Module 3 LASERS AND OPTICAL FIBERS

LASER is the short form of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. A laser is
a highly parallel coherent beam of light of very high intensity. Laser action is achieved by creating
population inversion which can be achieved by different means, such as optical pumping, electrical
discharge and solar energy.
-: Basic principles:-
Radiation interacts with matter under suitable conditions. The interaction leads to a transition of
the quantum system such as an atom or a molecule from one energy state to another. If the transition is
from a higher state to a lower one, the system gives out a part of its energy and if the transition is to a
higher state from a lower one, then it absorbs the incident energy.
There are three possible ways through which interaction of radiation and matter can takes place.
Absorption of radiation is known as induced absorption. The emission of radiation can occur in two
ways namely the spontaneous emission, and the stimulated emission.

(1) Induced absorption:-

atom + photon → atom*

Induced absorption is the absorption of an incident photon by a system as a result of which the
system is elevated from a lower energy state to a higher state, wherein the difference in energy of two
states is precisely the energy of the photon.
(2) Spontaneous emission:-

atom* → atom + photon

Spontaneous emission is the emission of a photon, when a system transits from a higher energy
state to a lower energy state without the aid of any external agency.

When an electron is excited it will go to the higher energy level E 2. Then the atom is said to be
in the excited state. But the electron will not remain in the excited level for a period more than 10 -8
seconds. Immediately it will come back to the ground state by the emission of the energy what it has
absorbed during the excitation process. The emitted energy is in the form of electromagnetic radiation
whose frequency is given by
E2 – E1 = h 
(3) Stimulated emission:-

atom* + photon → atom + (photon + photon)

Stimulated emission is the emission of a photon by a system, under the influence of a passing
photon of just the right energy, due to which the system transits from a higher energy state to a lower
energy state. The photon thus emitted is called the stimulated photon and will have same phase, energy
and direction of movement as that of the passing photon called the stimulated photon.

When the electron in the excited level is supplied with an external photon having the same
energy as = E2 – E1, then the excited electron is stimulated to come back to the ground level even before
10-8 seconds. This is called stimulated emission. During this process, the external photon comes out with
the photon produced by the electron transition, both with same phase. That is these two photons are
coherent and intensity is more. Thus the supplied light is amplified. This is the basic principle followed
in the production of laser ray.

-: Einstein’s coefficients:-
Einstein’s co-efficient give the probability associated with the absorption and emission processes.
According to Max Planck, If U is the energy density (energy/unit volume) emitted by the black body
through radiation of frequency , at a temperature T, then,
 
8h 3  1 
U = h
C 3  kT 
 e  1
Where, h is the Planck constant and C is the velocity of light.
Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system of atoms. Let N1 (number density of atoms in
the states 1) be number of atoms with energy E 1, and N2 (number density of atoms in the states 2) be
number of atoms with energy E2 per unit volume of the system. Let U d be the energy incident / unit
volume of the system considering only those radiations whose frequencies lie in the range  &  + d.
Then, U represents the energy density of frequency .
(i) case of Induced Absorption:-

In the case of induced absorption, an atom in the level E1 can go to the level E2, when it absorbs a
radiation of suitable frequency,  = (E2 – E1)/h. The number of such absorptions per unit time, per unit
volume is called rate of absorption. The rate of absorption depends on (a) The number density N1 &
(b) the energy density (U.)
 Rate of absorption  N1 U= B12 N1 U. Where B12 is the constant of proportionality
called Einstein’s co-efficient of induced absorption.
(ii)Case of spontaneous emission:-

In the case of spontaneous emission, an atom in the higher energy level E2 undergoes transition
to the lower energy level E1, voluntarily by emitting a photon. The rate of spontaneous emission (number
of spontaneous emissions per unit time, per unit volume) is proportional to only the number density in the
higher energy state, i.e., N2
 Rate of spontaneous emission = A21 N2,
Where A21 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein’s co-efficient of spontaneous emission.
(iii) Case of stimulated emission:-

Since the system requires an external photon of appropriate frequency  = (E2 – E1)/h, to stimulate the
atom for the corresponding downward transition. The rate of stimulated emission (number of stimulated
emission per unit time per unit volume), is proportional to (a) the number density N2, (b) the energy
density U.
 Rate of stimulated emission = B21 N2 U.
Where B21 is the constant of proportionality called the Einstein’s co-efficient of stimulated emission.
-: Boltzmann factor:-
In a given system the energy level will have many numbers of atoms. The number of atoms in a particular
state is referred as population of the state. The population of different energy states of any physical
system is related to each other. If we consider two energy states E1 and E2 with population N1 and N2
respectively and if E2 > E1 then, Boltzmann factor is the ratio of N 2 / N1
 E2 E1  h
N2    
It is given by e  kT 
e kT
N1
Where k is Boltzmann constant.
 E2E1 
 
  kT 
Since E2 > E1, e <1
Therefore N2 < N1
For a system in thermodynamic equilibrium, it is mandatory that the population any higher energy state is
always lesser than that in any of the lower states.
At thermal equilibrium,
Rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission.
 B12 N1 U = A21 N2 + B21 N2 U (1)
 U (B12 N1 - B21 N2) = A21 N2

A21N 2
 U =
B12 N1  B21N 2
By rearranging the equation.

 
A21  1 
U =   (2)
B21  B12 N1 1

 B21 N 2 

By Boltzmann’s factor we have,
 E2 E1  h h
N2     N1
e  kT 
e kT
  e kT
N1 N2
Therefore equation 2 becomes.
 
 
U = A21  1  (3)
B21  h 
 B12 e k T 1

 B21 

According to Planck’s law, the equation for U is

 
8 h  3  1 
U = (4)
C 3  kT h 
 e  1

Compare equation (3) and (4). We have

A21 8 h  3 B12
 &  1 or B12  B 21
B21 C3 B21
The probability of induced absorption is equal to probability of stimulated emission. Because B12  B 21
, A21 and B21 can be represented as A and B and equation (3) can be rewritten.
 At thermal equilibrium the equation for energy density is

 
A  1 
U =
B  kT
h 
 e 1
 

-: Condition for LASER action:-

Population Inversion & Metastable state:-
Let N1 be the number of atoms in the ground state E1. Let N2 be the number of atoms in the excited state
E2. Under normal conditions the number of atoms in the ground state is always greater than the number
of atoms in the excited state.
The ratio between these two numbers is given by.

E  E 


N2  2  1
e kT
N1

E E 
  2 1
Since E2 > E1, then e kT  1 i.e., N2 < N1 under ordinary condition or at thermal equilibrium.
If by some means the number in the excited state is more than in the ground state. i.e., N 2 > N1 then it is
said that population inversion has taken place. This is one of the main criteria for the production of laser
ray.
Population inversion is usually achieved when there is an intermediate energy level called
metastable state exists, where the electrons will remain for a longer time for about 10-3 sec to 10-2 sec.
This property helps in achieving the population inversion in the following way.

Consider three energy levels E1, E2 & E3 of a quantum system which are such that E2 > E3 > E1.
Let E3 be a metastable state of the system. Let the atoms be excited from E 1 to E2 state by supply of
appropriate energy from an external source.
Since E3 is a metastable state, those atoms which get into that state stay over a very long duration,
because of which the population of E3 state increases steadily. Under these conditions a stage will be
reached wherein the population of E3 state overtakes that of E1, which is known as population inversion.
Once the population of E3 exceeds that of E1, the stimulated emission outnumber the spontaneous
emissions, and soon stimulated photons, all identical in respect of phase, wavelength & direction, grow to
a very large number which buildup the laser light. Hence the condition for laser action is achieved by
means of population inversion.

-: Requisites of a Laser system:-

The three requisites of a laser system are
(1) An excitation source for pumping action,
(2) An active medium which supports population inversion, and
(3) Laser cavity.
The excitation source provides the appropriate amount of energy for pumping the atoms to higher
energy levels. Optical pumping is used in Ruby Laser and electrical pumping is employed in He-Ne
laser.
A part of the input energy is absorbed by the active medium in which population inversion occurs at a
certain stage. After this stage the medium attains capability to issue laser light. The laser cavity provides
the feed back necessary to tap certain permissible part of laser energy from the active medium.

-:LASER CAVITY:-

A Laser device consists of an active medium bound between two mirrors (Fig. 1). The mirrors reflect the
photons to & fro through the active medium form a cavity inside which two types of waves exist; one
type comprises of waves moving to the right, and the other one to the left (Fig. 2 & 3).
The two waves interfere constructively if there is no phase difference between the two (Fig. 2). But, their
interference becomes destructive if the phase difference is π/2.
(Fig.3).

In order to arrange for constructive interference, the distance ‘L’ between the two mirrors should be such
that the cavity should support an integral number of half wavelengths.
i.e. L = m (λ /2) , where m is an integer > 0, and λ is the wavelength of the laser light inside the material
of the active medium.
In such case, a standing wave pattern is established within the cavity and the cavity is said to be resonant
at wavelengths, λ = 2 L /m.

Semiconductor Laser
 BAR CODE READER

A laser barcode scanner uses optics, electronics, and mechanics to read barcodes. A laser
barcode scanner’s main components are a laser diode, prism, photodiode, analog-to-digital
converter and decoder.

Laser Diode and Lens

The laser diode in a barcode scanner emits a beam of light, generally in the red spectrum, with a
wavelength of around 650 nanometres.

This beam passes through a lens that adjusts its width and focus to form a scanning line which
moves across the barcode to illuminate the bars and spaces.

The scanner’s lens ensures that the light reflects back at the right angle so that the receiving
photodiode can capture the reflected signal.

The laser diode of a typical barcode scanner emits a beam with a power output ranging between
0.5 to 1 milliwatt (mW).

Rotating Mirror or Prism

After passing through the lens, the laser beam strikes a rotating mirror or a prism. These are
made of borosilicate or fused silica and may also have optical coatings to improve reflectivity
and wear. Industrial laser barcode scanners have gold or aluminium coatings.
The rotating mirror or prism directs the beam across the barcode in a sweeping motion.

The oscillating mirror typically oscillates at 30 to 100 times a second. In some scanners, a multi-
faceted prism is used to redirect the beam at multiple angles.

The rapid movement of the beam ensures the barcode is scanned multiple times in different
positions, improving the chance of a successful read even if the barcode is damaged, poorly
printed, or the ambient light is low.

Some laser barcode scanners have diodes for lighting up the barcode.

Photodiode

As the laser sweeps across the barcode, it hits the black bars and white spaces differently. The
black bars absorb most light, while the white spaces reflect it to the scanner.

Before reaching the photodiode, the reflected light passes through optical filters to block most
ambient light, ensuring only the barcode’s reflection is measured.

The photodiode is usually made from silicon, which is sensitive to the laser’s wavelength. It
converts the reflected light into electrical signals, with the strength of these signals changing
based on the barcode’s dark and light areas.

The scanner uses a system of beam-splitting optics or polarising filters to prevent interference
between the emitted laser and the reflected light.

Once the analogue signal is generated, it must be converted into digital form for processing. This
conversion is performed by the analogue-to-digital (A/D) converter.

The A/D converter samples these continuous signals at a high rate, often in the range of several
kilohertz to megahertz, depending on the system’s scanning speed and resolution.
 LASER PRINTERS

Laser Printers are similar to photocopiers and works on the alike basic technology. Your
computer sends a stream of electronic data (numbers of bits) to your laser printer when you give
the print command.

An electronic circuit in the printer mapped the data and make arrangements that what it needs to
look like on page. It makes a pattern of static electricity to scan back and forward a laser beam
on a drum inside printer. Powdered ink called toner is attracted by static electricity on the page,
as in a photocopier a fuser unit bonds the toner to the paper.

Corona wires are activated by the electronic circuit. It is actually a high voltage wire that
statically charged the objects placed near to it. This wire charges the drum of photoreceptor, so
that the drum gets positively charged. That charge is distributed on the surface of drum
uniformly.
Circuit activities the laser simultaneously to make it ready to draw the image of the page on
drum. The laser beam reflects back from a rotating mirror that actually scans it over the drum,
laser doesn’t move itself. It removes the positive charge when a laser beam hits the drum, and it
creates an area of negative charge.

Gradually, a black & white image appears on the entire page that builds up on the drum. The
areas with positive charge remains white and the areas on the page get black which have
negative charge. Drum of the photocopier got coated with tiny particles of powdered ink (toner)
when it touches by the ink roller. Photoreceptor drum has a negative charge so the toner which
has a positive charge sticks with the negative charged area of drum. Positively charged area of
the drum doesn’t attract the inks.

On the other side of the printer A sheet of paper from a hopper is feed towards the drum. As it
moves along, another corona wire gives strong positive charges to the paper. Positive charge of
paper attracts the negatively charged toner particles, When the paper passes near the drum. The
image is transferred from the drum onto the paper but, for the moment, the toner particles are
just resting lightly on the paper's surface. Then it is passes through the heat, the ink permanently
absorbed in fiber of the paper.
 Optical Fibers
Structure:-

Optical fibers are very thin glass fibers, which consists of the inner core and the outer cladding as shown in
figure. The refractive index of the two parts must be such that n1 > n2 so that light travels through the core only.
Both the core and the cladding are made up of glass which contains, 80 – 95% of silicon dioxide (SiO2) and few
other dopents such as P2O5 , P2O3 , fluorine etc.

Principle of working of Optical fibers: Total Internal Reflection

Light propagates in optical fibers

according to the principle of total internal
reflection. When light travels from a denser
to a rarer medium, it bends away from the
normal. Let a ray AO be incident at O at the
interface of the two media with refractive
indices. n1and n2 making an angle of
incidence θ1.It gets refracted along OA1
making an angle of refraction θ2.Let OB an
incident ray which makes an angle of
incidence θc. It gets refracted along OB1 which makes an angle of refraction 900 with respect to the normal drawn at
the point of incidence. The ray grazes along the interface of two media. Let OC be an incident ray which makes an
angle of incidence greater than θc., then the light is completely reflected to the same medium along OC1. The entire
incident energy is returned along the reflected light. Hence it is called Total Internal Reflection.

From Snell’s law we have, n1 sin θi = n2 sin θr

For the rayAOA1
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 is obeyed.
1
For the rayBOB
θi = θc (critical angle) θr = 90º,
n1 sin θc = n2 sin 90º
sin θc = n2/n1
 θc = sin-1 (n2/n1)
Condition for Total Internal reflection:
1. The ray must travels from denser to rarer medium.
2. Angle of incidence must be greater than critical angle, θi  θc

SJCIT Dr. Pushpa N

 Numerical aperture and Ray propagation in the fiber:

Consider a light ray AO entering the fiber core with an angle 0 to the fiber axis. It gets refracted along OB
at an angle 1 in the core and further proceeds to fall at critical angle of incidence (equal to 90-1) at B on the
interface between core and cladding. Since it is a critical angle of incidence, the ray is refracted at 90º to normal i.e.,
it grazes along BC.

Now it is clear from the figure that any ray that enters into the core at an angle of incidence less than 0 will
have refractive angle less than 1 because of which its angle of incidence (90 - 1) at the interface will become
greater than the critical angle of incidence, and thus undergoes total internal reflection. If the incident ray is greater
than 0 at O, the angle of incidence at B is less than the critical angle, because of which it will be refracted into the
cladding region and thus will be lost.

Now if OA is rotated around the fiber axis keeping 0 fixed, then it describes a conical surface. Only those
rays, which are funneled into the fiber within this cone, will only be totally reflected and thus confined within the
fiber for propagation. The rest of the incident light rays emerge from the sides of the fiber.

The angle 0 is called the waveguide acceptance angle or the acceptance cone half angle, and sin0 is called
the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber. The numerical aperture represents the light gathering capability of the
optical fiber.

Condition for ray propagation:

Let n0, n1 and n2 be refractive indices of surrounding medium, core of the fiber and cladding respectively.

Now for refraction at point ‘O’, using Snell’s law

n0 sin0 = n1sin1
sin0 = (n1 / n0) sin1
Then sin0 = (n1sin1) / n0 (1)
At the point ‘B’ on the interface, angle of incidence = 90 -1.
Applying Snell’s law
n1 Sin (90 -1) = n2 Sin 90
n1 Sin (90 -1) = n2
n1 Cos1 = n2
Cos1 = n2 / n1 (2)
n1
From eqn (1) Sin 0 = sin  1
n0

=
n1
n0
1  Cos  
2
1

n1 n2
Sin 0 = 1  22
n0 n1

n12  n 22
Therefore Sin 0 =
n0
If the medium surrounding the fiber is air, then n0=1,

SJCIT Dr. Pushpa N

 Sin 0 = n12  n22

N.A = Sin 0 = n12  n22

If i is the angle of incidence of an incident ray, then the ray will be able to propagate,
If i  0 or if, Sini  Sin0 or Sini  n12  n22
This is the condition for propagation, i.e., sini  N.A.

Numerical Aperture: It is the light gathering capacity of the optical fiber. It is given by

n12  n 22
Numerical aperture=NA=Sin 0 =
n0

Angle of acceptance: The angle of incidence 0 of light on the core for which the angle of incidence on the core-
cladding interface will be critical angle is known as angle of acceptance. It is also known as waveguide
acceptance angle.
Fractional index change (  ):
The fractional index change  is the ratio of the refractive index difference between the core and cladding to the
refractive index of core of an optical fiber.
  = (n1 –n2) / n1
Relation between  and NA
 = (n1 –n2) / n1
 n1 –n2 = n1
N.A = n12  n22 , N. A. = n1  n2 n1  n2  = n1  n2  n1 
Since n1  n2 , n1 + n2 = 2 n1

 N. A. = 2 n12 
N.A. = n1 2 

Increase in the value of  increases numerical aperture, and thus enhances the light gathering capacity of the fiber.
V – number :
The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by a parameter called V –
number. If the surrounding medium is air then the V – number is given by
d d
V= n12  n22 = (N.A)
 
Where, d is the diameter of the core, n1 is the refractive index of the core, n2 is the refractive index of the cladding. 
is the wavelength of light propagating in the fiber.
If the fiber is surrounded by a medium of refractive index n0, then the expression is,
d n12  n22
V= ,
 n0
For V  1, the number of modes supported by the fiber is given by,
Number of modes  V2 /2

Types of Optical fibers:

The application of Maxwell’s equation shows that, out of the light that enters into the core within the
waveguide acceptance angle, only that light waves in terms of certain number of modes will be sustained, for
propagation in the fiber. The modes are represented as though they are light rays in the figures. Thus single ray
propagation is shown in single mode fiber and so on.
In any optical fiber, the whole cladding material has a uniform refractive index value. But for core material
refractive index may either remain constant or subjected to variation in a particular way. The curve which represents
the variation of refractive index with respect to the radial distance from the axis of the fiber is called the refractive
index profile.
SJCIT Dr. Pushpa N
 The optical fibers are classified under three categories. This classification is done depending on the
refractive index profile and the number of modes that the fiber can guide.
(a) Single mode fiber
(b) Step index multimode fiber, and
(c) Graded index multimode fiber.
(a) Single mode fiber :
A single mode fiber has a core material of uniform refractive index value. Similarly cladding also has a
material of uniform refractive index but of lesser value. This results in a sudden increase in the value of
refractive index from cladding to core. Thus its refractive index profile takes the shape of a step. The diameter
value of the core is about 8 to 10 m and external diameter of cladding is 60 to 70 m. Because of its narrow
core, it can guide just a single mode as shown in figure. Hence it is called single mode fiber. Single mode fibers
are the most extensively used and they constitute 80% of all the fibers that are manufactured in the world today.

(b) Step index multimode fiber :

The geometry of a step-index multimode fiber is as shown in figure. Its construction is similar to that of a single
mode fiber, but its core has much larger diameter to support propagation of large number of modes as shown in the
figure. Its refractive index profile is similar to that of a single mode fiber but with a large plane region for the core.
The step-index multimode fiber can accept either a laser or Light Emitting Diode (LED) as source of signal. It is
least expensive of all.

(c) Graded - index multimode fiber :

The geometry of the graded index (GRIN) multimode fiber is same as that of a step index multimode fiber. But
core material refractive index value decreases in the radially outward direction from the axis and becomes equal to
that of the cladding at the interface. The refractive index of the cladding remains uniform. Its refractive index
profile is as shown in fig. The laser or LED can be the source of signal for the GRIN multimode fiber. It is the most
expensive of all.

SJCIT Dr. Pushpa N

Attenuation:
The loss of power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates through the fiber is called attenuation or
fiber loss. The three mechanisms through which attenuation takes place are, (1) Absorption, (2) Scattering and (3)
Radiation losses.
(1) Absorption:-
The loss of signal power occurs due to absorption of photons associated with the signal. Photons are
absorbed (a) by impurities in the silica glass of which fiber is made off and (b) by intrinsic absorption by the glass
material itself.

The impurities present in fiber glass are iron, chromium, cobalt and copper. During signal propagation when
photons interact with these impurities, the electrons absorb the photons and get excited to higher energy level. Later
these electrons give up their absorbed energy either as heat energy or light energy, it is of no use. Hence it is a loss.
The absorption in fiber occurs predominantly due to the presence of impurities. The other impurity which would
cause significant absorption loss is the OH (hydroxy) ion, which enters into the fiber constitution at the time of fiber
fabrication.

The fiber itself as a material has a tendency to absorb light energy. The absorption that takes place in the
material assuming that there are no impurities and hence it is called intrinsic absorption which sets the lowest limit
on absorption for a given material.
(2) Scattering Losses:-

While the signal travels in the fiber, the photons may be scattered because of sharp changes in refractive
index values inside the glass over distances that are small compared to wavelength of light. This type of scattering is
same as Rayleigh scattering. Rayleigh scattering occurs whenever a light wave travels through a medium having
scattering objects whose dimensions are smaller than a wavelength. The Rayleigh scattering is inversely
proportional to the 4th power of wavelength. Therefore light of smaller wavelengths are scattered very efficiently.
Due to Rayleigh scattering, the photon moves in random directions and in all probabilities leaves the fiber and thus
becomes a loss.
Since the Rayleigh scattering has a characteristic -4 dependence, it increases dramatically, with decreasing
wavelength. Below 0.8 nm wavelength, the loss due to this effect alone builds to a prohibitive value for long
distance propagation. As the wavelength increases, the scattering loss diminishes. This effect makes the use of light
waves of longer wavelengths attractive. The other types of scattering losses are due to the structural inhomogeneities
and defects created during fiber fabrication.

(3) Radiation Losses:-

SJCIT Dr. Pushpa N
 Radiative losses occur due to bending of fiber. There are two types of bends, (a) Macroscopic & (b)
Microscopic.
(a) Macroscopic bends :-

This refers to bends having radii that are large compared to fiber diameter. Fiber can be bent with radii of
curvature as small as 10 cm with negligible loss. Although the loss is negligible for small bends, it increases
exponentially until a certain critical radius of curvature. Any bend of radius less than this threshold makes the losses
suddenly become extremely large which indicates the absence of total internal reflection.

(b) Microscopic bends :-

These are repetitive small-scale fluctuations in the linearity of the fiber axis. Microscopic bending occurs
due to non-uniformities in the manufacturing of the fiber or by non-uniform lateral pressures created during the
cabling of the fiber. The micro bends couple light between the various guided modes of fiber and some of them then
leak through the fiber. Extruding a compressible jacket over the fiber could minimize micro bending losses.

Attenuation Coefficient:
When light travel in a medium, there will always be a loss in its intensity with distance travelled. The loss of
intensity with distance travelled. The loss of intensity is expressed in terms of a quantity called attenuation
coefficient denoted as α.

α= log dB/km

Where, L is the length of the optical fiber is expressed in terms of kilometer.

P in is the intial intensity of light launched into the fiber and Pout is the intensity of output received at the
other end of the optical fiber.

Power input (P in) and Power output (P out) are expressed in watt.

SJCIT Dr. Pushpa N

 Fiber optic communication:
Block diagram of Point-to-point Communication:
Optical fiber communication is the transmission of information by propagation of optical signal through optical
fibers over the required distance, which involves deriving optical signal from electrical signal at the transmitting end,
and conversion of optical signal back to electrical signal at the receiving end.

A simple point-to-point communication system using optical fibers is shown in figure.

1. The voice is fed into the telephone, which gets converted into electrical signal.
2. The analog electrical signal is fed into a coder, which converts it into binary data.
3. The binary data comes out of the coder as electrical pulses.
4. These pulses are converted into optical signal by modulating the light emitted by an optical source through
an optical transmitter.
5. The optical signal is then fed into optical fiber, through which the signal propagates by means of total
internal reflection.
6. As the signal propagates it is subjected to attenuation and delay distortion. This is compensated by an optical
repeater which converts the distorted optical signal into electrical signal. This electrical signal is sent back to
the optical transmitter.
7. The optical signal is received by the photo detector, where it is transformed into pulses of electrical signals
(binary data).
8. These pulses are fed into decoder which converts the sequence of binary data into analog electrical signal.
9. This analog electrical signal gets converted into voice through telephone.

Applications of optical fibers:

1. Sensing device: Optical fibers can be used as sensing devices where as they can sense parameters like
pressure, voltage or current.
2. Data Link: In data transfer systems we can make use of optical fibers where the information will be in a
secured form.
3. Local Area networks: Optical fibers provide more efficient communication facilities in the local area
networks.

Advantages of optical communication system:

1. Optical fibers can carry very large amounts of information in either digital or analog form.
2. The materials used for making optical fibers are silicon dioxide and plastic, both of which are easily
available at low cost.
3. Because of the greater information carrying capacity by the fibers, the cost/meter/channel for the fiber
would be lesser than that for the metallic cable.
4. Because of their compactness, and lightweight, fibers are much easier to transport.
5. The optical fibers are totally protected from interference between different communication channels, since
no light can enter a fiber from its sides. Thus the purity of the signals traveling inside the fiber remains
unaffected because of which no cross talk takes place.

SJCIT Dr. Pushpa N

 6. The signals generated from radio and telecommunications stations, or from some electronic equipments, or
sometimes radiation from lightning, or sparking, tend to cause disturbance in the metallic cable but cannot do
so for the fiber cable.
7. There is no energy radiation from a fiber. Hence the possibility of information tapping by detecting the
leaky radiation is ruled out.
8. Fiber communication system is easily compatible with the electronic system.
9. Since the signal is optical, no sparks are generated as it could be in the case of electrical signal. Hence it
leads to protection from corrosive and flammable environments.

Limitations of optical communications systems:

1. Splicing (joining two fibers) is a skilful task, which if not done precisely, the signal loss will be so much
that it is virtually a break in the communication line. The optic connectors that are used to connect
(splicing) two fibers are highly expensive.
2. While system modification is made, or because of accidents, a fiber may suffer line break. Operations
required re-establishing the connections are highly skilful and time consuming.
3. Though fibers could be bent to circles of few centimeters radius, they may break when bent to still smaller
curvatures. Also for small curvature bends, the loss becomes considerable.
4. Fibers undergo expansion and contraction with temperature that upset some critical alignments, which lead
to loss in signal power.

SJCIT Dr. Pushpa N