Mendelian Inheritance
1. Introduction to Genetics and Mendelian Inheritance Genetics is the science that studies
how traits and characteristics are passed from parents to their children. These traits can
be things like eye color, height, or seed shape in plants. The word “genetics” comes from
the Greek word “genno,” meaning “to give birth” or “to produce.”
The foundation of genetics was established by Gregor Mendel, a monk who lived in the 19th
century. Mendel’s experiments with pea plants showed that traits are inherited in specific
patterns, which we now call Mendelian Inheritance.
Mendel’s work was important because before him, people believed offspring were just a
blend of parents’ traits. Mendel showed that inheritance works through discrete units called
genes, which remain unchanged through generations.
1. Mendel’s Experiments with Pea Plants Mendel selected
pea plants for his experiments because they had many
distinct traits that were easy to observe. He studied seven
important traits, including:
Plant Height: Tall (T) or Dwarf (t)
Seed Shape: Round (R) or Wrinkled (r)
Seed Color: Yellow (Y) or Green (y)
Flower Color: Purple or White
Pod Shape: Inflated or Constricted
Pod Color: Green or Yellow
Flower Position: Axial or Terminal
Mendel carefully cross-pollinated plants with different traits and recorded the results for
several generations. For example, he crossed tall plants with dwarf plants and observed the
traits of their offspring.
Mendel found that traits did not blend but were inherited as dominant or recessive traits.
1. Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
Through his experiments,
Mendel formulated three
important laws that explain
how traits are inherited:
Law 1: Law of Dominance In a pair of alleles (gene variants), one allele can mask the presence
of another. The allele that shows up in the organism is called dominant, while the hidden one
is recessive.
Example: If T = tall (dominant) and t = dwarf (recessive), then a plant with genotype Tt will be
tall because the dominant allele masks the recessive dwarf allele.
Law 2: Law of Segregation
Each individual has two alleles for
each trait, but during the
formation of gametes (sex cells),
these alleles separate so that each
gamete carries only one allele for
each trait. When fertilization
happens, offspring get one allele
from each parent.
Law 3: Law of Independent
Assortment Alleles for different
traits separate independently
during gamete formation. This
means the inheritance of one trait
(e.g., seed color) does not affect
the inheritance of another trait
(e.g., seed shape).
1. Monohybrid Cross A
monohybrid cross studies the
inheritance of a single trait.
Example: Plant height in pea plants
Parental Generation (P): Tall (TT) × Dwarf (tt)
First Generation (F1): All plants are Tall (Tt) because tall is dominant.
Second Generation (F2): When F1 plants self-pollinate (Tt × Tt), the offspring show the
following genotypes:
TT (tall)
Tt (tall)
tt (dwarf)
Phenotypic ratio: 3 Tall : 1 Dwarf Genotypic ratio: 1 TT : 2 Tt : 1
tt
This shows how traits are inherited in predictable ratios.
1. Dihybrid Cross A dihybrid cross
studies the inheritance of two
traits simultaneously. Mendel
used this to see if traits are
inherited together or
separately.
Example: Seed shape and seed color in pea plants
Traits:
Seed Shape: Round (R) is
dominant over Wrinkled (r)
Seed Color: Yellow (Y) is
dominant over Green (y)
Parental Generation (P): Round
Yellow (RRYY) × Wrinkled Green
(rryy)
First Generation (F1): All
offspring are Round Yellow
(RrYy) because both dominant
traits appear.
When F1 plants self-pollinate
(RrYy × RrYy), the F2 generation
shows four types of offspring in a
specific phenotypic ratio:
9 Round Yellow
3 Round Green
3 Wrinkled Yellow
1 Wrinkled Green
This ratio is called the 9:3:3:1 ratio
and supports Mendel’s Law of
Independent Assortment — the
traits are inherited independently.
1. Applications of Mendelian
Genetics Mendel’s laws are not
just important for theory; they
have many practical uses:
Agriculture
~Farmers use Mendel’s principles
to breed plants with better yield,
disease resistance, and quality
traits.
~Hybrid seeds are created by
crossing plants with desirable
traits.
Medicine
Understanding inheritance helps
diagnose and treat genetic
disorders like sickle cell anemia,
cystic fibrosis, and hemophilia.
Genetic counseling relies on
Mendelian inheritance to assess
risks of inherited diseases.
Research and Biotechnology
Genetic engineering uses
Mendel’s principles to modify
organisms for desired traits.
Mapping genes and
understanding DNA structure
depend on Mendel’s
groundwork.
1. Modern Genetics and Beyond
Today, genetics goes far beyond
Mendel’s pea plants:
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid):
The molecule that carries
genetic information.
Genes: Segments of DNA that
determine traits.
Chromosomes: Structures inside
cells that carry many genes.
Alleles: Different versions of a
gene.
Modern genetics explains how
traits are controlled at the
molecular level. However,
Mendel’s laws are still the
foundation for understanding
inheritance
Glossary of Important Terms
~Allele: Different forms of a gene
(e.g., T or t).
Dominant allele: The allele that
masks another in heterozygous
condition.
Recessive allele: The allele that
is masked by a dominant allele.
Genotype: The genetic makeup
of an organism (e.g., TT, Tt, tt).
Phenotype: The physical
appearance or trait (e.g., tall or
dwarf).
Homozygous: Having two
identical alleles for a trait (TT or
tt).
Heterozygous: Having two
different alleles for a trait (Tt).
Gamete: Sex cells (sperm and
egg) carrying one allele for each
gene.
Punnett square: A diagram to
predict the genotypes of
offspring.
1. Step-by-Step Example of a
Monohybrid Cross (With
Punnett Square) Let’s take the
example of pea plant height
again and see how a
monohybrid cross works.
Tall (T) is dominant, Dwarf (t) is
recessive.
Suppose a pure tall plant (TT) is
crossed with a pure dwarf plant
(tt).
F1 Generation:
Parents Gametes
Produced
Tall (TT) T, T
Dwarf (tt) t, t
F2 Generation:
Gametes T t
T TT Tt
t Tt tt
Genotypes: 1 TT, 2 Tt, 1 tt
Phenotypes: 3 Tall, 1 Dwarf
