ESD UNIT-1 NOTES

1. Introduction to Embedded Systems

What is Embedded System? (DEC2016, March-2017.)

An Electronic/Electro mechanical system which is designed to perform a specific function and is

a combination of both hardware and firmware (Software)

E.g. Electronic Toys, Mobile Handsets, Washing Machines, Air Conditioners, Automotive
Control Units, Set Top Box, DVD Player etc…

Embedded Systems are:

❑
Unique in character and behavior
❑
With specialized hardware and software
Embedded Systems Vs General Computing Systems: (March-2017)

General Purpose Computing System Embedded System

A system which is a combination of generic A system which is a combination of special
hardware and General Purpose Operating System purpose hardware and embedded OS for
for executing a variety of applications executing a specific set of applications
Contain a General Purpose Operating System May or may not contain an operating system
(GPOS) for functioning
Applications are alterable (programmable) by The firmware of the embedded system is
user (It is possible for the end user to re-install the pre-programmed and it is non-alterable by
Operating System, and add or remove user end-user
applications)
Performance is the key deciding factor on the Application specific requirements (like
selection of the system. Always „Faster is Better‟ performance, power requirements, memory
usage etc) are the key deciding factors
Less/not at all tailored towards reduced operating Highly tailored to take advantage of the
power requirements, options for different levels power saving modes supported by hardware
of power management. and Operating System
Response requirements are not time critical For certain category of embedded systems
like mission critical systems, the response
time requirement is highly critical
Execution behavior is deterministic for
Need not be deterministic in execution behavior certain type of embedded systems like „Hard
Real Time‟ systems

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History of Embedded Systems:

➢
First Recognized Modern Embedded System: Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) developed by
Charles Stark Draper at the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory.

It has two modules

1.Command module(CM) 2.Lunar Excursion
module(LEM)

RAM size 256 , 1K ,2K words

ROM size 4K,10K,36K words

Clock frequency is 1.024MHz

5000 ,3-input RTL NOR gates are used

User interface is DSKY(display/Keyboard)

➢
First Mass Produced Embedded System: Autonetics D-17 Guidance computer for Minuteman-I missile

Classification of Embedded Systems:

❑
Based on Generation (March-2017)
❑
Based on Complexity & Performance Requirements

❑
Based on deterministic behavior

❑
Based on Triggering

1. Embedded Systems - Classification based on

Generation

First Generation: The early embedded systems built

around 8-bit microprocessors like 8085 and Z80 and 4-bit
microcontrollers
EX. stepper motor control units, Digital Telephone Keypads etc.

Second Generation: Embedded Systems built around 16-bit microprocessors and 8 or

16-bit microcontrollers, following the first generation embedded systems
EX.SCADA, Data Acquisition Systems etc.

Third Generation: Embedded Systems built around high performance 16/32 bit
Microprocessors/controllers, Application Specific Instruction set processors like Digital
Signal Processors (DSPs), and Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs).The
instruction set is complex and powerful.
EX. Robotics, industrial process control, networking etc.
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Fourth Generation: Embedded Systems built around System on Chips (SoC’s), Re-
configurable processors and multicore processors. It brings high performance, tight
integration and miniaturization into the embedded device market
EX Smart phone devices, MIDs etc.

2. Embedded Systems - Classification based on Complexity & Performance

➢
Small Scale: The embedded systems built around low performance and low cost 8 or 16
bit microprocessors/ microcontrollers. It is suitable for simple applications and where
performance is not time critical. It may or may not contain OS.

➢
Medium Scale: Embedded Systems built around medium performance, low cost 16 or 32
bit microprocessors / microcontrollers or DSPs. These are slightly complex in hardware
and firmware. It may contain GPOS/RTOS.

➢
Large Scale/Complex: Embedded Systems built around high performance 32 or 64 bit
RISC processors/controllers, RSoC or multi-core processors and PLD. It requires
complex hardware and software. These system may contain multiple
processors/controllers and co-units/hardware accelerators for offloading the processing
requirements from the main processor. It contains RTOS for scheduling, prioritization
and management.

3. Embedded Systems - Classification Based on deterministic behavior: It is applicable for

Real Time systems. The application/task execution behavior for an embedded system can be
either deterministic or non-deterministic

These are classified in to two types

1. Soft Real time Systems: Missing a deadline may not be critical and can be
tolerated to a certain degree

2. Hard Real time systems: Missing a program/task execution time deadline can have
catastrophic consequences (financial, human loss of life, etc.)

4. Embedded Systems - Classification Based on Triggering:

These are classified into two types

1. Event Triggered : Activities within the system (e.g., task run-times) are dynamic and
depend upon occurrence of different events .

2. Time triggered: Activities within the system follow a statically computed schedule (i.e.,
they are allocated time slots during which they can take place) and thus by nature are
predictable.
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Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems:

❑
Consumer Electronics: Camcorders, Cameras etc.

❑
Household Appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, Fridge, Microwave Oven
etc.

❑
Home Automation and Security Systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, Intruder detection
alarms, Closed Circuit Television Cameras, Fire alarms etc.

❑
Automotive Industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS), Engine Control, Ignition Systems,
Automatic Navigation Systems etc.

❑
Telecom: Cellular Telephones, Telephone switches, Handset Multimedia Applications etc.
❑
Computer Peripherals: Printers, Scanners, Fax machines etc.
❑
Computer Networking Systems: Network Routers, Switches, Hubs, Firewalls etc.

❑
Health Care: Different Kinds of Scanners, EEG, ECG Machines etc.

❑
Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters, Digital CROs, Logic Analyzers PLC
systems etc.

❑
Banking & Retail: Automatic Teller Machines (ATM) and Currency counters, Point of Sales
(POS)
❑
Card Readers: Barcode, Smart Card Readers, Hand held Devices etc.

Purpose of Embedded Systems: (DEC2016)

Each Embedded Systems is designed to serve the purpose of any one or a combination of the
following tasks.

o Data Collection/Storage/Representation

o Data Communication

o Data (Signal) Processing

o Monitoring

o Control

o Application Specific User Interface

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1. Data Collection/Storage/Representation:-

❖
Performs acquisition of data from the external
world.

❖
The collected data can be either analog or
digital

❖
Data collection is usually done for storage,
analysis, manipulation and transmission

❖ The collected data may be stored directly in the system or may be transmitted to some
other systems or it may be processed by the system or it may be deleted instantly after
giving a meaningful representation

2. Data Communication:-

Embedded Data communication systems are deployed in

applications ranging from complex satellite communication
systems to simple home networking systems

Embedded Data communication systems are dedicated for data

communication

The data communication can happen through a wired

interface (like Ethernet, RS-232C/USB/IEEE1394 etc)
or wireless interface (like Wi-Fi, GSM,/GPRS,
Bluetooth, ZigBee etc)

Network hubs, Routers, switches, Modems etc are

typical examples for dedicated data transmission embedded systems

3. Data (Signal) Processing:-

Embedded systems with Signal processing

functionalities are employed in applications
demanding signal processing like Speech
coding, synthesis, audio video codec,
transmission applications etc

Computational intensive systems

Employs Digital Signal Processors (DSPs)

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4. Monitoring:-

Embedded systems coming under this

category are specifically designed for
monitoring purpose

They are used for determining the state of

some variables using input sensors

They cannot impose control over variables.

Electro Cardiogram (ECG) machine for

monitoring the heart beat of a patient is a
typical example for this

The sensors used in ECG are the different Electrodes connected to the patient‟s body

Measuring instruments like Digital CRO, Digital Multi meter, Logic Analyzer etc used in
Control & Instrumentation applications are also examples of embedded systems for
monitoring purpose
5. Control:-

Embedded systems with control

functionalities are used for imposing
control over some variables according to
the changes in input variables

Embedded system with control

functionality contains both sensors and
actuators

Sensors are connected to the input port for capturing the changes in environmental
variable or measuring variable

The actuators connected to the output port are controlled according to the changes in input
variable to put an impact on the controlling variable to bring the controlled variable to the
specified range

Air conditioner for controlling room temperature is a typical example for embedded
system with „Control‟ functionality

Air conditioner contains a room temperature sensing element (sensor) which may be a
thermistor and a handheld unit for setting up (feeding) the desired temperature

The air compressor unit acts as the actuator. The compressor is controlled according to the
current room temperature and the desired temperature set by the end user.

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6. Application Specific User Interface:-

Embedded systems which are designed for a specific

application

Contains Application Specific User interface (rather than

general standard UI ) like key board, Display units etc

Aimed at a specific target group of users

Mobile handsets, Control units in industrial applications etc

are examples

EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESS:

This section provides an overview of the embedded system design process aimed at two
objectives. First, it will give us an introduction to the various steps in embedded system design
before we delve into them in more detail. Second, it will allow us to consider the design
methodology itself. A design methodology is important for three reasons. First, it allows us to
keep a scorecard on a design to ensure that we have done everything we need to do, such as
optimizing performance or performing functional tests. Second, it allows us to develop
computer-aided design tools. Developing a single program that takes in a concept for an
embedded system and emits a completed design would be a daunting task, but by first breaking
the process into manageable steps, we can work on automating (or at least semi automating) the
steps one at a time. Third, a design methodology makes it much easier for members of a design
team to communicate.
The below Figure summarizes the major steps in the embedded system design process. In this top–down
view, we start with the system requirements.

Fig: Major levels of abstraction in the design process

Requirements:
Clearly, before we design a system, we must know what we are designing. The initial stages of
the design process capture this information for use in creating the architecture and components.
We generally proceed in two phases: First, we gather an informal description from the customers
known as requirements, and we refine the requirements into a specification that contains enough
information to begin designing the system architecture.

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