UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTE SERIES ON

EEG 222 (FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING)

SERIES 1

LECTURER:

Osita U. Omeje, Ph.D

 EMF GENERATION

INTRODUCTION
It has been established that when a magnetic field embracing a
conductor moves relative to the conductor, it produces a flow of
electrons in the conductor. The flow of electrons connotes the
flow of current and this implies that emf has been induced in the
conductor. This phenomenon whereby an e.m.f. and hence
current (i.e. flow of electrons) is induced in any conductor which
is cut across or is cut by a magnetic flux is known as
electromagnetic induction.

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 HOW INDUCED EMF AND CURRENT IS PRODUCED
 Figure 1 shows an insulated coil whose terminals are connected to a
sensitive galvanometer G. It is placed close to a stationary bar magnet
initially at position AB (shown dotted). As seen, some flux from the N-
pole of the magnet is linked with or threads through the coil but there is
no deflection of the galvanometer yet. Now, suppose that the magnet is
suddenly brought closer to the coil in position CD (see figure). Then, it
is found that there is a jerk or a sudden but a momentary deflection in
the galvanometer and that this lasts so long as the magnet is in motion
relative to the coil, not otherwise

Figure 1
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 The deflection is reduced to zero when the magnet becomes again
stationary at its new position CD. It should be noted that due to the
approach of the magnet, flux linked with the coil is increased.
 Next, the magnet is suddenly withdrawn away from the coil as in Fig. 2.
It is found that again there is a momentary deflection in the
galvanometer and it persists so long as the magnet is in motion, not
when it becomes stationary. It is important to note that this deflection is
in a direction opposite to that of Fig.1. Obviously, due to the withdrawal
of the magnet, flux linked with the coil is decreased.

Figure 2

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  The deflection of the galvanometer indicates the production of e.m.f. in
the coil. The only cause of the production can be the sudden approach or
withdrawal of the magnet from the coil. It is found that the actual cause
of this e.m.f. is the change of flux linking with the coil. This e.m.f. exists
so long as the change in flux exists. Stationary flux, however strong, will
never induce any e.m.f. in a stationary conductor. In fact, the same
results can be obtained by keeping the bar magnet stationary and moving
the coil suddenly away or towards the magnet.
FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Faraday summed up the above facts into two laws known as Faraday’s Laws
of Electromagnetic Induction.
First Law. It states that whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit
changes, an e.m.f. is always induced in it.
or
Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is induced in that
conductor.
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Second Law: It states that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is
equal to the rate of change of flux-linkages.

 Induced e.m.f. can be either (i) dynamically induced or (ii)

statically induced. In the first case, usually the field is stationary
and conductors cut across it as shown in Figure 3(a). But in the
second case, usually the conductors or the coil remains stationary
and flux linked with it is changed by simply increasing or
decreasing the current producing this flux (as in transformers) or
rotating a permanent magnet in the neighborhood of the
stationary coil as shown in Figure 3(b).

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 Figure 3(a) Figure 3(b)

The value of the emf or voltage generated in either case depends on the
number of turns in the coil, strength of the field and the speed at which
the coil or magnetic field rotates. Alternating voltage may be generated
in either of the two ways, but rotating-field method is used in practice.

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 EQUATIONS OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
Consider a rectangular coil, having N turns and rotating in a uniform
magnetic field, with an angular velocity of ω radian/second, as shown in
Fig.4. Let time be measured from the X-axis. Maximum flux Φm is
linked with the coil, when its plane coincides with the X-axis. In time t
seconds, this coil rotates through an angle θ = ωt. In this deflected
position, the component of the flux which is perpendicular to the plane of
the coil, is Φ = Φmcos ω t. Hence, flux linkages of the coil at any time
are NΦ = N Φmcos ωt.

8 Figue 4
 According to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, the e.m.f.
induced in the coil is given by the rate of change of flux-linkages of the
coil. Hence, the value of the induced e.m.f. at this instant (i.e. when θ =
ωt) or the instantaneous value of the induced e.m.f. is

(1)

When the coil has turned through 90º i.e. when θ = 90º, then sinθ = 1,
hence e has maximum value, say Em. Therefore, from Eq. (1) we get
(2)
Where,
Bm = maximum flux density inWb/m2 ; A = area of the coil in m2
f = frequency of rotation of the coil in rev/second

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 Substituting this value of Em in Eq. (1), we get
e = Em sin θ = Em sin ωt (3)
Similarly, the equation of induced alternating current is
i = Im sin ωt (4)
Since ω = 2πf, where f is the frequency of rotation of the coil, the above
equations of the voltage and current can be written as
(5)

(6)
Where,
T = time-period of the alternating voltage or current = 1/f

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 It is seen that the induced e.m.f. varies as sine function of the time
angle ω t and when e.m.f. is plotted against time, a curve similar to the
one shown in Fig. 5 is obtained. This curve is known as sine curve and
the e.m.f. which varies in this manner is known as sinusoidal e.m.f.

Figure 5

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 ALTERNATE METHOD FOR THE EQUATIONS OF
ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
Figure 6 shows a rectangular coil AC having N turns and rotating in a
magnetic field of flux density B Wb/m2. Let the length of each of its
sides A and C be l meters and their peripheral velocity v metre/second.
Let angle be measured from the horizontal position i.e. from the X-axis.
When in horizontal position, the two sides A and C move parallel to the
lines of the magnetic flux. Hence, no flux is cut and so no e.m.f. is
generated in the coil.

Figure 6
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 When the coil has turned through angle θ, its velocity can be resolved into two
mutually perpendicular components (i) v cos θ component-parallel to the
direction of the magnetic flux, and (ii) v sin θ component-perpendicular to the
direction of the magnetic flux. The e.m.f. is generated due entirely to the
perpendicular component, i.e., v sin θ
Therefore, the e.m.f. generated in one side of the coil which contains N
conductors is given by,
e = N × Bl v sin θ (7)
The total e.m.f. generated in both sides of the coil is then
e =2BNl v sin θ volt (8)
Thus, e has maximum value of Em (say) when θ = 90º. Hence, from Eq. (8)
above, we get, Em = 2 B N l v volt. Therefore Eq. (8) can be rewritten as
e = Em sin θ ...as before
If b = width of the coil in meters ; f = frequency of rotation of coil in Hz, then v
= π bf
∴ Em =2 B N l × π b f = 2 π f N B A volts (9)

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