BRIDGE SUBSTRUCTURE AND FOUNDATION

INTRODUCTION :

The ' substructure ' and ' foundation ' are generally known to be as the ' better half ' of a
bridge structure. This arises from the fact that in a number of cases the substructure
and foundation prove to be more expensive than the superstructure especially in case
of bridges over major rivers where foundations are very deep and the function of the
superstructure carrying the design loads safely depends on the support given by the
foundation.

Even though the foundations are not seen by people in general or by those using the
bridges but great expertise goes into the design and construction of these in varied soil
types, deep waters, marine clays, turbulent flowing rivers, etc. The foundations
sometimes reach depths as much as 100m below the bed. Foundations are very
important part of the bridge and the strata on which they are founded has to be
unyielding and capable of sustaining the loads. The bridge piers and foundations are
required to sustain various loads due to traffic, wind, temperature, differential
settlement, seismic forces, etc.The protection of the substructure and foundation is also
of utmost importance to ensure the safety of the bridge against the scour of the bed due
to water current.

The bridge superstructure cannot be conceived in isolation but is required to be

visualized as an integral part of superstructure, structurally as well as architecturally.
They are required not only to be engineered to withstand the multitude of loads but also
are required to be carefully architecture to blend or harmonize with the surroundings
from aesthetic point of view. Thus an integral design approach is required to achieve an
architecturally pleasing structure without compromising on the structural integrity and
economy.

 Abutments :

There are two basic types of abutments ; open type or spill through type and closed
type or non-spill through type.

Open type abutments are more economical than closed type since they allow the back
fill to spill out in between their columns thereby reducing the active earth pressure. But
due to this very reason, the backfill may settle down, should it be washed through under
heavy rains. In such a case of deep curtain wall should be provided extending
downward from the abutment cap, for at least 1.5 m, below the spill line.

 Piers or Bents :
The term `Pier' pertains to an intermediate substructure unit between the abutment. A
bent is a pier consisting of one or more columns, in the substructure, unit with or without
cap.

Pile Bents :

Type are economical but are suitable for stream crossing where floating debris is
minimal. They may be competitive in placed waters and in dry beds, where soil is poor
and footings laid at shallower depths might settle. The preferable minimum width of cap
is 75 cm.

Pile bents are unsightly for bridges 6 m or more in height and unsuitable if scour is
significant.

Solid Piers : They are located in streams where floating debris and rolling bounders
accompany the last current. They are preferably for long spans, and may be supported
on spread footings, pile foundations or caissons, as appropriate. A pier wall should have
a low thickness/height ratio, but should not be less than 30 cm thick. This is the
minimum thickness that should be used with two planes of reinforcing steel.

Multicolumn Bents and Multi Columns. :

They generally support dry land structures. They normally replace pile bents when
spread footings are recommended. They may be supported on either spread footings or
pile foundations. Columns may be circular rectangular or variable in section to provide
architectural effect.

The thickness/height ratio of normal height uniform section columns should be in a

range of 1/12 to 1/15 for appearance as well as structural reasons. Unnecessarily thick
columns can invite high temperature and shrinkage stresses and very slender ones will
require buckling analysis.

Single Column Bents and Single Columns.

They can sometimes be used to avoid skewed piers. They are adapted to viaducts over
city streets where the location of the column may be restricted.

 Foundations :

Footings are appropriate where scour is low and soil bearing capacity is enough not to
create settlement problems, or if rock is available at a shallow depth. In any case, if
subsoil water is encountered footings are feasible only if dewatering is possible.
Otherwise piles are preferable, which enables transferring the loads directly to lower
and firmer substrata, without requiring dewatering. These are costlier than footings, in
 general. However, in case of deep scour, rolling bounders, floating debris and strong
current, the (generally costlier) caissons become necessary. Caissons are relatively
massive and generally suit spans not less than 25 m preferably longer.

CHOICE OF TYPE OF FOUNDATION

The choice of foundation for the bridges depends upon the conditions of soil. Cost of
sub-structure increases with the depth of foundation. Similarly, the cost of
superstructure per unit length also increases with the span length. Hence the decision
on span lengths to depend upon the ratio of the cost of substructure including the
foundation versus the cost of superstructure i.e. the girder and the deck and it can be
found that it is most economical when the ratio is one. There may be cases where
though the cost of foundations may be more than the cost of superstructure practical
difficulties in sinking the foundation and limitations may require a reconsideration for the
reduction of the total number of foundations. Navigational considerations also will have
an influence upon the span. The choice of span has to be suitably made taking all these
into consideration.

Foundations can be broadly classified as :

(I) open foundations;

(ii) pile foundations; and

(iii) well foundations.

Open foundations are suitable for small bridges and bridges which re sited in a location
where rock or firm founding soil is available at a shallow depth and, at the same time,
the scour in the river is not considerable. The next choice, from considerations of
economy, are the pile foundation which are again more suitable for being used in
cohesive soils and beds subject to minimum scour. Well foundations have been more
popularly used in India in view of the expertise available particularly for major and
important bridges.

GENERAL DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN OF SUBSTRUCTURE OF A

BRIDGE :

I. First of all compute the dead load reaction due to the superstructure and
superimposed dead load along with the maximum and minimum live load reactions
coming on the pier or abutment under consideration. Apart from this also compute the
corresponding moments caused due to these loads about the longitudinal as well as the
 transverse directions or axis of the bridge. For this the critical case is the maximum
possible eccentric transfer of these dead and live load reactions along with the braking
and temperature forces, etc. to the foundation base.
II. Compute the total vertical reaction at the base of the foundation or at the soft of
the pile cap in case of pile foundation under maximum, minimum and no live load
conditions, taking into account the upward force due to the effect of buoyancy equal to
50% or 100% weight of water in volume equal to that of the submerged mass. This
value is 100% in case of saturated soil and fissured, weathered or weak rock and 50%
in case of good rock.
III. Compute the total moment about the bridge's longitudinal axis and the horizontal
force in the transverse direction, at various levels and more importantly at the base of
the foundation due to possible eccentricity of live and dead loads, force due to water
current and afflux, if any.
IV. Compute the total moment about the bridge's transverse axis and the horizontal
force in the longitudinal direction, at various levels and more importantly at the base of
the foundation due to possible eccentricity of live and dead loads, force due to braking
and temperature, water current and afflux, if any.The force due to braking can be
calculated depending upon the following cases : ( i ) In case of simply supported
spans on rocker / roller bearings, braking force due to live load on one complete span
may be assumed to go to its rocker bearing only such that the corresponding foundation
under it will resist force either equal to braking - temperature or half of braking +
temperature, the latter case being critical for usually an abutment or a pier supporting
unequal spans. ( ii ) In case of simply supported spans with identical neoprene or
elastomeric bearings under each of an individual span, the foundation will resist the sum
of half of the value of braking force due to live loads on each of the two spans supported
by it and the horizontal temperature force equal to the difference of the product of the
shear rating of the neoprene bearings and the deck movements above them for left and
right hand side spans respectively. ( iii ) In case of continuous bridge structures the
horizontal force being resisted by the bearings depends upon the arrangement and type
of bearings chosen and is case specific.
V. Compute the wind force in the transverse direction acting on the exposed area of
the bridge deck and substructure above the lowest bed level . This force is calculated
with and without the live loading on the bridge deck. Usually it is sufficient to consider
wind on the deck surface area between its soffit and top of the solid parapet or crash
barrier, and that of the body of the live load at the given rate as per codal
recommendations. Similarly for no live load condition the rate specified by the code is
considered. In certain cases the wind force strikes the bridge structure obliquely. In
such a case a combination of simultaneously acting wind forces acting in the transverse
and longitudinal directions is considered as per codal specifications.
VI. Compute ( i ) the static equivalent of the horizontal seismic force depending upon
the mass of the structure above the earth embedment level which is the maximum scour
level in case of hydraulic bridges. The seismic forces are based on the full weight
including the submerged portions as long as they are above the embedment
 level. ( ii ) The seismic force on a mass can be taken as a certain fraction of its weight,
acting through its centroid. This fraction varies depending upon the bridge site being in
a severe seismic zone to a non - seismic area as per recommendations of the code.
Apart from this a vertical seismic force acting in the upward or downward direction and
equal to half of the above mentioned force. This vertical force becomes critical in cases
where values of maximum and minimum base pressures are critical. ( iii ) In case of
seismic force acting in the transverse direction, the live load seismic effect is assumed
to be acting at 1.2m above the formation level and that due to the dead load of the deck
and superimposed dead load at the deck centroid level. ( iv ) In case the seismic force
is in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the bridge, then the seismic effect due to live
load is to be ignored since the braking force is already being considered and any further
longitudinal force on the live load will only cause skidding of the wheels.
VII. Estimate the `active' earth pressure force and moment (at various levels and at
the base of foundation) on account of the earthfill retained upto foundation base in case
of founding strata being soil or upto rock level in case of rocky founding strata. Passive
relief from the front fill is generally to be ignored, but if it is well protected then it may be
considered depending upto the actual conditions in situ (but accounting for the negative
surcharge angle effect if sloping downwards). In case of wells where the foundation is
usually taken down well into permanent and unexcavated soil (e.g. a caisson taken
below the maximum scour level), estimate and take into account the net `passive less
active' earth pressure relief ( force and moment) as a result of the soil grip.
VIII. Compute the net vertical load, the net horizontal forces in the longitudinal and
transverse directions and the net moments about these two directions, at the base of
the foundation (at soffit of pile cap in the case of piles) under each critical load
combination. Apart from the pile foundations, calculate the base pressures and the
safety factors for stability against overturning and sliding and ensure that the
requirements are satisfied. In case one of the parameters is not satisfied, then redesign
by taking a new set of dimensions.
IX. In case of piled foundations estimate the maximum and minimum axial loads in
the piles by the using rivet-group approach. Ensure that no pile is in tension unless
tension-piles are provided. Ensure the structural design of the pile-section for the
vertical loads and moments combinations on it. Check for the adequacy of soil
resistance around an individual pile, the block failure and group action of the pile group.
X. After satisfying the stability requirements of the foundation, calculate the vertical
load and moments at various intermediate critical sections (including at the maximum
bending moment section in a caisson) in the foundation structure (this includes whole
pier/abutment structure), and then structurally design these sections. Also design
various other structural components of the foundations structure, taking into account the
respective critical load combinations for these components.
XI. Estimate the vertical loads on each bearing under various load combinations,
alongwith the co-existing longitudinal and transverse horizontal forces and rotations.
Design the bearings for these effects. Use may be made of the standard manufacturers'
catalogues for certain standard bearings.
TYPES OF PIERS AND THEIR DESIGN ASPECTS

Open Piers : They are classified as :

1. Multiple bent or multiple column

2. Pile bent
3. Cylindrical piers
4. Trestle piers.

1. Multiple Bent : They are often used on ground.The section of wall at the bottom
may or may not be used. It is needed in overpass work where traffic runs parallel close
to the bent to reduce damage to the columns in case of accident. It is lighter and may
be more economical than the solid pier; but it requires more formwork and material.
2. Pile Bent : The pile bent is used for low piers over unstable ground. They consist
of reinforced concrete or steel piles driven into the ground, provided with a capping at
their top to support the main girders. They are laterally connected by reinforced
concrete or steel braces. The pile is used both for a support by driving to resistance and
for a column by projecting above ground. The outside piles are usually battereed.
3. Cylindrical Piers : They consist of mild steel or cast iron cylinders which are filled
with concrete. When cylinders are used apart and suitable bracing is provided.
4. Trestle Piers : They are used for temporary work and for timber work. They are
made up of RCC or steel vertical, horizontal and diagonal members. The connections in
steel trestle may be either reivetted or welded.RCC trestle type pier consists of circular
columns with a bent cap at the top. In order to avoid moments being transferred from
deck to the columns concrete hinges are introduced between the top of the columns
and the bent cap. In case of fly overs and elevated roads where trestle piers are used, it
is desirable to provide connecting diaphragms between the column.

The following are some of the special piers :

1. Separate piers
2. Abutment piers
3. Cellular piers
4. Framed piers

1. Separate piers : They are sometimes used for high bridges. These may be low
piers with steel columns above on concrete piers upto the bridge level. In water, they
may be combined with a solid shaft below upto flood water level. They may have the
advantage of lower cost than solid shafts.
2. Abutment Piers : In the case of multiple span arch bridges, every third or fourth
pier is designed as an abutment to receive the thrust from either side. Such a pier is
 thicker in section and is known as abutment pier. The object of the abutment pier is
listed below :

i. The arches can be turned in sets, and thus heavy expenditure in centering is
saved
ii. In the event of damage, occurring to any portion of the bridge due to floods, the
same will probably not extend further than the next abutment.

3. Cellular Piers. The cellular piers consists of two concentric RCC Shells
connected by radial ribs and horizontal bands at suitable intervals. The intermediate
space between the shell is filled with some filler material. This will result in saving of
cement concrete which is a costly material. This type of piers usually require difficult
shuttering and additional labour in placing reinforcements.
4. Framed Piers : This type of piers result in reduced effective span length for
girders on ether side of the centre line of the pier leading to economy,y in the cost of
superstructure. In this type of design two expansion joints at close intervals to 1 to 2 m
are provided which results in uneven surface and maintenance problems. Such type of
piers if used in rivers subjected to sudden floods near hills and forests would be
subjected to floating debris e.g. floating tree trunk etc.

Design of Piers :

The following loads and forces are taken into account :

 Dead weight of the Pier

 End reactions due to dead and live loads of superstructure : These reactions will
cause an eccentricity when one span only is loaded. Also some end details are
so standardized as to dimension that eccentricity which may be caused by
difference in span lengths.
 Impact forces due to floating debris and live load for the top 3 m of the pier only.
 Wind pressure acting on the superstructure, moving loads and the pier.
 Centrifugal forces in the event of a road bridge situated on a curve.
 Longitudinal forces arising either due to tractive effort caused through
acceleration of the vehicle or braking effect are resulting from the application of
the brakes and due to friction at bearings.
 Water pressure
 Earthquake forces in the event of bridge located in seismic zone.
 Buoyancy effect of submerged part of substructure.

The magnitude of the above forces can be determined as per IRC Standard
specifications and code of practice section II.

Bridge spanning across a tidal river or an estuary, are subjected to an additional

hydrodynamic forces due to wave action. The wave motion is essentially an unsteady
fluid flow. The fluid particles are subjected to not only a velocity in the horizontal and
vertical directions but also to acceleration in these directions. Thus, the fluid particles
velocity and acceleration induce a horizontal drag force and an inertial force.The forces
developed in the vertical direction are insignificant because of the piers are normally
rigidly fixed at the bottom.

Stability of Bridge piers :

Bridge piers are considered stable if they satisfy the following conditions :

1. Al the components parts of the pier must be sufficiently strong to resist bending
moments and shearing forces.
2. The pier should be stable against sliding downstream and sliding parallel to the
axis of the bridge.
3. The pier must not be turned over about the downstream toe and also in the
direction of the axis of the bridge.
4. Under the worst combinations of all loads and forces, no tension should be
permitted under the foundations, and the maximum pressure should not exceed the
safe bearing capacity of the soil.

Design of Abutments :

They are the end supports of the superstructure, retaining earth on their back. They are
built either with masonry stone or brick work or ordinary mass concrete or reinforced
concert. The top surface of the abutment is made flat when the superstructure is of
trusses or girders or semi circular arch. In case of segmental or elliptical arch type of
superstructure, the abutment top is made skew. Weepholes are provided at different
levels through the body of the abutment to drain off the retained earth.

The salient features of bridge abutments are listed below :

a. Height : The height of the abutment is kept equal to that of the piers.
b. Abutment Batter : The water face of the abutment is usually kept vertical or could
be given a batter of 1 in 12 1 in 24 as for piers. The face retaining earth is given a batter
of 1 in 6 or may be stepped down.
c. Abutment Width : The top width of the abutment should provide enough space for
the bridge seat and for the construction of a dwarf wall to retain earth up to the
approach level.
d. Length of Abutment : The length of abutment is kept at least equal to the width of
the bridge.
e. Abutment Cap : The design is similar to that of pier cap.
Abutments can be spill through or closed. The spillthrough abutment generally has a
substantial berm to help restrain embankment settlement at the approach of the
structure. Approach embankment settlement can also be accommodated by approach
slabs to eliminate bumps at the bridge ends. Closed abutments partially or completely
retain the approach embankments from the spillingunder the span. Bridges or several
spans require expansion at the abutments.Therefore, they are not usually required to
resist the longitudinal forces that develop. In general, the loads applied to abutments
are the vertical reactions, the lateral earth pressure and an accompanying surcharge
effect. Sometimes the friction or shear force produced by expansion bearings is
significant and worthy of consideration and can have an additive effect on the earth
pressure and surface forces.

Broadly abutments are classified under the following two categories :

1. Abutments with wing walls

2. Abutments without wing walls.

 Abutments with wing walls :

In this category, the abutments are provided with wing walls which may be :

a. Straight wing walls or

b. Splayed wing walls, or
c. Return wing walls.

The details of a standard gravity abutment with wing walls. In this type of abutment the
wing walls can be either straight or splayed. The abutments wing splayed; with walls are
used across a river to provide smooth entry and exist for the water. The wing walls not
only withstand the earth pressure but also the impact of live load over them.The
abutments with return wing walls are known as U abutments. In this type the abutment
is extended at right angles on both the ends to some distance to protect earth work.
These are used where banks are steep and rocky.

The abutments with wing walls suffer from the following disadvantages :

a. They tend to restrict the flood prism andhence increase score and r aise
upstream flood level.
b. The scour may require deeper foundations
c. Foundations may have to be built-in the wet. These types are indicated for small
heights. Special attention must be paid to the junction of the wing and abutments walls
to prevent cracks.

 Abutments without wing walls :

In this category, the following types of abutments are in general use :

a. Buried abutments
b. Box abutments
c. Tee abutments
d. Arch abutments

a. Buried Abutments : This type of abutment is generally built prior to the placing
of the fill. Since it is filled on both sides the earth pressure is low. Superstructure
erection can begin before placement of fill.
b. Box Abutment : This employs a short span of bridge built integral with columns
to act as a frame and resist earth pressure of the approaches. It is most often used for
overpass work where the short span may be employed for pedestrian passage.
c. Tee Abutments : This type looks like T in plan and has now become obsolete
see.
d. Arch Abutments : This type of abutment is used where arches are employed
because of their economy in certain conditions. The high inclined skewback thrusts are
difficult to handle unless the abutment can be seated in rock.Therefore, they are often
used for span over gorges.

Design of Abutments :

These are designed in a similar manner as piers. Except for the fact that they act as a
retaining structure and are subjected to an additional force i.e. earth pressure. The
magnitude of the earth pressure depends upon the type and moisture content of the
backfill material. Therefore, it is most difficult to assess correctly the magnitude of the
earth pressure. Hence the earth filling behind the abutment merits special attention.
Normally , a porous backfill of about 60 cm thickness should be provided immediately
behind the abutment with 15 cm diameter weepholes placed at suitable intervals with a
gentle slope so as to be 15 cm above normal water level on the vent side to ensure
drainage for the filling material. Impact effect from moving loads is not usually
accounted for since any vibration is supposed to be dissipated through embankment.

The conditions of stability for abutments are similar to the one as described for the
piers. Cares should be taken during abutment design to check the stability of the
abutment structure when loaded with full earth pressure plus live load surcharge without
superstructure dead load reaction. If an unreasonably low factor of safety against
overturning is attained, backfilling should be limited until the superstructure dead load is
in place. In some abutment designs it is advisable to check heel pressure with a
maximum reaction and one half the normal earth pressure. An experienced designer
can look over his design problem and determine whether this additional check is
necessary.