MODULE III SET THEORY
SET
A set is a well defined collection or a class of distinct objects. Each of these
objects is said to be an element or member of the set.
A set is denoted by ‘capital letters’ and the general way of showing a set is
writing all the elements within brackets as ( ), { } ,[ ] . An element denotes the
membership in a set.
Types of Set
Finite set : A set which contains finite number of elements is called as finite
set. For Eg: A= {1,4,9,16,25}, B= { 5,10,15,20,25,30,………,100}
Infinite set: A set which contains infinite number of elements is referred as
infinite set. The number of elements included in an infinite set is unknown
Eg: A= { 2,4,3,8,10,12,……..}
Equal sets: Two sets A and B are said to be equal if all the elements of A
belong to B and all the elements of B belongs to A. The order of writing the
elements or repetition of elements does not change the nature of set. For Eg:
{1,2,3,4} and B={2,1,4,3}
Equivalent Set: (A=B) : Two sets are equivalent if they have the same
number of elements. It is not essential that the elements of the two sets
should be same. The symbol for denoting an equivalent set is ↔
Subsets: If every element of a set A is also an element of a set B then A is
called a subset of B. Eg: One of the subset of { 1,2,3,5.7} is {2,5,7}
Null set: A set which contains no element is called a null set or an empty set
and is denoted by {}
Disjoint set: Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint sets if no element of A
is in B and no element of B is in A. Eg: {1,2,3} B={5,7,9}
Union of Two sets (A U B): Union of two sets A and B is a set of all those
elements which belong to A or B or to both.
Eg: A={2,3,4,5} and B={3,5,7,8} then A U B = {2,3,4,5,7,8}
Intersection of two sets (A∩B) : It is a set of all those elements which
belong to both A and B. A ∩ B contains elements common to A and B. Eg:
A= {1,2,3} and B={1,3,5} then A ∩ B = {!,3}
Difference of two sets: ie A-B: difference of two sets A and B is a set of all
those elements which belong to A but not B.
Complement of a set: It is the set of all those elements belonging to the
Universal set but not belonging to A. It is denoted by Ac or A’
VENN DIAGRAMS
Venn diagrams are used to sets. In Venn diagrams, sets are usually
represented using circles.
PROBABILITY ( Concepts, Meaning and Definition)
Probability is a measure of the likelihood of an event to occur. Problems in
which an event is not certain to happen are the problems of probability.
Definition: The probability of a given event may be defined as the
numerical value given to the likelihood of the occurrence of that event. It is
a number lying between 0 and 1. Zero is for an event which can not occur
and 1 for an event certain to occur. When the occurrence of an event is
uncertain, probability is a number between 0 and 1.
Random experiment: An experiment that has two or more outcomes which
vary in an unpredictable manner from trial to trial when conducted under
uniform conditions, is called a random experiment. Eg: Throwing a die,
Tossing of a coin etc.
Sample point: Every indecomposable outcome of a random experiment is
called a sample point of that random experiment. Eg: When a coin is tossed,
getting head is a sample point.
Sample space: The sample space of a random experiment is the set
containing all the sample points of that random experiments. Therefore the
sample space of a random experiment is the totally of all the elementary
outcomes of that random experiment. Eg: When a coin is tossed the sample
space is [ Head, Tail]
Event: An event is a subset of the sample space of a random experiment.
Eg: when two coins are tossed getting two heads is an event. An event may
be simple or compound.
Sure events: An event whose occurrence is inevitable is called certain
event. For Eg: getting a white ball from the bag containing all white balls is
a sure event.
Impossible events: If an event cannot occur, when the random experiment
is conducted, then that event is an impossible event. For Eg: Getting a
white ball from a bag containing all black balls is an impossible event.
Uncertain events: An event is said to be uncertain if its happening is
neither sure nor impossible. That is the happening of an uncertain event
cannot be predicted. For Eg: Getting a white ball from a bag containing
white and black balls is uncertain.
Equally likely events: Two events are said to be equally likely if any one
of them cannot be expected to occur in preference to the other. Eg: Getting
Head and Getting Tail when a coin is tossed.
Mutually exclusive events: A set of events are said to be mutually
exclusive if the occurrence of one of them excludes or prevents the
possibility of the occurrence of the others. Eg: Getting an Ace and getting a
King when a card is drawn from a pack of cards are mutually exclusive.
Exhaustive events: A group of events is said to be exhaustive when it
include all possible outcomes of the random experiment under
consideration.
Mutually Exclusive and Exhaustive events: A set of events are said to be
mutually exclusive and exhaustive if one of them must and only one can
occur.
Independent events: Two or more events are said to be independent if the
occurrence of one of them in no way affects the occurrence of the other or
the others. Eg: In the tossing of a coin twice, the result of the second tossing
is not affected by the result of the first toss.
Dependent Events: Two or more events are said to be dependent if the
happening of one of them affects the happening of the other. In the case of
dependent events the chance of one event depends on the happening of the
other event. Eg: From a pack of 52 cards if one card is drawn then 51 cards
are left. If another card is drawn without replacing the first, the chance of
the second draw is affected by the first draw.
Complement of event A (Event ‘not A’): The event ‘A’and the event ‘not
A’ are called complementary events. If A is an event then ‘not A’ is the
complementary of A. Ac = U-A where ‘U’ stands for sample space.
Union of two events (At least one ) (A or B ): The union of two events A
and B denoted by AUB is the set of sample points in A or in B or in both.
AUB stands for at least one among the events A and B.
Intersection of two events (Both A and B): The intersection of two events
A and B denoted by A∩B is the set of sample points common to both A and
B.
Difference of two events (A and not B) (only A) (exactly A): The event
‘Anot B’ is the event whose outcomes are those belonging to A, but not B.
Therefore ‘A not B’ excludes from A outcomes common to A and B.
Exactly one (Symmetric difference) of two events: If A and B are two
events exactly one of them is the event whose outcomes are in A only or in
B only. That is, the outcomes common to A and B are excluded.
APPROACHES TO PROBABILITY( Different definitions of
Probability)
Classical Definition of Probability: Let a random experiment produce only
a finite number of outcomes only, say n. Let all these outcomes be equally
likely and mutually exclusive. Let f of these outcomes be favourable to an
event ‘A’ then the probability of the event A is defined as the ratio between
f and n. P(A)= f/n
Relative frequency definition of probability (or Empirical probability or
Statistical probability): If we repeat a random experiment a great number of
times under essentially the same conditions, the limit of the ratio of the
number of times that an event happens to the total number of trials as the
number of trials increase indefinitely is called the probability of the
happening of the event.
Axiomatic approach to probability: Let “S” be the sample space of a
random experiment. Let A be an event of the random experiment so that A
is a subset of S. Then we can associate a real number P(A) to the event A.
This number P(A) will be called probability of A if it satisfies the following
three axioms:
Axiom 1: P(A) is a real number such that P(A)≥0 for every A subset of S.
Axiom 2: P(S)=1 where ‘S’ is the sample space.
Axiom 3: P(AUB)= P(A)+P(B) where A and B are two non intersecting
subset of S.
ADDITION RULE OF PROBABILITY
(a) Addition Rule for mutually exclusive events: P(AUB)=P(A) + P(B)
(b)Addition Rule for any two events(not mutually exclusive):
PA(UB)= P(A) + P(B)- P(A∩B)
MULTIPLICATION RULE OF PROBABILITY
(a) Multiplication Rule for any two events: P(A∩B)= P(B).P(A/B)
(b)Multiplication Rule for two Independent events: P(A∩B)= P(A). P(B)
CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY
Probability of an event A given that B has happened is called the
conditional probability of A given B and is denoted by P(A/B)
P(A/B)= P(A∩B)/P(B)
P(B/A)= P(A∩B)/P(A)
INVERSE PROBABILITY
Suppose an event has happened as a result of the several causes. Then
we are interested to find out the probability of a particular cause which
really affected the event to happen. Problems of this type are called
“ Inverse probability”. Bay’s theorem is based upon inverse probability.
BAYE’S THEOREM
If an event A can happen only if one or the other of a set of mutually
exclusive events B1,B2,B3,……………Bn happens. Then
P(B1/A)= P(Bk) P(A/ Bk) / P(B1) P(A/ B1)+ P(B2) P(A/ B2)+.........+ P(Bn)
P(A/ Bn)
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