occur
simultaneously on both buses

With Harvard architecture, the data memory can be read and written while the program
memory is being accessed. These separated data memory and code memory buses allow
one instruction to execute while the next instruction is fetched (“Pre-fetching”)

I/O CPU Memory

Program
CPU Data Memory
Memory

Single shared Bus

Harvard V/s Von-Neumann Processor/Controller Architecture:

Harvard Architecture Von-Neumann Architecture

Separate buses for Instruction and Data fetching Single shared bus for Instruction and Data
fetching
Easier to Pipeline, so high performance can be Low performance Compared to Harvard
achieved Architecture
Comparatively high cost Cheaper
No memory alignment problems Allows self modifying codes†
Since data memory and program memory are Since data memory and program memory
stored physically in different locations, no are stored physically in same chip, chances
chances for accidental corruption of program for accidental corruption of program
memory memory
Big-endian V/s Little-endian processors:


Endianness specifies the order in which the data is stored in the memory by processor
operations in a multi byte system (Processors whose word size is greater than one byte).
Suppose the word length is two byte then data can be stored in memory in two different
ways

Higher order of data byte at the higher memory and lower order of data byte at
location just below the higher memory

Lower order of data byte at the higher memory and higher order of data byte at
location just below the higher memory


Little-endian means the lower-order byte of the data is stored in memory at the lowest
address, and the higher-order byte at the highest address. (The little end comes first)


Big-endian means the higher-order byte of the data is stored in memory at the lowest address,
and the lower-order byte at the highest address. (The big end comes first.)
Load Store Operation & Instruction Pipelining:

The RISC processor instruction set is orthogonal and it operates on registers. The memory access
related operations are performed by the special instructions load and store. If the operand is
specified as memory location, the content of it is loaded to a register using the load instruction.
The instruction store stores data from a specified register to a specified memory location

Instruction Pipelining

The conventional instruction execution by the processor follows the fetch-decode-

execute sequence

The „fetch‟ part fetches the instruction from program memory or code memory and
the decode part decodes the instruction to generate the necessary control signals

The execute stage reads the operands, perform ALU operations and stores the result.
In conventional program execution, the fetch and decode operations are performed in
sequence
 During the decode operation the memory address bus is available and if it possible to
effectively utilize it for an instruction fetch, the processing speed can be increased

In its simplest form instruction pipelining refers to the overlapped execution of

instructions

Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC):

A microchip designed to perform a specific or unique application. It is used as
replacement to conventional general purpose logic chips.

ASIC integrates several functions into a single chip and thereby reduces the system
development cost

Most of the ASICs are proprietary products. As a single chip, ASIC consumes very small
area in the total system and thereby helps in the design of smaller systems with high
capabilities/functionalities.

ASICs can be pre-fabricated for a special application or it can be custom fabricated by

using the components from a re-usable „building block‟ library of components for a
particular customer application

Fabrication of ASICs requires a non-refundable initial investment (Non Recurring

Engineering (NRE) charges) for the process technology and configuration expenses

If the Non-Recurring Engineering Charges (NRE) is born by a third party and the
Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) is made openly available in the market,
the ASIC is referred as Application Specific Standard Product (ASSP)

The ASSP is marketed to multiple customers just as a general-purpose product , but to a

smaller number of customers since it is for a specific application.
 Some ASICs are proprietary products , the developers are not interested in revealing the
internal details.

Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs):


Logic devices provide specific functions, including device-to-device interfacing, data
communication, signal processing, data display, timing and control operations, and
almost every other function a system must perform.


Logic devices can be classified into two broad categories - Fixed and Programmable. The
circuits in a fixed logic device are permanent, they perform one function or set of
functions - once manufactured, they cannot be changed

Programmable logic devices (PLDs) offer customers a wide range of logic capacity,
features, speed, and voltage characteristics - and these devices can be re-configured to
perform any number of functions at any time


Designers can use inexpensive software tools to quickly develop, simulate, and test their
logic designs in PLD based design. The design can be quickly programmed into a device,
and immediately tested in a live circuit 


PLDs are based on re-writable memory technology and the device is reprogrammed to
change the design

Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs) – CPLDs and FPGA

Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) and Complex Programmable Logic Devices
(CPLDs) are the two major types of programmable logic devices

FPGA:
FPGA is an IC designed to be configured by a designer after manufacturing.

FPGAs offer the highest amount of logic density, the most features, and the highest
performance.

Logic gate is Medium to high density ranging from 1K to 500K system gates
 These advanced FPGA devices also offer features such as built-in hardwired processors
(such as the IBM Power PC), substantial amounts of memory, clock management
systems, and support for many of the latest, very fast device-to-device signaling
technologies

Figure: FPGA Architecture

These advanced FPGA devices also offer features such as built-in hardwired processors,
substantial amounts of memory, clock management systems, and support for many of the
latest, very fast device-to-device signaling technologies.

FPGAs are used in a wide variety of applications ranging from data processing and
storage, to instrumentation, telecommunications, and digital signal processing

CPLD:

A complex programmable logic device (CPLD) is a programmable logic device with
complexity between that of PALs and FPGAs, and architectural features of both.

CPLDs, by contrast, offer much smaller amounts of logic - up to about 10,000 gates.

CPLDs offer very predictable timing characteristics and are therefore ideal for critical
control applications.
 CPLDs such as the Xilinx CoolRunner series also require extremely low amounts of
power and are very inexpensive, making them ideal for cost-sensitive, battery-operated,
portable applications such as mobile phones and digital handheld assistants.

ADVANTAGES OF PLDs:

• PLDs offer customer much more flexibility during design cycle

• PLDSs do not require long lead times for prototype or production-the PLDs are already
on a distributor‟s self and ready for shipment

• PLDs do not require customers to pay for large NRE costs and purchase expensive mask
sets

• PLDs allow customers to order just the number of parts required when they need them.
allowing them to control inventory.

• PLDs are reprogrammable even after a piece of equipment is shipped to a customer.

• The manufacturers able to add new features or upgrade the PLD based products that are
in the field by uploading new programming file

Commercial off the Shelf Component (COTS):

A Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) product is one which is used „as-is‟

COTS products are designed in such a way to provide easy integration and
interoperability with existing system components
Typical examples for the COTS hardware unit are Remote Controlled Toy Car control
unit including the RF Circuitry part, High performance, high frequency microwave
electronics (2 to 200 GHz), High bandwidth analog-to-digital converters, Devices and
components for operation at very high temperatures, Electro-optic IR imaging arrays,
UV/IR Detectors etc

A COTS component in turn contains a General Purpose Processor (GPP) or Application

Specific Instruction Set Processor (ASIP) or Application Specific Integrated Chip
(ASIC)/Application Specific Standard Product (ASSP) or Programmable Logic Device
(PLD)

The major advantage of using COTS is that they are readily available in the market,
cheap and a developer can cut down his/her development time to a great extend.

There is no need to design the module yourself and write the firmware .

Everything will be readily supplied by the COTs manufacturer.

 The major problem faced by the end-user is that there are no operational and
manufacturing standards.

The major drawback of using COTs component in embedded design is that the
manufacturer may withdraw the product or discontinue the production of the COTs at any
time if rapid change in technology

This problem adversely affect a commercial manufacturer of the embedded system which
makes use of the specific COTs

Memory:
Memory is an important part of an embedded system. The memory used in embedded
system can be either Program Storage Memory (ROM) or Data memory (RAM)

Certain Embedded processors/controllers contain built in program memory and data

memory and this memory is known as on-chip memory

Certain Embedded processors/controllers do not contain sufficient memory inside the

chip and requires external memory called off-chip memory or external memory.

Memory – Program Storage Memory:


Stores the program instructions


Retains its contents even after the power to it is turned off. It is generally known as Non
volatile storage memory


Depending on the fabrication, erasing and programming techniques they are classified into
 FLASH Code Memory NVRAM
(ROM)

PROM Masked ROM

EPROM EEPROM
(OTP) (MROM)

1. Masked ROM (MROM):

One-time programmable memory.

Uses hardwired technology for storing data.

The device is factory programmed by masking and metallization process according to

the data provided by the end user.

The primary advantage of MROM is low cost for high volume production.

MROM is the least expensive type of solid state memory.

Different mechanisms are used for the masking process of the ROM, like

Creation of an enhancement or depletion mode transistor through channel implant


By creating the memory cell either using a standard transistor or a high threshold
transistor.


In the high threshold mode, the supply voltage required to turn ON the transistor is
above the normal ROM IC operating voltage.


This ensures that the transistor is always off and the memory cell stores always logic
0.

The limitation with MROM based firmware storage is the inability to modify the
device firmware against firmware upgrades.

The MROM is permanent in bit storage, it is not possible to alter the bit information
2. Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) / (OTP) :

It is not pre-programmed by the manufacturer

The end user is responsible for Programming these devices.

PROM/OTP has nichrome or polysilicon wires arranged in a matrix, these wires can be
functionally viewed as fuses.

It is programmed by a PROM programmer which selectively burns the fuses according to

the bit pattern to be stored.

Fuses which are not blown/burned represents a logic “1” where as fuses which are
blown/burned represents a logic “0”.The default state is logic “1”.

OTP is widely used for commercial production of embedded systems whose proto-typed
versions are proven and the code is finalized.

It is a low cost solution for commercial production.

OTPs cannot be reprogrammed.

3. Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM):

Erasable Programmable Read Only (EPROM) memory gives the flexibility to re-program
the same chip.

During development phase , code is subject to continuous changes and using an OTP is
not economical.

EPROM stores the bit information by charging the floating gate of an FET

Bit information is stored by using an EPROM Programmer, which applies high voltage to
charge the floating gate

EPROM contains a quartz crystal window for erasing the stored information. If the
window is exposed to Ultra violet rays for a fixed duration, the entire memory will be
erased

Even though the EPROM chip is flexible in terms of re-programmability, it needs to be

taken out of the circuit board and needs to be put in a UV eraser device for 20 to 30
minutes
4. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM):

Erasable Programmable Read Only (EPROM) memory gives the flexibility to re-program
the same chip using electrical signals

The information contained in the EEPROM memory can be altered by using electrical
signals at the register/Byte level

They can be erased and reprogrammed within the circuit

These chips include a chip erase mode and in this mode they can be erased in a few
milliseconds

It provides greater flexibility for system design

The only limitation is their capacity is limited when compared with the standard ROM (A
few kilobytes).

5. Program Storage Memory – FLASH

FLASH memory is a variation of EEPROM technology.

FALSH is the latest ROM technology and is the most popular ROM technology used in
today‟s embedded designs

It combines the re-programmability of EEPROM and the high capacity of standard

ROMs

FLASH memory is organized as sectors (blocks) or pages

FLASH memory stores information in an array of floating gate MOSFET transistors

The erasing of memory can be done at sector level or page level without affecting the
other sectors or pages

Each sector/page should be erased before re-programming

The typical erasable capacity of FLASH is of the order of a few 1000 cycles.

Read-Write Memory/Random Access Memory (RAM)


RAM is the data memory or working memory of the controller/processor

RAM is volatile, meaning when the power is turned off, all the contents are destroyed
 
RAM is a direct access memory, meaning we can access the desired memory location
directly without the need for traversing through the entire memory locations to reach the
desired memory position (i.e. Random Access of memory location) 

Read/Write
Memory (RAM)

SRAM DRAM NVRAM

1. Static RAM (SRAM):


Static RAM stores data in the form of Voltage.

They are made up of flip-flops


In typical implementation, an SRAM cell (bit) is realized using
6 transistors (or 6 MOSFETs).


Four of the transistors are used for building the latch (flip-flop)
part of the memory cell and 2 for controlling the access.

Static RAM is the fastest form of RAM available. 

SRAM is fast in operation due to its resistive networking and switching capabilities

2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)


Dynamic RAM stores data in the form of charge. They are made up of MOS transistor gates


The advantages of DRAM are its high density and low cost compared to
SRAM


The disadvantage is that since the information is stored as charge it
gets leaked off with time and to prevent this they need to be
refreshed periodically


Special circuits called DRAM controllers are used for the refreshing operation. The refresh
operation is done periodically in milliseconds interval
SRAM Vs DRAM:

SRAM Cell DRAM Cell

Made up of 6 CMOS transistors (MOSFET) Made up of a MOSFET and a capacitor

Doesn‟t Require refreshing Requires refreshing
Low capacity (Less dense) High Capacity (Highly dense)
More expensive Less Expensive
Fast in operation. Typical access time is 10ns Slow in operation due to refresh
requirements. Typical access time is 60ns.
Write operation is faster than read operation.

3. Non Volatile RAM (NVRAM):


Random access memory with battery backup


It contains Static RAM based memory and a minute battery for providing supply to the
memory in the absence of external power supply

The memory and battery are packed together in a single package


NVRAM is used for the non volatile storage of results of operations or for setting up of flags
etc

The life span of NVRAM is expected to be around 10 years

DS1744 from Maxim/Dallas is an example for 32KB NVRAM

Memory selection for Embedded Systems:

• Selection of suitable memory is very much essential step in high performance
applications, because the challenges and limitations of the system performance are often
decided upon the type of memory architecture.

• Systems memory requirement depend primarily on the nature of the application that is
planned to run on the system.

• Memory performance and capacity requirement for low cost systems are small, whereas
memory throughput can be the most critical requirement in a complex, high performance
system.
• Following are the factors that are to be considered while selecting the memory devices,

Speed

Data storage size and capacity


Bus width


Power consumption


Cost

Embedded system requirements:


Program memory for holding control algorithm or embedded OS and the applications
designed to run on top of OS.

Data memory for holding variables and temporary data during task execution.

Memory for holding non-volatile data which are modifiable by the application.

The memory requirement for an embedded system in terms of RAM (SRAM/DRAM)

and ROM (EEPROM/FLASH/NVRAM) is solely dependent on the type of the embedded
system and applications for which it is designed.

There is no hard and fast rule for calculating the memory requirements.

Lot of factors need to be considered for selecting the type and size of memory for
embedded system.

Example: Design of Embedded based electronic Toy.

SOC or microcontroller can be selected based type(RAM &ROM) and size of on-chip
memory for the design of embedded system.

If on-chip memory is not sufficient then how much external memory need to be
interfaced.

If the ES design is RTOS based ,the RTOS requires certain amount of RAM for its
execution and ROM for storing RTOS Image.

The RTOS suppliers gives amount of run time RAM requirements and program memory
requirements for the RTOS.

Additional memory is required for executing user tasks and user applications.
On a safer side, always add a buffer value to the total estimated RAM and ROM
requirements.

A smart phone device with windows OS is typical example for embedded device requires
say 512MB RAM and 1GB ROM are minimum requirements for running the mobile
device.

And additional RAM &ROM memory is required for running user applications.

So estimate the memory requirements for install and run the user applications without
facing memory space.

Memory can be selected based on size of the memory ,data bus and address bus size of
the processor/controller.

Memory chips are available in standard sizes like 512 bytes,1KB,2KB ,4KB,8KB,16 KB
….1MB etc.

FLASH memory is the popular choice for ROM in embedded applications .

It is powerful and cost-effective solid state storage technology for mobile electronic
devices and other consumer applications.

Flash memory available in two major variants

1. NAND FLASH 2. NOR FLASH

NAND FLASH is a high density low cost non-volatile storage memory.

NOR FLASH is less dense and slightly expensive but supports Execute in place(XIP).

The XIP technology allows the execution of code memory from ROM itself without the
need for copying it to the RAM.

The EEPROM is available as either serial interface or parallel interface chip.

If the processor/controller of the device supports serial interface and the amount of data
to write and read to and from the device (Serial EEPROM) is less.

The serial EEPROM saves the address space of the total system.

The memory capacity of the serial EEPROM is expressed in bits or Kilobits.

 Industrial grade memory chips are used in certain embedded devices may be operated at
extreme environmental conditions like high temperature.

Sensors & Actuators:

• Embedded system is in constant interaction with the real world

• Controlling/monitoring functions executed by the embedded system is achieved in

accordance with the changes happening to the Real World.

• The changes in the system environment or variables are detected by the sensors
connected to the input port of the embedded system.

• If the embedded system is designed for any controlling purpose, the system will produce
some changes in controlling variable to bring the controlled variable to the desired value.

• It is achieved through an actuator connected to the out port of the embedded system.

Sensor:
A transducer device which converts energy from one form to another for any
measurement or control purpose. Sensors acts as input device

Eg. Hall Effect Sensor which measures the distance between the cushion and magnet in
the Smart Running shoes from adidas

Example: IR, humidity , PIR(passive infra red) , ultrasonic , piezoelectric , smoke

sensors
Actuator:

A form of transducer device (mechanical or

electrical) which converts signals to
corresponding physical action (motion).
Actuator acts as an output device

Eg. Micro motor actuator which adjusts the

position of the cushioning element in the
Smart Running shoes from adidas
The I/O Subsystem:


The I/O subsystem of the embedded system facilitates the interaction of the
embedded system with external world


The interaction happens through the sensors and actuators connected to the
Input and output ports respectively of the embedded system


The sensors may not be directly interfaced to the Input ports, instead
they may be interfaced through signal conditioning and translating
systems like ADC, Optocouplers etc

1. I/O Devices - Light Emitting Diode (LED):

Vcc
Light Emitting Diode (LED) is an output device for visual

R
indication in any embedded system

LED can be used as an indicator for the status of various signals

or situations.

Typical examples are indicating the presence of power conditions

GND
like „Device ON‟, „Battery low‟ or „Charging of battery‟ for a
battery operated handheld embedded devices

LED is a p-n junction diode and it contains an anode and a cathode.

For proper functioning of the LED, the anode of it should be connected to +ve terminal
of the supply voltage and cathode to the –ve terminal of supply voltage

The current flowing through the LED must limited to a value below the maximum current
that it can conduct.

A resister is used in series between the power supply and the resistor to limit the current
through the LED

2. I/O Devices – 7-Segment LED Display

The 7 – segment LED display is an output device for displaying alpha numeric characters

It contains 8 light-emitting diode (LED) segments arranged in a special form. Out of the 8
LED segments, 7 are used for displaying alpha numeric characters
 The LED segments are named A to G and the decimal point LED segment is named as
DP

The LED Segments A to G and DP should be lit accordingly to display numbers and
characters

The 7 – segment LED displays are available in two different configurations, namely;
Common anode and Common cathode

In the Common anode configuration, the anodes of the 8 segments are connected
commonly whereas in the Common cathode configuration, the 8 LED segments share a
common cathode line

Based on the configuration of the 7 – segment LED unit, the LED segment anode or
cathode is connected to the Port of the processor/controller in the order „A‟ segment to
the Least significant port Pin and DP segment to the most significant Port Pin.

The current flow through each of the LED segments should be limited to the maximum
value supported by the LED display unit

Anode Common Cathode LED Display

DP GFEDCB A

DPGF ED C B A
Common Anode LED Display Cathode

The typical value for the current falls within the range of 20mA

The current through each segment can be limited by connecting a current limiting resistor
to the anode or cathode of each segment

3. I/O Devices – Optocoupler

Optocoupler is a solid state device to isolate two parts of a circuit.

Optocoupler combines an LED and a photo-transistor in a single housing (package)

 In electronic circuits, optocoupler is used for suppressing interference in data
communication, circuit isolation, High voltage separation, simultaneous separation and
intensification signal etc Vcc

LED AT89C51 LED

I/p interface Port Pin
O/p interface
Port Pin
Photo-transistor Photo-transistor

Opto-Coupler Microcontroller Opto-Coupler

IC MCT2M IC MCT2M

Optocouplers can be used in either input circuits or in output circuits

4. I/O Devices – Stepper Motor:

Stepper motor is an electro mechanical device which generates discrete

displacement (motion) in response to dc electrical signals

It differs from the normal dc motor in its operation. The dc motor produces
continuous rotation on applying dc voltage whereas a stepper motor produces discrete
rotation in response to the dc voltage applied to it

Stepper motors are widely used in industrial embedded

applications, consumer electronic products and robotics
control systems A
GND

M
The paper feed mechanism of a printer/fax makes use C
of stepper motors for its functioning.

Based on the coil winding arrangements, a two phase

B D
stepper motor is classified into
GND


Unipolar

Bipolar
 
Unipolar: A unipolar stepper motor contains two windings per phase. The direction of
rotation (clockwise or anticlockwise) of a stepper motor is controlled by changing the
direction of current flow. Current in one direction flows through one coil and in the
opposite direction flows through the other coil. It is easy to shift the direction of rotation
by just switching the terminals to which the coils are connected


Bipolar: A bipolar stepper motor contains single winding per phase. For reversing the
motor rotation the current flow through the windings is reversed dynamically. It requires
complex circuitry for current flow reversal

5. The I/O Subsystem – I/O Devices – Relay:


An electro mechanical device which acts as dynamic path selectors for signals and power.


The „Relay‟ unit contains a relay coil made up of insulated wire on a metal core and a metal
armature with one or more contacts.

„Relay‟ works on electromagnetic principle.


When a voltage is applied to the relay coil, current flows through the coil, which in turn
generates a magnetic field.
CoilR

Relay
Coil
elay

oi
el
R
l

C
y
a

Single Pole Single Single Pole Single Single Pole Double

Throw Normally Throw Normally Throw
Open Closed

The magnetic field attracts the armature core and moves the contact point.

The movement of the contact point changes the power/signal flow path.


The Relay is normally controlled using a relay driver circuit connected to the port pin of the
processor/controller


A transistor can be used as the relay driver. The transistor can be selected depending on the
relay driving current requirements.
6. The I/O Subsystem – I/O Devices -Piezo Buzzer:

• It is a piezoelectric device for generating audio indications in embedded applications.

• A Piezo buzzer contains a piezoelectric diaphragm which produces audible sound in

response to the voltage applied to it.

• Piezoelectric buzzers are available in two types

1.Self-driving 2.External driving

• Self-driving contains are the necessary components to

generate sound at a predefined tone.

• External driving piezo Buzzers supports the generation of different tones.

• The tone can be varied by applying a variable pulse train to the piezoelectric buzzer.

• A Piezo Buzzer can be directly interfaced to the port pin of the processor/Controller.

7. The I/O Subsystem – I/O Devices – Push button switch:


Push Button switch is an input device. 


Push button switch comes in two configurations, namely „Push to Make‟
and „Push to Break‟


The switch is normally in the open state and it makes a circuit contact when
it is pushed or pressed in the „Push to Make‟ configuration.


In the „Push to Break‟ configuration, the switch is
normally in the closed state and it breaks the
circuit contact when it is pushed or pressed


The push button stays in the „closed‟ (For Push
to Make type) or „open‟ (For Push to Break
type) state as long as it is kept in the pushed
state and it breaks/makes the circuit connection
when it is released. 

Push button is used for generating a momentary pulse
Text Book:-

1. Introduction to Embedded Systems – Shibu K.V Mc Graw Hill

 EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN
I YEAR ECE

UNIT-III

COMMUNICATION INTERFACE
Communication Interface:
• Communication interface is essential for communicating with various subsystems of the
embedded system and with the external world

• The communication interface can be viewed in two different perspectives; namely;

1. Device/board level communication interface (Onboard Communication Interface)

2. Product level communication interface (External Communication Interface)

1. Device/board level communication interface (Onboard Communication Interface):

The communication channel which interconnects the various components within an
embedded product is referred as Device/board level communication interface (Onboard
Communication Interface)

 Examples: Serial interfaces like I2C, SPI, UART, 1-Wire etc and Parallel bus interface

2. Product level communication interface (External Communication Interface):

The „Product level communication interface‟ (External Communication Interface) is

responsible for data transfer between the embedded system and other devices or modules. The
external communication interface can be either wired media or wireless media and it can be a
serial or parallel interface.

 Examples for wireless communication interface: Infrared (IR), Bluetooth (BT), Wireless
LAN (Wi-Fi), Radio Frequency waves (RF), GPRS etc.
 Examples for wired interfaces: RS-232C/RS-422/RS 485, USB, Ethernet (TCP-IP), IEEE
1394 port, Parallel port etc.
1. Device/board level or On board communication interfaces: The
Communication channel which interconnects the various components within an embedded
product is referred as Device/board level communication interface (Onboard Communication
Interface)

These are classified into

1.1 I2C (Inter Integrated Circuit) Bus
1.2 SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) Bus
1.3 UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter)
1.4 1-Wires Interface

1.5 Parallel Interface

PARALLEL COMMUNICATION:
In data transmission, parallel communication is a method of conveying multiple binary
digits (bits) simultaneously. It contrasts with communication. The communication channel is the
number of electrical conductors used at the physical layer to convey bits.
Parallel communication implies more than one such conductor. For example, an 8-bit
parallel channel will convey eight bits (or a byte) simultaneously, whereas a serial channel would
convey those same bits sequentially, one at a time. Parallel communication is and always has
been widely used within integrated circuits, in peripheral buses, and in memory devices such as
RAM.

2. Product level communication interface (External Communication

Interface): The Product level communication interface‟ (External Communication Interface) is

responsible for data transfer between the embedded system and other devices or modules

It is classified into two types

1. Wired communication interface
2. Wireless communication interface:

1. Wired communication interface: Wired communication interface is an interface used to

transfer information over a wired network.
It is classified into following types.

1. RS-232C/RS-422/RS 485

2. USB

RS-232C:
 RS-232 C (Recommended Standard number 232, revision C from the Electronic Industry
Association) is a legacy, full duplex, wired, asynchronous serial communication interface
 RS-232 extends the UART communication signals for external data communication.
 UART uses the standard TTL/CMOS logic (Logic „High‟ corresponds to bit value 1 and
Logic „LOW‟ corresponds to bit value 0) for bit transmission whereas RS232 use the
EIA standard for bit transmission.
 As per EIA standard, a logic „0‟ is represented with voltage between +3 and +25V and a
logic „1‟ is represented with voltage between -3 and -25V.
 In EIA standard, logic „0‟ is known as „Space‟ and logic „1‟ as „Mark‟.

The RS232 interface define various handshaking and control signals for communication
apart from the „Transmit‟ and „Receive‟ signal lines for data communication
RS-232 supports two different types of connectors, namely; DB-9: 9-Pin connector and DB-25:
25-Pin connector.

Fig: DB-25:25-Pin connector.

Fig: DB-9:9-Pin connector.


RS-232 is a point-to-point communication interface and the devices involved in RS-232
communication are called „Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)‟ and „Data Communication
Equipment (DCE)‟.

If no data flow control is required, only TXD and RXD signal lines and ground line (GND)
are required for data transmission and reception.

The RXD pin of DCE should be connected to the TXD pin of DTE and vice versa for proper
data transmission. 

If hardware data flow control is required for serial transmission, various control signal lines
of the RS-232 connection are used appropriately.

The control signals are implemented mainly for modem communication and some of them
may be irrelevant for other type of devices.

The Request to Send (RTS) and Clear To Send (CTS) signals co-ordinate the communication
between DTE and DCE.

Whenever the DTE has a data to send, it activates the RTS line and if the DCE is ready to
accept the data, it activates the CTS line.

The Data Terminal Ready (DTR) signal is activated by DTE when it is ready to accept data.

The Data Set Ready (DSR) is activated by DCE when it is ready for establishing a
communication link.

DTR should be in the activated state before the activation of DSR.

The Data Carrier Detect (DCD) is used by the DCE to indicate the DTE that a good signal is
being received.

Ring Indicator (RI) is a modem specific signal line for indicating an incoming call on the
telephone line.

As per the EIA standard RS-232 C supports baudrates up to 20Kbps (Upper limit 19.2Kbps).

The commonly used baudrates by devices are 300bps, 1200bps, 2400bps, 9600bps,
11.52Kbps and 19.2Kbps.

The maximum operating distance supported in RS-232 communication is 50 feet at the
highest supported baudrate.

Embedded devices contain a UART for serial communication and they generate signal levels
conforming to TTL/CMOS logic.

A level translator IC like MAX 232 from Maxim Dallas semiconductor is used for converting
the signal lines from the UART to RS-232 signal lines for communication.

On the receiving side the received data is converted back to digital logic level by a converter
IC.

Converter chips contain converters for both transmitter and receiver.

RS-232 uses single ended data transfer and supports only point-to-point communication and
not suitable for multi-drop communication.

USB (UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS):

 External Bus Standard.

 Allows connection of peripheral devices.
 Connects Devices such as keyboards, mice, scanners, printers, joysticks, audio
devices, disks.
 Facilitates transfers of data at 480 (USB 2.0 only), 12 or 1.5 Mb/s (mega-
bits/second).
 Developed by a Special Interest Group including Intel, Microsoft, Compact, DEC,
IBM, Northern Telecom and NEC originally in 1994.
 Low-Speed: 10 – 100 kb/s
 1.5 Mb/s signaling bit rate
 Full-Speed: 500 kb/s – 10 Mb/s 12 Mb/s signaling bit rate
 High-Speed: 400 Mb/s
 480 Mb/s signaling bit rate

 NRZI with bit stuffing used

 SYNC field present for every packet

 There exist two pre-defined connectors in any USB system - Series “A” and Series “B”
Connectors.

 Series “A” cable: Connects USB devices to a hub port.

 Series “B” cable: Connects detachable devices (hot- swappable)

Bus Topology:

 Connects computer to peripheral devices.

 Ultimately intended to replace parallel and serial ports
 Tiered Star Topology
 All devices are linked to a common point referred to as the root hub.
7
Specification allows for up to 127 (2 -1) different devices.

 Four wire cable serves as interconnect of system - power, ground and two differential
signaling lines.
 USB is a polled bus-all transactions are initiated by host.
USB HOST: Device that controls entire system usually a PC of some form. Processes data
arriving to and from the USB port.

USB HUB: Tests for new devices and maintains status information of child devices.Serve as
repeaters, boosting strength of up and downstream signals. Electrically isolates devices from one
another - allowing an expanded number of devices.
2.Wireless communication interface : Wireless communication interface is an interface used to
transmission of information over a distance without help of wires, cables or any other forms of
electrical conductors.

They are basically classified into following types

1. Infrared
2. Bluetooth
3. Wi-Fi
4. Zigbee
5. GPRS

INFRARED:

 Infrared is a certain region in the light spectrum

 Ranges from .7µ to 1000µ or .1mm

 Broken into near, mid, and far infrared

 One step up on the light spectrum from visible light

 Measure of heat

Most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared. Infrared
radiation is used in industrial, scientific, and medical applications. Night-vision devices using
active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer
being detected.
IR transmission:
The transmitter of an IR LED inside its circuit, which emits infrared light for every electric pulse
given to it. This pulse is generated as a button on the remote is pressed, thus completing the
circuit, providing bias to the LED.

The LED on being biased emits light of the wavelength of 940nm as a series of pulses,
corresponding to the button pressed. However since along with the IR LED many other sources
of infrared light such as us human beings, light bulbs, sun, etc, the transmitted information can be
interfered. A solution to this problem is by modulation. The transmitted signal is modulated using
a carrier frequency of 38 KHz (or any other frequency between 36 to 46 KHz). The IR LED is
made to oscillate at this frequency for the time duration of the pulse. The information or the light
signals are pulse width modulated and are contained in the 38 KHz frequency.

IR supports data rates ranging from 9600bits/second to 16Mbps

Serial infrared: 9600bps to 115.2 kbps

Medium infrared: 0.576Mbps to 1.152 Mbps

Fast infrared: 4Mbps

BLUETOOTH:

Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for short distances (using short-wavelength UHF
band from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz)for exchanging data over radio waves in the ISM and mobile
devices, and building personal area networks (PANs).Invented by telecom vendor Ericsson in
1994, it was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS- 232 data cables.
 Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency- hopping spread spectrum. Bluetooth
divides transmitted data into packets, and transmits each packet on one of 79 designated
Bluetooth channels. Each channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. It usually performs 800 hops per
second, with Adaptive Frequency-Hopping (AFH) enabled

Originally, Gaussian frequency-shift keying (GFSK) modulation was the only modulation
scheme available. Since the introduction of Bluetooth 2.0+EDR, π/4-DQPSK (Differential
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) and 8DPSK modulation may also be used between compatible
devices. Bluetooth is a packet-based protocol with a master- slave structure. One master may
communicate with up to seven slaves in a piconet. All devices share the master's clock. Packet
exchange is based on the basic clock, defined by the master, which ticks at312.5 µs intervals.

A master BR/EDR Bluetooth device can communicate with a maximum of seven devices
in a piconet (an ad-hoc computer network using Bluetooth technology), though not all devices
reach this maximum. The devices can switch roles, by agreement, and the slave can become the
master (for example, a headset initiating a connection to a phone necessarily begins as master—
as initiator of the connection—but may subsequently operate as slave).

Wi-Fi:
 Wi-Fi is the name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to
provide wireless high-speed Internet and network connections
 Wi-Fi follows the IEEE 802.11 standard
 Wi-Fi is intended for network communication and it supports Internet Protocol (IP) based
communication
 Wi-Fi based communications require an intermediate agent called Wi-Fi router/Wireless
Access point to manage the communications.
 The Wi-Fi router is responsible for restricting the access to a network, assigning IP address to
devices on the network, routing data packets to the intended devices on the network.
  Wi-Fi enabled devices contain a wireless adaptor for transmitting and receiving data in
the form of radio signals through an antenna.
 Wi-Fi operates at 2.4GHZ or 5GHZ of radio spectrum and they co-exist with other ISM
band devices like Bluetooth.
 A Wi-Fi network is identified with a Service Set Identifier (SSID). A Wi-Fi device can
connect to a network by selecting the SSID of the network and by providing the
credentials if the network is security enabled
 Wi-Fi networks implements different security mechanisms for authentication and data
transfer.
 Wireless Equivalency Protocol (WEP), Wireless Protected Access (WPA) etc are some of
the security mechanisms supported by Wi-Fi networks in data communication.

ZIGBEE:

Zigbee is an IEEE 802.15.4-based specification for a suite of high- level communication

protocols used to create personal area networks with small, low-power digital radios, such as for
home automation, medical device data collection, and other low-power low-bandwidth needs,
designed for small scale projects which need wireless connection.Hence, zigbee is a low-power,
low data rate, and close proximity (i.e., personal area) wireless ad hoc network.The technology