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18
Bridge Engineering
* A bridge is a structure which provides a passage over an obstacle like river, channel, valley or a
road, without closing the way underneath. The passage required may be for pedestrians, roads,
railway or for a pipeline.

18.1 HISTORY OF BRIDGES

* Getting idea from fallen trees and monkeys jumping from one tree to another, the development of
bridge engineering started along with civilization.
* Construction of wooden bridge dates back to 2650 BC in Egypt. India can boast of bridge built
during Ramayana connecting India and Sri Lanka. Masonry bridge construction dates back to 100

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to 500 BC in various parts of the world.

Types of Bridges
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Bridges may be classified on the basis as given below:

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1. Purpose: Road bridges, railway bridges, foot bridges, aqueduct (for carrying canal water).viaduct
(for taking roads across valleys).
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2. Alignment: Square bridge, if it is at right angles to obstacle, skew bridges if it is not at right angles
to obstacle.
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3. Life period: Permanent and temporary. Temporary bridges are built during military operations,
during project execution or in rescue operations.
4. Span: Culverts – if less than 6 m
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Minor bridge – if 8 to 30 m
Major bridge – if 30 to 230 m .ne
Long span bridges – if more than 120 m.
5. Position of high flood level
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Submersible – flow of water above bridge deck level permitted during heavy rains.
Non-submersible – all permanent bridges have deck level above the high flood level.
6. Fixed or movable: Normally, fixed bridges are built but movable bridges are built across
navigational channels so as to avoid obstacles to navigation. Movable bridges may be further
classified as (a) swing bridges (b) lift bridges (c) bascule bridges. In case of bascule bridges
entire superstructure is rotated in vertical plane to 70° to 80° suitable hinges and counterweights
are provided for easy operations.
7. Location of Bridge Floor: Bridge is classified as deck, semi-through or through type depending
upon whether the bridge is on top intermediate or at bottom level of the super- structure.
8. Superstructure: On this basis bridges may be classified as
(a) girder bridge
(b) portal frame bridge Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net
 (c) truss bridge Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

(d) cantilever bridge

(e) arch bridge
(f) suspension bridge.
9. Materials: On this basis bridges may be classified as timber bridges, masonry bridges, R.C.C.
bridges, prestressed concrete bridges and steel bridges.
10. Types of connection: Under this steel bridges are classified as riveted, bolted and welded
bridges.
11. Low cost bridges:
(a) wooden bridges
(b) floating bridges
(c) movable bridges

Terminology
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1. Pier: It is an intermediate support of an multi-span bridge.
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2. Abutment: End supports of the superstructure are known as abutments.

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3. Bed block: It is the block on the top of pier or abutment which receives load from the bearings and
disperses to the pier.

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4. Back fill: The material used to fill the space at the back of abutment is known as back fill. Stone,

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gravel, sand, etc., are used for back filling. It should be well compacted.
5. Kerb: It is the raised portion of the edge of carriageway on both sides. It checks the vehicle going
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out of the carriageway. Width and height of kerbs are 600 mm and 225 mm. The roadside slope of
kerb is 1 in 8 up to a height of 200 mm and the top portion is curved.
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6. Linear waterways: For stream with non-erodible banks it is taken as the distance between banks

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at high flood level. In case of alluvial streams it is determined by Lacey’s formula as L =
where C may vary from 4.5 to 6.3, depending upon local conditions.
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7. Effective linear way: The total width of waterway minus effective width of foundation of piers is
known as effective linear way.
8. Effective span: The centre-to-centre distance between any two adjacent supports is known as
effective span.
9. Economical waterway: If a waterway is kept somewhat in excess of, the scour depth is normal
and hence foundation depth is normal. If waterway is reduced cost of superstructure is reduced
since length of the superstructure is reduced but it may increase scour depth and hence, foundation
depth. Sometimes it may be necessary to provide stone protection in pitching, apron, toe walls,
cut-off walls, etc. Therefore, there is limit beyond which confining a river should not be attempted.
10. Wing walls: They are retaining walls constructed to retain the earthwork of approach
embankment behind the abutments.
11. Curtain wall: The floor provided between masonry walls below river bed is known as curtain
wall.
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12. Bearings: Bearings are the devices From :in
used www.EasyEngineering.net
long span bridges to avoid development of high
stresses in main girders due to temperature changes and deflections.
1. Shallow or fixed plate bearings are suitable for spans up to 12 m.
2. Deep cast base bearings are suitable for spans 12 to 20 m.
3. Rocker bearings are suitable for spans more than 20 m.
4. Sliding plate bearings are provided at one end of the girder of span 12 to 20 m.

18.2 SELECTION OF BRIDGE SITE

* An ideal site for a bridge across a stream/river should have the following characteristics:
1. Stream should be straight.
2. Stream should be narrow with well defined and firm banks.
3. There should not be whirls and cross currents.
4. There should be high banks above high flood level on each side.
5. The site should be at reasonable proximity to the direct alignment of road.
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6. The site should be geologically sound.

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7. As far as possible it should not need river training works and avoid excessive under water
construction works.

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* Preliminary survey is carried out by studying toposheets and walkover survey. Two to three
alternative sites selected and preliminary data about characteristics of the stream, subsoil

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conditions and cost of land acquisition collected. Looking at merits and demerits of all the
alternative sites, the one which satisfies most of the requirements for an ideal site is selected.
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* Detailed survey is then carried out of the selected site which includes.
1. Plane table survey of 200 to 500 m upstream and downstream.
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2. Longitudinal section and cross sections at 50 m interval on upstream and downstream side is
determined.
3. Nature of stream and bed materials noted.
4. Geological data of the site collected. .ne
5. Soil is investigated to determine type of foundation and depth of foundation.
6. Survey of locally available material is carried out.
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7. Traffic survey on the existing and proposed route carried out. They may be straight, splayed or
return type.

Bridge Design
* Width of bridges: It is based on traffic survey. It may be single lane or double lane with pedestrian
platform on only one side or on both side.
* Length of bridge: It depends upon the waterway.
* Height of bridge: It is 1.2 to 1.5 m above HFL.
* Spans: It depends upon the type of superstructure proposed.
Masonry arch : 3 to 15 m
Slab bridges : Upto 9 m
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 Girder and beams : 10 to 60 mDownloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net
Truss bridges : 30 to 375 m with simply supported ends.
Suspension bridges : Over 500 m so for maximum span built in 1990 m
Cable stayed bridges : 300 to 600 m
* Abutments: Commonly used abutments are shown in Fig. 18.1.

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(a) Straight abutment w.E
(b) T-shaped abutment
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(c) Abutment with straight wing walls
(d) Abutment with splayed wing wall
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(e) U-abutment
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* Abutments (a), (b), (c) are not suitable for waterways since water penetrates behind the abutment
and damages embankment.
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* Piers: Depending upon the waterways requirement, and type of superstructure, number of piers are
determined. Types of piers generally used are:
1. Masonry piers .ne
2. R.C.C. piers
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1. Masonry piers May be with brick, stone or plain concrete. In concrete piers richer concrete may
be used for skin and poor concrete for heart. Using plain concrete about 600 mm height may be
built every day. All masonry piers are provided with rich concrete at top to serve as bed block to
receive bearing and distribute load uniformly to the lower portion of pier. Various types of shapes
of piers are used as shown in Fig. 18.2 commonly used pier shape is with end triangular shape
making an angle of 30° to 60° with side.

Fig. 18.2 Masonry piers

2. R.C.C. piers R.C.C. piers of various shapes are used. They may be rectangular, dumb-bell type or
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cylindrical. They may be with solid From : www.EasyEngineering.net
diaphragm connecting to portions of dumb-bells or with open
diaphragm. Sometimes steel or R.C.C. trestle bents are also used.
* The forces acting on piers are:
1. Vertical load or inclined reaction from the superstructure
2. Water pressure
(a) Static water pressure
(b) Dynamic pressure due to flow of water
(c) Impact due to cross currents
3. Tractive force
4. Wind pressure
5. Earthquake forces
Foundations
It may be spread foundation, pile foundation or well foundation. The choice of foundation depends
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upon load expected and soil properties.
Superstructures
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Superstructures of various materials and types are designed for the following loads.
1. Dead load asy
2. Live load
3. Impact load En
4. Wind load
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5. Longitudinal forces
6. Temperature stresses eer
7. Seismic forces
8. Erection stresses ing
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9. Horizontal thrust due to water for live loads an road bridges IRC loadings and for rail bridges
the loads specified by the Railway Board may be referred.

Permanent Small Bridges

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Causeways and culverts may be considered permanent small bridges.
1. Causeways It is a submersible bridge, provided across a nullah or stream. These are adopted for
roads which are of minor importance. They do not have foundation, pier or abutment. They are
concrete slabs and stone pitching at bed level or slightly higher level of stream. Causeways may be
classified as:
1. Flush causeway
2. Low level causeway
3. High level causeway
2. Culverts Culvert is a small bridge, the maximum span not exceeding 6 m. It may have 3 to 4 spans.
Types of culverts used are:
1. Pipe culvert Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net
 2. Box culvert Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

3. Slab culvert
4. Beam and slab culvert
5. Arch culvert

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
I. Select the correct choice from the following questions 1 to 34.
1. Generally, a culvert has span less than
(a) 3 m
(b) 6 m
(c) 9 m
(d) 12 m
2. A bridge of span 25 m may be treated as
(a) culvert
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(b) minor bridge
(c) major bridge
(d) long span bridge w.E
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3. A bridge of more than ______ span is treated as long span bridge.
(a) 30 m
(b) 60 m En
(c) 90 m
(d) 120 m gin
4. As far as possible the alignment of a bridge should be eer
(a) square
(b) skew ing
(c) curved .ne
(d) none of the above
5. Temporary bridges are built during
(a) military operations
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(b) project executions
(c) rescue operations
(d) all the above
6. Movable bridges are built across
(a) streams
(b) rivers
(c) channels
(d) dry valley
7. A bascule bridge is a
(a) fixed bridge
(b) movable bridge
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 (c) deck bridge Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

(d) through bridge

8. Which one of the following is not a low cost bridge
(a) wooden bridge
(b) masonry bridge
(c) floating bridge
(d) movable bridge
9. The end supports of a bridge superstructure are known as
(a) wing walls
(b) piers
(c) abutments
(d) bed blocks
10. The floor provided between masonry walls below the river bed is known as

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(a) wing wall
(b) curtain wall
(c) bed block
(d) kerb w.E
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11. Width and height of kerbs on bridges are generally ______ respectively.
(a) 600 mm and 225 mm
(b) 450 mm × 200 mm En
(c) 225 mm × 600 mm
(d) 200 mm × 450 mm gin
12. The roadside slope of kerb is eer
(a) 1 in 5
(b) 1 in 8 ing
(c) 1 in 10
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(d) 1 in 15
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13. In case of alluvial streams linear waterway is determined by Lucey’s formula as L =
is discharge and C is ______ depending upon the local conditions:
where Q

(a) 1.2 to 2.2

(b) 2.4 to 3.5
(c) 3.7 to 4.2
(d) 4.5 to 6.3
14. Which one of the following is not the correct statement? Bridge site
(a) be narrow
(b) should not possess high banks
(c) be at reasonable proximity to the direct alignment of road
(d) be geologically sound
15. Preliminary survey should be carried out to at least ______ distance on upstream and downstream
side
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 (a) 200 to 500 m Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

(b) 500 to 1000 m

(c) 1000 to 1500 m
(d) 1500 to 2000 m
16. In preliminary survey cross sections at ______ interval should be determined.
(a) 20 m
(b) 35 m
(c) 50 m
(d) 65 m
17. Height of bridge is kept ______ above high flood level.
(a) 1.2 to 1.5 m
(b) 1.8 to 2.1 m
(c) 2.2 to 2.5 m

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(d) more than 2.5 m
18. Masonry arch bridges are used to span
(a) less than 3 m
(b) 3 to 15 m w.E
(c) 15 to 20 m
(d) 20 to 30 m asy
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19. Slab bridges are used to a maximum span of
(a) 6 m
(b) 9 m gin
(c) 12 m
(d) 20 m eer
20. The cross section of a pier may be
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(a) rectangular
(b) with triangular edges towards upstream and downstream sides .ne
(c) with curved faces on upstream and downstream sides
(d) all the above t
21. The height of concrete pier may be raised by ______ every day during the construction
(a) 600 mm
(b) 900 mm
(c) 1200 mm
(d) 1500 mm
22. R.C.C. piers of the following shapes are not used
(a) rectangular
(b) dumb-bell type
(c) trestle bent
(d) T-shape
23. In the design of piers, the water pressure to be considered is
(a) static pressure
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 (b) dynamic pressure Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

(c) impact due to cross current

(d) all the above
24. The most suitable foundation for a culvert is
(a) spread foundation
(b) pile foundation
(c) well foundation
(d) caisson foundation
25. For a major bridge usually the type of foundation is
(a) grillage foundation
(b) spread foundation
(c) well foundation
(d) caisson foundation

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26. Bridge over a dry valley is known as
(a) causeway
(b) minor bridge
(c) vent w.E
(d) viaduct
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27. The bridge having its floor flush with bed of stream is known as
(a) causeway
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(b) culvert
(c) viaduct gin
(d) minor bridge
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28. Which one of the following is not a type of culvert?
(a) Pipe culvert ing
(b) Box culvert
(c) Through culvert .ne
(d) Slab culvert t
29. Minimum depth of foundation below the scour line in a arch bridge for piers should not be less
than
(a) 1.2 m
(b) 1.8 m
(c) 2.4 m
(d) 3.0 m
30. The arrangement made to prevent entry of water at the site of pier construction is known as
(a) caisson
(b) cofferdam
(c) earthen dam
(d) none of the above
31. Fixed plate bearing plates are suitable for spans upto
(a) less than 6 m Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net
 (b) 12 m Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

(c) 18 m
(d) 24 m
32. Deep cast bearings are suitable up to ______ spans.
(a) 6 m
(b) 12 m
(c) 12 to 20 m
(d) 20 to 30 m
33. Rocker bearings are suitable for spans upto
(a) 6 m to 12 m
(b) 15 to 20 m
(c) more than 20 m
(d) not suitable for any span

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34. If a rocker and roller bearing is provided at one end of a bridge girder, then the other end will be
(a) fixed end
(b) simple support
(c) free end w.E
(d) rocker bearing
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II. Match List I with List II by selecting the options given in question nos. 35 and 36
35. gin
List I
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A.
Type of Bridge

Girder bridge 1. ing

Span

300 to 600 m

B. Cable stayed bridge 2. Over 500 m

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C.

D.
Truss bridge

Suspension bridge
3.

4.
30 to 378 m

10 to 60 m
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Codes:
(a) A– 2 B– 3 C–4 D–1
(b) A– 3 B– 2 C–1 D–4
(c) A– 3 B– 4 C–2 D–1
(d) A– 4 B– 1 C–3 D–2

36.
List I List II
A. Causeway 1. Movable bridge
B. Culvert 2. Bridge over a dry valley
C. Viaduct 3. Flush with bed of stream
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D. Basule bridge 4. Span less than 6 m

Codes:

(a) A– 2 B– 4 C–1 D–3

(b) A– 3 B– 2 C–4 D–1

(c) A– 3 B– 4 C–2 D–1

(d) A– 4 B– 3 C–1 D–2

III. Select your answer according to the coding system given for Assertion (A) and Reason (R)
given below in the questions 37 to 39.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.

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(c) A is true but R is false.

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(d) A is false but R is true.
37. Assertion: If linear waterway is reduced depth of foundation is to be increased.
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Reason: There is increase in scour depth, if linear waterway is reduced.

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38. Assertion: Straight abutments are not suitable for waterways.
Reason: Water penetrates behind abutment and damages embankment.
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39. Assertion: Usually skin of pier is with rich concrete and heart with poor concrete.
Reason: It is to economise the construction cost.
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IV. State whether the following statements are True or False in questions 40 to 44.
40. If bridge is at bottom level of superstructure, it is known as through bridge. ing
41. For streams with non-erodable banks effective linear waterway is taken as the distance between
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the banks at high flood level.
42. It is always possible to reduce the cost of bridge by reducing the linear waterway. t
43. Reduction in waterway under bridge may necessitate stone protection in pitching, aprons, etc.
44. Commonly used pier cross section is with triangular shape ends on upstream and downstream
sides.
Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (d)
6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (a)
16. (c) 17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (d)
21. (a) 22. (d) 23. (d) 24. (a) 25. (c)
26. (d) 27. (a) 28. (c) 29. (b) 30. (b)
31. (b) 32. (c) 33. (c) 34. (d) 35. (d)
36. (c) 37. (a) 38. (a) 39. (a) 40. True
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41. False 42. False Downloaded From 43. True
: www.EasyEngineering.net 44. True

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