SIR ISSAC NETON ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE CENTER CODE: 340

SIR ISSAC NEWTON ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF FORENSIC SCIENCE
SEMESTER: VI

SUBJECT: FORENSIC BIOLOGY AND SEROLOGY

SUBJECT CODE: 23SCCFS9

AKSHARA M P
Assistant professor
Department of forensic science

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SIR ISSAC NETON ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE CENTER CODE: 340

BASICS OF FORENSIC ENTAMOLOGY

Forensic entomology is the branch of forensic science in which

information about insects is used to draw conclusions when investigating legal
cases relating to both humans and wildlife, although on occasion the term may be
expanded to include other arthropods.

OR

It is the application of insect biology and ecology to criminal investigations,

particularly in determining the time of death (post-mortem interval, PMI) in cases
of suspicious or unexplained deaths. Insects, especially flies and beetles, are often
attracted to decomposing bodies, and their life cycle can provide valuable
information about the crime scene.

Insects can be used in the investigation of a crime scene both on land and water.
The majority of cases where entomological evidence has been used are concerned
with illegal activities which take place on land and are discovered within a short
time of being committed. The insects that can assist in forensic entomological
investigations include blowflies, flesh flies, cheese skippers, hide and skin
beetles, rove beetles and clown beetles. In some of these families only the juvenile
stages are carrion feeders and consume a dead body. In others both the juvenile
stages and the adults will eat the body (are necrophages). Yet other families of
insects are attracted to the body solely because they feed on the necrophagous
insects that are present.

Basic concepts in Forensic Entomology:

1. Insect Colonization:

Insects are among the first organisms to arrive at a decomposing body.The types
of insects and their development stages depend on the environmental conditions
and the stage of decomposition.

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2. Common Insects Involved:

Blowflies (Family: Calliphoridae): These are typically the first insects to arrive
at a corpse. Their eggs hatch into larvae (maggots), which develop through three
stages (instars) before pupating.

Flesh flies (Family: Sarcophagidae): Also common early colonizers, these flies
deposit live larvae on the body rather than eggs.

Beetles (Families: Silphidae, Dermestidae, etc.): These arrive later, feeding on

the body’s soft tissue or skeleton, depending on their species.

3. Life Cycle of Flies:

Eggs: Laid on or near the body.

• Larvae (Maggots): They hatch from eggs and begin feeding on the body’s
tissues.
• Pupae: After reaching maturity, larvae pupate, becoming pupae and then
emerging as adult flies.
• Adults: Once they emerge, the cycle begins again.

Factors Influencing Insect Development:

• Temperature: One of the most important environmental factors affecting

the rate of insect development. Warmer temperatures speed up the process,
while cooler ones slow it down.
• Humidity: Insects tend to thrive in areas with moderate to high humidity,
which impacts their lifecycle.
• Body Conditions: Factors like clothing, body position, and whether the
body is inside or outside (exposed to elements) also influence insect
colonization patterns.
4. Estimating Time of Death (Post-mortem Interval):

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The presence of specific insect species and their developmental stages can help
estimate the time of death.

5. Degree-Day Calculation:

Entomologists use temperature-based calculations (degree-days) to estimate

the age of larvae and the time of colonization, helping to pinpoint the PMI.

Stages of Decomposition:

• Fresh: The body is intact, and blowflies may arrive within hours of death.
• Bloat: The body begins to swell as internal gases accumulate, and maggot
populations increase.
• Active Decay: Body begins to break down significantly, attracting various
insect species.
• Advanced Decay: Most soft tissue has been consumed, and beetles may
become more dominant.
• Dry/Remains: Few insects remain as only bones and hair are left.

Crime Scene Application:

Entomological evidence can help establish time of death (PMI), detect hidden or
buried bodies, or confirm the time of death in cases with inconsistent witness
statements or alibis. It also helps in distinguishing between homicide, suicide, and
natural death based on insect activity and decomposition patterns.

Methods Used in Forensic Entomology:

• Collection of Insects:

Insects should be collected from the body and surrounding environment (soil,
vegetation, etc.).Insects are preserved in alcohol or frozen to prevent further
development.

• Identification:

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SIR ISSAC NETON ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE CENTER CODE: 340

Forensic entomologists identify the species and developmental stage of the

insects collected to determine the PMI. Knowledge of insect ecology and the local
environment is crucial for accurate analysis.

• Analysis of Developmental Stages:

The entomologist assesses the age of larvae and pupae, which is used to estimate
the time since death based on species-specific development rates.

• Temperature Tracking:

Forensic entomologists may use local temperature data or place temperature

sensors on the body to assist in estimating the PMI through degree-day
calculations.

HISTORY OF FORENSIC ENTAMOLOGY

Early Recognition of Insects in Criminal Investigations:

• Ancient China (circa 1235 AD):

The earliest recorded use of insects in criminal investigations comes from ancient
China, where a case involved the use of insects to solve a murder. In the Song
Dynasty, the Chinese official and forensic expert Song Ci wrote a book called
"The Washing Away of Wrongs" (published in 1247 AD), which contained
detailed accounts of criminal investigations. In one case, he described how flies
were attracted to a dead body, and by examining where the insects were most
abundant, he was able to determine the source of the death and identify the
murderer. This is considered the earliest known use of entomology in forensic
investigations.

• Early Modern Period (17th to 18th Century):

In the 1600s and 1700s, there were occasional references to the importance of
insects in understanding the decomposition process. However, it was not until

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the late 19th century that entomology started to be systematically recognized

as a potential tool in criminal investigations.

• 19th Century – The Rise of Entomology in Forensic Science:

In the late 1800s, scientists and naturalists began to recognize that the presence
of insects on a decomposing body could be used to estimate the time of death.
French physician and forensic scientist Michel Edmond Narcisse Boudin (circa
1850s) is often credited with one of the first formal studies into the relationship
between insects and decomposition. Boudin was an early pioneer in studying how
insect activity could help determine the time since death.

• 1900s – Formalization and Case Applications:

Dr. William M. L. Wilson (early 20th century) is another early figure in the
development of forensic entomology. He began to apply the principles of
entomology to criminal cases, studying the relationship between the life cycle of
flies and the decomposition process. His work was foundational in connecting the
life stages of insects (especially blowflies) with the stages of decay in human
bodies.

Dr. Bernt Lindström (1930s-1940s) in Europe made key contributions to the field.
He conducted studies on the developmental stages of various insect species found
on human remains. His work helped establish the concept that insect life cycles
could be used to estimate the post-mortem interval (PMI).

1950s-1970s – The Modern Era of Forensic Entomology:

Forensic entomology began to emerge as a distinct scientific field in

the 1950s and 1960s with the increased recognition of its practical application in
criminal investigations. One of the most significant milestones was the
publication of the first studies on the use of insect evidence to determine PMI in
real criminal cases

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In 1957, Dr. M. G. B. J. Van der Hoeven published a study on the use of blowflies
to estimate the PMI, solidifying the relationship between insect development and
time of death.

In the 1970s, Dr. Erich S. L. T. Christian (Germany) and other researchers

significantly advanced the field by publishing detailed studies on the
developmental stages of various species of flies and beetles found on human
remains. His work helped refine the method of using insect evidence in death
investigations, particularly with regard to calculating the PMI.

The Establishment of Forensic Entomology as a Formal Discipline:

• 1980s – Increasing Recognition:

The 1980s saw the further establishment of forensic entomology as a

recognized discipline. With the rise of criminal investigations using scientific
techniques, forensic entomologists became more integrated into the legal system.
In the United States, the first forensic entomology textbook was published, and
forensic entomologists began to serve as expert witnesses in court.

• The American Board of Forensic Entomology (ABFE) was established to

formally recognize qualified forensic entomologists and standardize
practices within the field.

1990s and Beyond – Technological Advancements:

With advancements in molecular biology, DNA analysis, and electronic

databases, forensic entomologists gained better tools for analyzing and
identifying insect species at crime scenes.

The development of databases for insect life cycles and decomposition rates
allowed for more accurate estimates of the PMI.

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The field continued to grow, and forensic entomologists began to be involved in

high-profile criminal cases, including homicides, disappearances, and even cases
involving bodies that were buried or in remote locations.

INSECTS OF FORENSIC IMPORTANCE:

FLIES:

This is one of the largest insect orders. Flies can be found in almost any habitat
and are characterized by having only one pair of wings. The second pair of wings
is reduced to only knob-like organs called the halteres, which are used to stabilize
the insect in flight. Flies have large compound eyes with mouthparts of various
types. However, most flies associated with a corpse have sponging mouthparts.
The larvae of flies are called maggots and most are cream colored, soft, legless,
and lack a visible head Aquatic larva (such as those of midges and mosquitoes)
are slender and have a recognizable head. Flies are important as scavengers,
removing decomposing plant and animal material from the environment. Some
are predators and parasites of other insect species, and others aid in the pollination
of plants

1. BLOW FLIES (FAMILY- CALLIPHORIDAE):

his is an extremely large family of medium-sized flies that contains more than
1000 species. Blow flies are found throughout the world. They, along with the
sarcophagid and muscid flies, are the most important species that provide
information relating to the accurate estimation of the postmortem interval.
Calliphorid flies are attracted to carrion and excrement, with some species
exploiting open wounds. This family includes the familiar green bottle flies
(genus Phaenicia) and blue bottle flies (genus Calliphora), as well as the
screwworm flies (genus Cochliomyia). In addition to their forensic importance,

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this family is extremely valuable in nutrient recycling and community ecology

based on their removal and breakdown of vertebrate carcasses.

Adult calliphorids usually range from 6 to 14 mm in length. The majority of

species are metallic in appearance, with colours ranging from green, blue, bronze,
or black. In some species, a covering of fine powder or dust masks the bright
metallic coloration of the fly body. This results in only a dull metallic sheen
remaining. Adults have three segmented antennae with a hair or arista on the last
segment (see Figure 1.8). This arista is plumose or hairy throughout its entire
length

• CALLIPHORA VICINA:

C. Vicina is a large fly usually ranging from 10 to 14 mm long. The head is black

in colour, with the lower part of the buccal or “cheeks” appearing red to yellow.
The cheeks are black in C. vomitoria, a very similar species. The thorax is black,
but coated with greyish powder giving it the overall appearance of a greyish-blue.
The thorax also has dark longitudinal stripes on the dorsal surface between the
bases of the wings. The abdomen is a noticeable metallic blue, patterned with
silver. Overall, the body appears very bristly. The adults are attracted to most
types of decaying matter and frequent rotting fruit, decaying meat, and feces.
However, the larvae are found primarily on carrion. C. vicina is extremely
common on human corpses

• CALLIPHORA VOMITORIA:

The Holarctic blue blow fly ranges from 7 to 13 mm in length. The thorax is dark
blue to black, with a light grey dusty coating. Depending on the condition of the
specimen, darker blue longitudinal stripes also may be visible on the dorsum or
upper surface of the thorax. The abdomen is metallic blue, but appears to have a
light coating of silver-grey powder as well. This pollen-like coating masks much
of the metallic nature of the colour, but a glint of metallic sheen is still visible

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when specimens are examined closely. The legs of this species are black. This
species is similar in appearance to C. vicina, except the head appears almost
entirely black and has only a few red to orange hairs near the posterior margin.
Overall, the body appears very stocky and bristly. This species is common in
wooded rural as well as suburban areas where it prefers shaded locations. The
Holarctic blue blow fly is slow flying and makes a loud buzzing sound during
flight

• CHRYSOMYA MEGACEPHALA:

The adults have short stout bodies similar in appearance to C. rufifacies, but with
a noticeably larger head. The eyes are unusually large and a very prominent shade
of red, making this fly easily recognizable in the field.

The adult flies are attracted to carrion and sweet foods as well as to urine and
excrement; hence, the common name. Although C. megacephala has a
pronounced activity peak during the heat of the afternoon, this species is one of
the first species to become active in the early morning hours and is one of the last
species to depart carrion at nightfall. Once the adults have settled on carrion, they
are not easily disturbed. The adults also have a habit of entering dwellings in
search of suitable oviposition sites. The larvae are primarily carrion feeders, and
the adult oriental latrine fly shows a preference for fresh remains. Dry, decaying
carrion has little attraction for this species.

• CHRYSOMYA RUFIFACIES:

The adults of this species are usually the first to arrive on carrion (often within
hours after death) Unlike C. megacephala, this species rarely enters dwellings and
the larvae only develop on carrion, not excrement. The larvae of this species

are readily distinguished from other larvae in the family Calliphoridae that
commonly occur by the presence of prominent fleshy protrusions along their
body. The larvae are both predacious and cannibalistic and, therefore, should be

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separated from other species when live collections are made for shipment to a
forensic entomologist. If the food supply becomes depleted, the larvae will
consume, and often totally eliminate, other species from the carcass. The larvae
also are able to burrow several inches into the soil to colonize buried remains.
due to its predatory nature, it is likely that forensic entomologists will encounter
the hairy maggot blow fly with increasing frequency.

2. FLESH FLIES

Adults are common and often found on flowers where they are attracted to nectar.
The adult flies feed on other sweet substances as well, including sap and
honeydew. This family’s Latin name means “flesh eating” and apparently refers
to the larvae or maggots that typically feed on some sort of animal material. In
addition to carrion, they also may feed on excrement or exposed meats. They have
been known to cause myiasis and may be involved in the mechanical transmission
of diseases. Many species of sarcophagid or flesh flies are parasitic on other
insects, especially bees and wasps. At least one species is beneficial to man,
however, and serves as a major natural control of the forest tent caterpillar. Flesh
flies are medium-sized and range in length from 2 to 14 mm. The adults
commonly have grey and black longitudinal stripes on the thorax and have a
tessellated (checkerboard) pattern on the abdomen. Although they are roughly the
same size as the blow flies and the bottle flies (Family Calliphoridae), flesh fly
adults never have a metallic coloration like the others. Also, the arista of the
antennae of flesh flies is plumose only at the base, while in calliphorids it is
plumose throughout the length. The bodies of sarcophagids tend to be bristly and
the eyes are fairly widely separated in both sexes. In some species the eyes are
bright red in colour, as are the highly visible genitalia at the tip of the abdomen.

Flesh flies are attracted to carrion under most conditions, including sun, shade,
dry, wet, indoors, and outdoors. They can be found associated with carcasses
throughout both the early and late stages of decomposition. Female flies in this

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family deposit living first instar larvae on decomposing remains. They do not lay
eggs and, thus, fly egg masses associated with human remains cannot be
attributed to sarcophagids. The time period necessary for egg development also
must be eliminated when calculating a postmortem interval (PMI) based on flesh
fly evidence

• SARCOPHAGA HAEMORRHOIDALIS:

The red-tailed flesh fly is cosmopolitan in distribution, occurring worldwide.

Investigators may find it associated with human remains throughout the U.S. and
Canada. It is a large species that ranges from 8 to 14 mm in size. This fly appears
very similar to flies in the family Muscidae. However, it is typically larger and its
abdomen terminates in a red tip, which is actually the external genitalia. Although
named the red-tailed flesh fly, it shares this characteristic with other sarcophagid
species as well. The body is black, but covered in whitish powder that gives it an
ash grey appearance. It has three dark longitudinal stripes on the thorax between
the wing bases. These stripes do not continue on the abdomen, which has a black
and grey tessellated (checkerboard) pattern. The adults of this species are
attracted to both excrement and carrion. Females commonly enter dwellings to
deposit their larvae, which are frequently found on human corpses located
indoors, particularly during the summer months. Eggs are not laid, as they hatch
within the body of the female. Therefore, it is the living first instar larva that is
deposited on carrion or excrement. This species can infect the wounds or
digestive tracts of living animals, particularly mammals. S. haemorrhoidalis has
been recorded as even completing development entirely within the human
digestive tract.

• SARCOPHAGA BULLATA:

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Adults of S. bullata range from 8 to 14 mm in length. They appear very much like
the adults of S. haemorrhoidalis to which they are closely related. They also are
very similar in behaviour and habitat preferences.

• SARCOPHAGA HAEMORRHOIDALIS

The red-tailed flesh fly is cosmopolitan in distribution, occurring worldwide.

Investigators may find it associated with human remains throughout the U.S. and
Canada. It is a large species that ranges from 8 to 14 mm in size. This fly appears
very similar to flies in the family Muscidae. However, it is typically larger and its
abdomen terminates in a red tip, which is actually the external genitalia. Although
named the red-tailed flesh fly, it shares this characteristic with other sarcophagid
species as well. The body is black, but covered in whitish powder that gives it an
ash grey appearance. It has three dark longitudinal stripes on the thorax between
the wing bases. These stripes do not continue on the abdomen, which has a black
and grey tessellated (checkerboard) pattern. The adults of this species are
attracted to both excrement and carrion. Females commonly enter dwellings to
deposit their larvae, which are frequently found on human corpses located
indoors, particularly during the summer months. Eggs are not laid, as they hatch
within the body of the female. Therefore, it is the living first instar larva that is
deposited on carrion or excrement. This species can infect the wounds or
digestive tracts of living animals, particularly mammals.

3. BEETLES (COLEOPTERA):

This order is of tremendous economic importance. Members of this order are

characterized by having hard wing covers (called elytra) that cover and protect
the membranous hind wings used for flight. Adult beetles possess chewing
mouthparts and most have the ability to fly. Their feeding habits vary greatly.

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They can be predacious, scavengers, or vegetarians, with a few being parasitic.

The larvae are called grubs, and they vary widely in appearance. However, all
grubs have a noticeable head and possess six legs. Beetles are known to attack
plants, infest stored foods, act as important scavengers and decomposers, and
some species serve as pollinators of plants.

1. CARRION BEETLES (Family silphidae)

The carrion beetles comprise a large family that is nearly worldwide

distribution and has more than 1500 species. Certain members of this family
are known as sexton or burying beetles.

Silphid beetles are usual medium to large in size, typically ranging from 10 to
35 mm. although adults vary greatly in size and shape, certain reliable physical
characters can be used in their personal identification. The antennae are
clubbed and either knob-like or broaden gradually. The wing covers that cover
the black are often short and leave several abdominal segments exposed. The
body also tend to be broader towards the posterior end rather than the anterior.
The tarsi (feet) or terminal portion of each leg has five segments. The body is
usually black, but marked with orange, yellow, or red patches of color. Carrion
beetle larvae also vary in size and shape, but are generally from 15 to 30 mm
long. Most tend to be flattened, with some species (e.g., Oiceoptoma
inaequale) almost trilobite-like in appearance (see Figure 2.44). All larvae
seem capable of mobility even when they remain in the same place throughout
larval development. The habits of silphid beetles are unusual and have not
been entirely observed. While some larvae develop in rotting vegetable
material, others are predacious. However, most

species are attracted to and feed on decaying animal carcasses. In the case of
the sexton or burying beetles (genus Nicrophorous), adults bury small animal
carcasses upon which they lay their eggs. In some species, a depression is

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made in the decaying flesh to house a group of developing larvae that the
parents feed and protect. The burying of the food source may be a means of
eliminating competition with other carrion feeding insects such as flies. In
both the burying beetle group and the carrion beetle group (genus Silpha) of
the silphids, the larvae apparently feed on carrion while the adults consume
primarily maggots.

• HETEROSILPHA RAMOSA ( Garden carrion beetle)

The adult ranges from 14 to 18 mm in length. The pronotum and elytra are a
velvety black to dark brown. The pronotum is smooth and contrasts with the
rough elytra, which have noticeable ridges. The elytra are short, exposing the
last two abdominal segments. The larvae are dark brown to black and have a
light brown stripe along the dorsal surface. Garden carrion beetle adults are
most active in spring and remain active throughout the summer months. They
are found on fresh remains and throughout the later stages of decomposition.
The eggs are typically laid in the soil around a carcass rather than on the
remains themselves. The adults and larvae feed on carrion and other insects,
particularly maggots.

• NECRODES SURINAMENSIS:
The pronotum is shiny black, while the elytra are dull black with red
markings near the tips. However, the patterns on the wing covers vary
greatly from completely black to having two transverse red bands (or rows)
of red spots near the tip. There are pronounced lengthwise ridges along the
elytra, which are rounded at the tip and not truncate as in Nicrophorus. The
elytra do not quite cover the entire abdomen and leave the tip exposed. The
larvae are a dark reddish-brown with a light brown dorsal stripe.
Adult Suriname carrion beetles are primarily nocturnal and emerge in early
spring after overwintering in the adult stage. Both the adults and larvae are

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most common on large carcasses such as bear, deer, and human. The adults
can secrete an offensive odor as a mode of defense when disturbed
• NECROPHILIA AMERICANA (American carrion beetle)
The adults are 12 to 22 mm in length. The adult body is oval in
shape and has a large yellow pronotum with a black center. The elytra are
dull brownish black to black with three raised ridges connected by smaller
cross ridges. In the northern extent of its range, the elytra have a yellow
tip, and in the southern portions the elytra are entirely black. The elytra are
shortened, exposing the tip of the abdomen. The head, legs, antennae, and
underside of the beetle are black. The larvae of this species are black and
appear armored. A light brown dorsal stripe may be visible on some
specimens. Adult and larval American carrion beetles feed on carrion, fly
larvae, and the larvae of other beetles. They are found from spring to fall,
and overwinter in the adult stage. The adults of this species are diurnal.
• THANATOPHILUS LAPPONICUS (Lapland carrion beetle):
Adult beetles are 10 to 14 mm in length.
The pronotum is black and has gray to gold pubescence. The elytra are
brownish-black and appear very bumpy. The body is gray to black, but it
is covered with golden yellowish
hair that sometimes appears gray. The body is slightly oblong in shape and
appears very punctate when view from above.
This species prefers open habitats where it is predominant in the summer.
Lapland carrion beetles can be found at both fresh remains and during the
advanced stages of decay. The adults and larvae are predacious on other
insect larvae. This species is very cold tolerant and overwinters in the adult
stage.
2. SKIN BEETLES/ LEATHER BEETLE/ HIDE BEETLE (Dermestidae)
Dermestids are generally small beetles, ranging from 2 to 12 mm
in length. They are rounded to oval in shape and covered with scales that

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may form distinctive and colourful patterns. The larvae range from 5 to 15
mm and are usually covered with tufts of long, dense hair. This family
represents one of the most economically important groups of beetles in
the world. The carpet beetle species damage rugs, clothing, and furniture.
Others like the khapra beetle, infest grains and inflict serious losses on
stored products. Still others, like the hide beetles, may ruin leather goods
or destroy irreplaceable museum specimens, especially mounted insects.
Almost all species are scavengers and feed on various types of dried animal
tissue. Skin beetles, especially in the genus Dermestes, can be of
considerable forensic importance. In sufficient numbers, they have been
reported as reducing a human body to a skeleton in only 24 days. Due to
this uncanny ability, beetles have been employed for decades in the
removal of flesh from the bones of museum specimens. The larvae are
typically found on human corpses during the dry and skeletal stages of
decomposition. They move away from light and will hide in any cavity or
recess that is available. A close and detailed examination of remains may
be required to collect the small, young larvae
• DERMESTES ATER ( Black larder beetle)
the elytra are not serrated. The elytra appear a dark to light brown
in color and have scattered yellow hairs. This species also is distinctive in
that the ventral pattern is yellowish and not white. The larvae can be easily
distinguished from others by the two spines near the posterior end that
extend backward and are not strongly curved. This beetle is a serious
pest of dried fish, mushrooms, and cheese, and it is particularly attracted to
the proteinrich tissues of decaying vertebrates. This beetle is attracted to
dried pet food as well and can sometimes be found associated with the
waste materials burned in incinerators.
• DERMESTES CANINUS (Germar)

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Like all dermestid beetles, they are attracted to stored food products
and carrion of all types. This species has been found in the nests of predatory
birds, apparently attracted by the prey remains. D. caninus and other members of
this family overwinter in the adult stage and become active during the early
summer months when the females readily enter dwellings in search of egg-laying
sites.

• DERMESTES MACULATUS (DEGEER)

Common Name: Hide or Leather Beetle

This species of skin beetle is worldwide in distribution. The adults are 5 to 10 mm

in length and black to reddish brown on the dorsum or upper surface. They also
have characteristic black and white markings on the ventral surface. The apex of
the elytra are serrated or saw-toothed and end in a terminal spine where they come
together. The larvae of D. maculatus are dark brown and have a broad light brown
to yellow stripe extending lengthwise along the body. They are easily identified
by the fact that the spines near the tip of the tail curve forward, towards the head
of the larvae. This and other species of dermestid larvae are covered with tufts of
long dark hairs.

3. ROVE BEETLES (Family Staphylinidae)

They are widely distributed and found in various habitats. The adult
beetles vary greatly in size, ranging from 1 to 25 mm. The characteristic shape of
many species attracted to carrion, however, makes them easy to identify to the
family level. Others members of this family do not have the typical shape, but
they are not frequently found at carrion. Typical rove or staphylinid beetle adults
are slender, elongate, and have very short wing covers or elytra. The elytra
typically appear square and are approximately as long as

they are wide. Although the membranous hind wings remain folded beneath and
completely concealed (except during flight), six to seven abdominal segments are

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exposed. This makes the rove beetle appear to be divided into four sections. The
head, thorax, and wing covers make up the first three sections and are
approximately equal to each other in size. The fourth section is the exposed
abdomen, which is roughly equal to all of the first three together.

Although earwigs (order Dermaptera) are vastly fewer in number of species than
are the rove beetles, they seem better known to the general public. Because
earwigs are elongate insects with short elytra, people often mistake staphylinid
adults for earwigs, although staphylinds do not have pincer-like cerci at the tip of
the abdomen. Staphylinid larvae are typically long, slender, pale in colour, and
may have a darker head. Many larvae and adults have mandibles that are long and
curved, which may cross over in front of the head. Larvae and adults are typically
quick-moving and predacious on smaller insects. Some, however, eat fungi or
diatoms. Even among those that are predacious, some have specialized diets
whereas others are generalists. The species attracted to carrion feed on maggots
and the larvae of other insects

CREOPHILUS MAXILLOSUS (GRAVENHORST)

Common Name: Hairy Rove Beetle

Adults range in length from 12 to 18 mm, but all are black bodied and covered
with patches of pale yellow hairs. This species is found throughout the eastern
U.S. The body is very slender and is typical of rove beetles, appearing to be
divided into four sections. Both the adults and larvae are predacious on maggots.
The adults may be found on carcasses only hours after death as well as during the
advanced stages of decomposition. When threatened or disturbed, they often hold
their abdomen curved upward and forward above the head as if to sting. Although
they are unable to sting, they can emit an offensive odor as a defense mechanism.

PLATYDRACUS COMES (LECONTE)

Common Name: Brown Rove Beetle

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The adults of this species range in length from 10 to 15 mm and are brown with
black markings. The body is very slender and appears divided into four sections.
Very little is known about this species, but it is commonly attracted to carrion and
frequently recovered from bodies

PLATYDRACUS FOSSATOR (GRAVENHORST)

Common Name: Spotted Rove Beetle

The adults of this rove beetle range from 12 to 18 mm in length. The body is dark
blue (and may appear black depending on lighting conditions) with two red spots
on the elytra. Some specimens may have a faint band of orange hair near the tip
of the abdomen. Although detailed information is lacking on the habits of this
species, it is often encountered on carrion and frequently found in association
with human remains in the southeastern U.S.

PLATYDRACUS MACULOSUS (GRAVENHORST)

Common Name: Rove Beetle

Adults are shaped like other Platydracus adults and are mottled dark brown with
golden hairs. Little is known about the biology of this species, but it is frequently
recovered on decomposing remains where it is a predator on fly larvae. The adults
and larvae of this species should be collected as evidence whenever encountered
at a crime scene.

4. CLOWN BEETLES (FAMILY HISTERIDAE)

This is a large family of over 3000 species, more than 500 of which are widely
distributed throughout North America. Clown beetles are usually small, seldom
getting beyond 10 mm in length. They are rounded, shiny beetles that are black
or sometimes metallic green. The elytra are short and squared at their apex,
exposing the last two abdominal segments. Therefore, the adults appear to be

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divided into three longitudinal sections, with the central section bearing a line
down the middle. The antennae of clown beetles are both elbowed and clubbed.
Clown beetles are very common on carrion and excrement, as well as on fungi
and decaying plant material. When on carcasses, they tend to stay concealed in
the soil underneath during the daylight hours, becoming active at night. Both the
larvae and adults are predacious and feed readily on maggots and fly puparia.
They also have been observed feeding on the larvae of dermestid beetles. As with
other predatory species that are collected from a crime scene, to be maintained
alive, clown beetles should be isolated into separate containers

• HISTER SP.

Common Name: Clown Beetle

Species in this genus are commonly 4 to 5 mm in length and are worldwide in

distribution. Their body color is most frequently a shiny jet black, but in some
species can be brown, red, or metallic green. The body shape is very convex in
profile, and the elytra are short and cut square at the apex exposing the last two
abdominal segments. Hister species are found on cadavers from bloat through the
dry stages of decomposition. The adults and larvae are chiefly nocturnal feeding
on carrion, maggots, and other insect eggs and larvae. The adults fly very well
and can run swiftly. When disturbed, they pull their legs and antennae tightly
against their body and lie motionless feigning death. Due to this feigning behavior
they are often overlooked and not collected.

• SAPRINUS PENNSYLVANICUS (PAYKULL)

Common Name: Clown Beetle

The body of this clown beetle is oval, convex, and a shiny metallic green. This
species, like other clown beetles, feigns death when disturbed by pulling the legs
close to the body and lying motionless. S. pennsylvanicus feeds on fly eggs and
maggots, and is often found underneath the body. This species is worldwide in

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distribution and is noted to occur from the fresh throughout the later stages of
decomposition.

COLLECTION OF ENTAMOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

forensic practitioners encounter numerous and varied habitats and environments

when called to death scenes. Important insect evidence may be recovered from
enclosed structures in urban areas such as houses, apartments, abandoned
buildings, car trunks, or in dumpsters sometimes filled with an almost
bewildering array of refuse. Contrasting environments such as forests, mountain
slopes, deserts, swamps, irrigation ditches, riverbanks, lakes, ponds, or
agricultural fields also are frequently the site of human remains recovery.
Therefore, the following procedures are applicable to most geographic areas or
habitats.

The initial approach to the remains is very important. Slow movement should be
employed to minimize the disturbance of flying adult insects. Observations
should begin several feet from the body to determine what insects are present,
where the major areas of colonization are (as evidenced by the presence of eggs,
maggots, or puparia), and the location of any insect activity on the ground or
substrate near the body. Distances from the body to remote insect activity sites
should be measured and recorded, and other appropriate notations written. Many
of these observations can be recorded on the Forensic Entomology Data Form
and the Entomological Sample Log Sheet. The entomological investigation at the
death scene can be broken into several major stages:

1. Assessment and notation of general scene characteristics.

2. Visual observation and notation of insect infestations at the scene.

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3. Initiation of climatological data collection.

4. Collection of adult flies and beetles.

5. Collection of eggs, larvae, and puparia

6. Collection of specimens from the surrounding area [up to 20 ft (6 m)] from the
body.

7. Collection of specimens from directly under and in close proximity to the

remains [3 ft (1 m) or less] after the body has been removed.

8. Documentation of historical climatological data.

9. Assessment of the ecological characteristics (soil, plant, water, etc.) at the

recovery site.

COLLECTING CLIMATOLOGICAL AND TEMPERATURE DATA

Climatological information is critical when estimating the postmortem interval

(PMI) by entomological means. The time required for insects to undergo their
life-cycle development is determined largely by the temperatures and relative
humidity in the particular environment to which they are exposed. Other
climatological conditions (e.g., rainfall, full sun, snow cover, and fog) also may
influence insect development rates, behavioural modes, and carrion-feeding
habits. Therefore, the forensic entomologist should develop a working knowledge
of climatology and its influence on carrion insect ecology. Proper collection and
interpretation of climatological data is essential to the estimation of the PMI.
Having the name, telephone number, and a working relationship established with
a qualified climatologist can be of great value when you need specific data from
a local region or interpretation of collected weather information. Meteorologists
are usually more than willing to assist in an investigation and typically
accommodate investigators quickly and precisely. Several temperature readings
that should be taken while processing the death scene are

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1. Ambient air temperature recorded by readings taken at 1 ft and 4 ft (0.3 to 1.3

m) heights in close proximity to the body

2. Ground surface temperatures obtained by placing a thermometer on the ground

on top of surface ground cover (e.g., leaves)

3. Body surface temperatures obtained by placing a thermometer on the upper

surface of the body

4. Under-body interface temperatures obtained by sliding the thermometer

between the body and the ground surface

5.Maggot mass temperatures obtained by inserting the thermometer into the

center of the maggot mass

6. Soil temperatures taken immediately following body removal at a ground point

that was under the remains prior to removal Soil temperatures also should be
taken at a second point 3 to 6 ft (1 to 2 m) from where the body lay .

These should be recorded from three levels: directly under any ground cover
(grass, leaves, etc.), at a soil depth of 4 in (10 cm), and at a soil depth of 8 in (20
cm). (Note: the direct rays of the sun should not be allowed to shine on the
thermometer-sensing element. Radiant heat from the sun will cause readings far
in excess of the true environmental temperatures. Always shade the thermometer
from direct sunlight when taking temperature data.

Collection of Specimens Before Body Removal

Proper collection and preservation techniques, specimen labeling, and data

recording are necessary for entomological data to be accurately evaluated and
accepted by the criminal justice system. Accurate entomological data are essential
for entry into the court record. On occasion, opposing attorneys have had
opportunities to attack the expert entomologist when well-meaning evidence

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technicians, untrained in entomological recovery techniques, have omitted steps

in the sequence of collection and documentation.

Fig shows the image of ne for insect trap

To avoid such criticism, it is important to complete a thorough collection with

supporting documentation regardless of the circumstances of the scene. An aerial
insect net is very useful during this stage of the entomological investigation for
collecting fast flying and fast crawling adult insects. If flying insects are present
over the body, the aerial sweeping technique for collecting can be employed.
Flying insects associated with carrion are strong, fast fliers, thus netting of
specimens requires some experience and practice. Appropriate netting techniques
use several rapid, back and forth sweeping motions of the net (6 to 10 sweeps)
with reversal of the opening of the net 180° on each pass. On the last pass, the
opened portion of the net is brought up to about chest level with rotation of the
opening 180° This causes the netting material to be folded over the top edge of
the large net ring opening, thus trapping the insects in the net bag.

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Fig shows the image of net with killing jar

Another technique that can be employed to collect flying insects is to hold the
tail of the net up and approach the insects from above with a swatting motion The
natural escape behaviour of the insect will cause them to fly up and into the net.
With either technique, the insects can be easily confined in the end of the net. The
end of the net, with insects inside, then can be placed into a wide-mouth killing
jar, which is then capped. The killing jar should contain either gypsum cement
(plaster of Paris) or a few cotton balls soaked with fresh ethyl acetate . This will
kill the insects after a few minutes (2 to 5 min is usually adequate). Following
immobilization, the insects can be transferred into vials of 75% ethyl alcohol
(ETOH) by placing small funnel into the vial and carefully dumping the contents
of the net into the funnel. The insects also can be placed directly into alcohol by
holding the end of the net up and reaching under the wire hoop and into the net
with an alcohol vial and gently tapping the insect into the vial.

Collection of Specimens After Body Removal

In cases where bodies are outdoors and heavily infested, many

insect adults, larvae, and puparia (as well as other arthropods) will remain on the
ground after the body is removed. The procedures described above should be
followed for each of the different insect stages seen following removal of the
body. A number of specimens of each immature stage should be collected and

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preserved, while a second sample should be collected alive for rearing. Litter
samples (e.g., leaves, grass, bark, and humus) or any material on the ground
surface close to or under the remains should be collected and labelled. Many
carrion feeding insects will shelter or hide in this material close to the body, and
this should be thoroughly examined for additional faunal evidence. Collect
handfuls of the litter down to the exposed soil, particularly litter in close
proximity to the ground surface. This material can be placed into 2-qt cardboard
or plastic containers for subsequent examination in the laboratory, or this can be
examined at the scene if sifting and screening can be conducted properly on site.
Soil samples may yield insect specimens as well as provide samples for
biochemical assay of decomposition fluids. Soil samples should be approximately
4-in. cubes or cylindrical cores (100 cc) of material from areas associated with
different body regions (head, torso, and extremities). Soil samples of this size fit
well into 2 pt (1 l) or slightly larger cardboard (cylindrical ice cream type) or
plastic containers. Soil samples (approximately six total) should be taken from
under, adjacent to, and up to 3 ft (l m) from the body, noting the origin of each
sample in reference to the position of the body. These samples should be labelled
according to the technique described for the insect vials.

Collection of Entomological Specimens During Autopsy

It is best for someone experienced in collecting insect evidence to be involved at

each step of the investigation if the full potential of forensic entomology is to be
realized. Ideally, the forensic entomologist should be present during each autopsy
involving the collection of entomological evidence. Such collection is done in
conjunction with the forensic pathologist performing the autopsy. The forensic
entomologist should tell the pathologist the proper entomological evidence
collection needs. This will preclude any later problems with the validity of
evidence and prevent postmortem artifacts on the body. However, if
circumstances prevent the presence of a forensic entomologist at autopsy, the

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medical examiner or coroner should be able to gather the necessary entomological

evidence by following the appropriate collection procedures. If unable to attend
autopsy proceedings, the forensic entomologist should provide telephone advice
and direction to those tasked with specimen collection and preservation. If a
certain insect life stage critical to a determination is not found during the autopsy,
the investigator or entomologist should return to the scene in an effort to recover
or confirm the absence of the missing insect life stage. Most likely the remains
will be enclosed in a zippered plastic “body bag” when it arrives from the death
scene, particularly if the remains are in a state of advanced decomposition. In
cases where the body is heavily infested with insects, the outer surface of the body
bag may have larvae or adults. This evidence should not be overlooked; these
insects should be collected and labelled using procedures described previously.
Once the body bag is opened, the inner surfaces of the bag should be examined
for insects that may have crawled from the body due to changes in temperatures
or physical disturbance. The forensic entomologist should collect and label these
insects with notations as to which area of the body (head, torso, and extremities)
the insects were near.

After the remains have been taken from the body bag and placed on the autopsy
table, an external examination is made. The entomologist and the pathologist can
assist one another in the collection of evidence at this stage of the autopsy. If the
body is clothed, a complete and detailed examination of the clothing is essential
and may yield a variety of stages and kinds of insects. Folds in the clothing where
eggs, larvae, puparia, or adults may be sheltering should be gently opened. Moist
patches on clothing are excellent areas to search. Seeds and other plant materials
should be collected at this time for analysis by a forensic botanist. In addition to
the plant evidence, certain life stages of insects may be found in stems or seeds
of plants that may give clues as to habitat, time, or geographic aspects in the case.

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REFERENCES

1. Jason, James (2009) Forensic Entamology: the utility of arthropods I legal

investigations, cc press
2. Dorothy E Gennard (2007) Forensic Entamology, john wiley&sons Ltd.
3. T V Prasad (2009) Handbook of Entamology, fourth edition- new Vishal
publication.

THANKYOU

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