TCE 312: HYDRAULICS Group 4
Pipe Systems and Network Analysis
OUTLINE
• Pipe in Series and Parallel
• Reservoir/Pipe Combinations
• Hardy Cross Method for Pipe Network Flow Analysis
• Measurement Techniques for Flow in Pipes and Open Channels
Pipes in Series
• Key Concepts
• 1. Continuity of Flow: The discharge (Q) remains the same throughout all pipes
in series.
• 2. Head Loss Calculation: The total head loss is the sum of individual losses in
each pipe.
• 3. Darcy-Weisbach Equation: Used to determine frictional losses:
hf = (fLV2)/(2gD)
where:
hf = head loss due to friction f = friction factor L = length of pipe
D = diameter of pipe V = velocity of flow
g = acceleration due to gravity
Steps to Solve Problems
• 1. Identify Given Data: Pipe lengths, diameters, flow rate.
• 2. Calculate Velocity: Using the continuity equation ( Q = AV ).
• 3. Compute Head Loss for Each Pipe: Apply the Darcy-Weisbach equation.
• 4. Sum Up Head Losses: The total head loss is the sum of all individual losses.
Example:
A pipeline consists of two pipes in series:
Pipe 1: Length = 50 m, Diameter = 0.2 m, Friction factor = 0.02
Pipe 2: Length = 30 m, Diameter = 0.15 m, Friction factor = 0.025
Flow rate: 0.05 m³/s Acceleration due to gravity: 9.81 m/s²
Pipes in Parallel
Pipes in a parallel connection are arranged in such a way that a starting pipe
branches into other number of pipes (3,4,5……).
The total idea in this is to get the total head loss (Drop of energy/pressure in pipes/
ducts as fluid flows from segment to segment) in pipes in parallel connections.
In the case of pipes in parallel as shown in the image above:
• The head loss/ total head loss in the pipe in parallel is the same as head los in
any other pipe connected parallel between the same two points.(the starting
point of any pipe and its end point)
• Total discharge (Q) is equal to sum of discharge through all the pipes in
parallel.
Just like in electricity where in connection of resistors in parallel:
• Voltage is the same in all resistors (we can relate it to head loss for pipes in
parallel)
• Current is the sum of individual currents in all the pipes ( can be related to
discharge for pipes in parallel)
Example : The main pipe divides into two parallel pipes which again forms
one pipe as shown in Fig. 12-19. The data is as follows:
• First parallel pipe: Length = 1000 m, diameter = 0.8 m Second parallel pipe:
Length = 1000 m, diameter = 0.6 m
• Co-efficient of friction for each parallel pipe = 0.005
• If the total rate of flow in the main is 2m³/s find the rate of flow in each
parallel pipe
• Rate of flow in each pipe:
• Let, Q1 = Rate of flow in pipe 1, Q2 = Rate of flow in pipe 2, and
Q = Total rate of flow (in main line)
Reservoir/Pipe Combinations
• Reservoir/pipe systems involve the movement of fluid driven by gravity or
pressure head from a large storage (reservoir) through a conduit (pipe). The
reservoir typically maintains a constant surface elevation, thus providing a
consistent head.
• The main analysis tools include Bernoulli's equation and the Darcy-Weisbach
equation. These allow determination of the velocity and discharge based on
energy losses due to friction. The velocity of water at the reservoir surface is
often negligible due to the large surface area.
• In long pipes, frictional loss becomes the dominant factor. When pipes are
arranged in series, the head losses are additive, but the discharge remains
constant. In parallel arrangements, head loss is the same in each pipe, but
discharge divides between them.
Typical losses considered:
• Entrance loss: minor loss as water enters the pipe
• Frictional loss: major component, calculated by Darcy-Weisbach
• Exit loss: occurs at the pipe's outlet
• Energy Consideration and Head Loss
• The energy in reservoir-pipe systems is primarily governed by gravitational
potential energy. Bernoulli's principle explains the transformation of
potential energy into kinetic energy and frictional loss.
• Darcy-Weisbach equation: H= hf = f · (L/D) · (v² / 2g)
• Worked Example 1: Single Horizontal Pipe
• Example 1: Flow Through a Single Horizontal Pipe
• A large open reservoir is connected to a horizontal pipe 100 meters long and
0.1 meters in diameter. The water level in the reservoir is 10 meters above
the centerline of the pipe outlet. Assuming the pipe discharges freely and the
friction factor f is 0.02, calculate the velocity of flow and the discharge from
the pipe.
• Solution:
• Given:
• Length of pipe, L = 100 m Diameter of pipe, D = 0.1 m
• Elevation head, H = 10 m Friction factor, f = 0.02
• Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/s²
Using the energy equation (Bernoulli's equation from the surface of the
reservoir to the pipe outlet), ignoring velocity head at the surface and assuming
zero pressure at the outlet:
• hf =f · (L/D) · (v² / 2g)
• Substitute known values:
• 10 = 0.02 * (100 / 0.1) * (v² / (2 * 9.81))
• 10 = 20 * (v² / 19.62)
• Multiply both sides:
• 10 * 19.62 = 20 * v²
• 196.2 = 20 * v²
• v² = 196.2 / 20 = 9.81
• v = sqrt(9.81) approximately 3.13 m/s
• Cross-sectional area of pipe:
• A = (pi * D²) / 4 = (3.1416 * 0.1²) / 4 = 0.00785 m²
• Discharge:
• Q = A * v = 0.00785 * 3.13 approximately 0.0246 m³/s = 24.6 L/s
Worked Example 2: Series Pipes
Example 2: Series Pipes with Different Diameters
A reservoir feeds water through two pipes in series. The first pipe is 60 meters
long and has a diameter of 0.1 m, and the second pipe is 40 meters long with a
diameter of 0.08 m. The total elevation difference between the reservoir surface
and the pipe outlet is 15 meters. Friction factor f is 0.02 for both pipes.
Calculate the velocity and total discharge.
• Solution:
• Let v be the velocity through both pipes (since they are in series).
• Total head loss: H= hf = f · (L1/D1 + L2/D2) · (v² / 2g)
• Given:
• L1 = 60 m, D1 = 0.1 m
• L2 = 40 m, D2 = 0.08 m
• H = 15 m, f = 0.02, g = 9.81 m/s²
• H = 0.02 * (60/0.1 + 40/0.08) * (v² / 2*9.81) H = 0.02 * (600 + 500) * (v² /
19.62)
• H = 22 * (v² / 19.62)
• Now solve:
• 15 = 22 * (v² / 19.62)
• 15 * 19.62 = 22 * v²
• 294.3 = 22 * v²
• v² = 294.3 / 22 approximately 13.38
• v = sqrt(13.38) approximately 3.66 m/s
• Use smaller pipe (D = 0.08 m) to calculate Q:
• A = (pi * D²) / 4 = (3.1416 * 0.08²) / 4 = 0.0050 m²
• Q = A * v = 0.0050 * 3.66 approximately 0.0183 m³/s = 18.3 L/s
• Applied Concepts and Systems (Part 1)
• In a system with multiple pipes in parallel, flow divides based on resistance
in each branch. For parallel systems, the total head loss is equal across
branches.
• Q_total = Q1 + Q2 ... and hf1 = hf2 = ...
• This allows engineers to design systems that can optimize flow efficiency
across multiple paths.
• Applied Concepts and Systems (Part 2)
• Combining reservoir hydraulics with pipe friction allows engineers to
determine optimal sizing and flow configurations. Accurate analysis includes
consideration of entrance and exit losses, which though small, may be critical
in low-head systems.
Reservoirs and Pipe Systems in
Hydraulics
• Reservoirs: Large tanks that store water at constant head; pressure at water
surface is atmospheric.
• Purpose of Pipes:Convey water between reservoirs or to outlets using
gravity.
• Factors Influencing Flow:
1. Elevation difference (ΔH)
2. Friction factor (f) and pipe roughness
3. Pipe Length (L) and diamter (D)
4.Minor losses (bends, valves, entrance)
Head Losses and Pipe Combinations
Major Head Loss (Friction):
hf = f · (L/D) · (v² / 2g)
Minor Head Loss:
hm = K · (v² / 2g)
Total Head Loss:
H = hf + Σhm
Pipe Combinations
• Series: H = Σhfi
• Parallel: same head loss across all paths, total Q is sum of individual flows
Solved Example
• Problem: Water flows from Reservoir A to B through a 100 m pipe (D = 0.2
m).
ΔH = 10 m, f = 0.02. No minor losses. Find Q.
Solution:
1. 10 = f · (L/D) · (v² / 2g)
2. Plug values: 10 = 0.02 · (100/0.2) · (v² / 19.62) v=4.43 m³/s
3. Q = (πD²/4) · v ≈ 0.14 m³/s
Hardy Cross Method for Pipe Network
Flow Analysis
• The earliest systematic method of network analysis (Hardy Cross Method) is
known as the head balance or closed loop method.
• This method is applicable to system in which pipes form closed loops. The
outflows from the system are generally assumed to occur at the nodes
junction.
• For a given pipe system with known outflows, the Hardy Cross method is an
iterative procedure based on initially iterated flows in pipes.
• At each junction these flows must satisfy the continuity criterion, i.e. the
algebraic sum of the flow rates in the pipe meeting at a junction, together
with any external flows is zero.
• The method is based on
• Continuity Equation
Inflow=Outflow at nodes
• Energy Equation
Summation of head loss in closed loop is zero
Hardy Cross Method
An example will be solved in class.
Measurement Techniques for Flow in
Pipes and Open Channels
Measurement Techniques For Flow In Pipes
A Pipe system: Is the connection of multiple pipes of different sizes in different
ways
Network analysis: Is how fluid flows in a pipe system using calculations and
measurement for efficient flow
Areas: where Network Analysis is Done
Nodes (Junctions): Where two or more pipes meet.
Branches (Pipes): Between nodes or between node and reservoir/pump.
Loops/Circuits: Closed paths in the network.
Why Network Analysis is Done in These Areas:
To ensure conservation of mass at each node (inflow = outflow).
To verify pressure/head distribution across branches.
To identify flow imbalances, leaks, or faulty meter readings.
To optimize pipe sizing and pump operation.
To support methods like Hardy Cross by validating flow assumptions.
Measurement Techniques Commonly Used for flow in pipes:
• Venturi Meters
• Orifice Meters
• Ultrasonic Flow Meters
• Magnetic Flow Meters
Example: Venturi meter used to validate flow rate in a pipe
A horizontal Venturi Meter is installed in a 5-cm-diameter horizontal water pipe
to measure the flow rate. The diameter at the throat is 2.5 cm. The pressure
difference between the inlet and the throat is measured as 5000 Pa.
A Hardy cross method previously estimated the flow in this pipe to be 0.06m³/s.
Calculate the flow discrepancy.
Given:
• Pipe diameter 𝐷1 = 0.05 m
• Throat diameter 𝐷2 = 0.025 m
• Pressure difference Δ𝑃 = 5,000 Pa
• Water density 𝜌 = 1000 kg/m3
• Coefficient of discharge 𝐶𝑑 = 0.98
• Step 1: Calculate Flow rate using Venturi Formula:
• Step 2: Flow discrepancy:
Measurement Techniques for Flow in
Pipes and Open Channels
Open Channel Flow Measurement Techniques
There are several methods to measure flow rates in open channels, each with its
advantages and limitations:
• 1. Timed Gravimetric Flow Measurement
• Method: Collecting flow stream in a container, weighing, and calculating
flow rate.
• Limitations: Suitable for small streams, snapshot measurement.
• Accuracy: Simple and effective for small streams.
• 2. Tracer-Dilution Method
• Method: Adding tracer, measuring dilution downstream.
• Advantages: No need for channel geometry measurement, suitable for
turbulent streams.
• Limitations: Requires specialized equipment, relatively expensive, variable
accuracy.
• 3. Area-Velocity Method
• Method: Measuring velocity and cross-sectional area.
• Calculation: Flow rate = Velocity x Area.
• Limitations: Measurement error +/- 10% in laboratory conditions.
• 4. Manning's Equation
• Method: Estimating average velocity using hydraulic radius, roughness
coefficient, and channel slope.
• Applications: Natural channels, impractical for hydraulic structures.
• Limitations: Determining roughness coefficient challenging, accuracy +/- 25-
30%.
• 5. Hydraulic Structures
• Types: Flumes and weirs.
• Measurement: Primary device (hydraulic structure), secondary device (flow
meter).
• Accuracy: Laboratory accuracy varies, field conditions +/- 10%.
Each method has its strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of technique
depends on the specific application, stream characteristics, and desired level of
accuracy.
