CHAPTER 1: SOURCES

Palaeography – Study of the development of script

Epigraphy – Study of inscriptions
Numismatics – Study of coins
Archaeology – Study of monuments, material remains
Colonial Work
• Sir William Jones – Supported by Warren Hastings
• Started translating Kalidasa’s (1789) Abhijnyan Shakuntalam
• Founded Asiatic Society of Bengal in Calcutta (1784)
• Charles Wilkins – Translated Bhagavad Gita into English (1785)
• Sir James Mackintosh – Revived Bombay Asiatic Society (1804)
• Max Muller – German born orientalist
• Translated Hitopadesha & Vishnusahasranama into German
• Sacred book of East Series
• “Indians are habitual to despotic rule”
• James Prinsep –
• Deciphered edicts of Ashoka in 1837
• Deciphered Kharosthi & Brahmi scripts – Dhamma Piyadasi
• Alexander Cunningham – 1st Director General of ASI → Aka Father of Indian
Archaeology
• F.O. Oertel – In 1905, he unearthed the ancient lion capital of Ashokan pillar
excavated at Sarnath
Nationalist Approach to Indian History
• Rajendra Lal Mitra – Took up Indo-Aryan issue
• Vishwanath Kashinath Rajwade – Manuscript collector
• R.G. Bhandarkar – Reconstructed religious history of Deccan, the Satavahana
dynasty
• History of Vaishnavism & Shivism
• Social reformer: criticized evils of widow remarriage and caste
• Opposed child marriage and caste system
• Pandurang Vaman Kane – Wrote History of Dharmashastra, aka encyclopaedia of
Ancient Social Laws
• Ramchandra Rachundkar – Reconstructed the history of India from Ramayana &
Mahabharata (10th & 11th centuries)
• Focused on strength of Brahmanism
• Showed development of state from tribal republics
• R.C. Majumdar – 1st Hindu revivalist
• D.D. Kosambi – Followed Marxist-Materialist approach

CHAPTER 2: PREHISTORIC PERIOD

• Robert Bruce Foote – Father of prehistoric archaeology
• Discovered 1st Palaeolithic tool (Hand Axe) in India (1863, Pallavaram near
modern-day Chennai)
• Sir Mortimer Wheeler – Worked on archaeology of Indus Valley & southern sites
like Brahmagiri

Lower Palaeolithic (c. 2,00,000 BCE - 80,000 BCE)

• aka Stone Age
• Tools: Hand axes, cleavers
• Culture: Sohan (Pakistan), Bori (Maharashtra)
• Rock shelters – Bhimbetka
• Tools made of akes, blades, pointers

Middle Palaeolithic (80,000 – 40,000 BCE)

• Tools: Smaller, lighter tools

Upper Palaeolithic (40,000 – 10,000 BCE)

• Tools: Blades, burins, scrapers
• Art emergence
• Evidence from: Bhimbetka, Kurnool Caves

Mesolithic Period (10,000 – 6000 BCE)

• Microliths → Composite tools
• Domestication of animals: Sheep, goat
• Beginning of food production
• Rock paintings: Bhimbetka, Bagor (RJ), Adamgarh (MP), Langhnaj (GJ),
Bhimbetka (MP)

Neolithic Period (6000 – 1000 BCE)

• Tools: Polished
• Food production
• First time man built permanent houses
• Sites: Burzahom (J&K), Gufkral, Mehrgarh, Brahmagiri, Hallur, Maski, Koldihwa,
Mahagara, Chirand
• Tools & Weapons:
• Microlith blades → tools made of polished stone & hard granite were used
• Agriculture & Domestication:
• People cultivated land and grew fruits & corn like ragi & horse gram (kulthi)
• Also domesticated cattle
• Diet & Pottery:
• Rice cultivation – extensive in Bihar
• Pottery – hand-made
• Black Burnished ware
• Most prominent feature of Neolithic period: Pottery
• Wheel invention: Neolithic people invented the wheel
• They knew about gold & metal
• Housing – circular/rectangular
• Settled life → Emergence of village communities
• Clothes made of cotton and wool

Important Points
• Gordon Childe – Termed Neolithic phase as “Neolithic Revolution”
• Neolithic man transitioned from food gatherer to food producer

Important Sites:
• Mehrgarh (Pakistan)
• Burzahom (Kashmir)
• Lehdu & Mahagara (Son of Uttar Pradesh)
• Chirand (Bihar)
• Piklihal, Brahmagiri, Maski, Hallur (Karnataka)
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• Utnur (Andhra Pradesh)
• Daojali Hading (Assam)
📌 All the three phases (Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic) are found in sequence at
Belan Valley (Northern spurs of Vindhyas – includes Mahagara, Chopani Mando, and
Koldihwa)

Chalcolithic Period (3500–1800 BCE)

• First metal age of India
• Aka stone-copper age
• Situated in river valleys
• Cultures:
• Ahar (Rajasthan)
• Kayatha (MP)
• Malwa (MP)
• Jorwe (MH)
• Painted pottery → Red & black
• Practiced agriculture
• Domesticated animals
• Developed wheel & use of plough
• Used copper and stone
• Distinct pottery, tools, & food habits
• Evidence of dancing girl gure in Kayatha
• Distinct feature: Cultural variety seen in river valleys

Iron Age (1000–500 BCE)

• Earliest use of Iron: Frequently referred to in Vedas as Shyama / Shyamayas
• Iron age of southern peninsula → related to Megalithic Burials
• Iron age = late Harappan age
Megalithic Culture:
• Burial pits covered with huge stones
• Sites:
• Hallur, Maski (Karnataka)
• Nagarjunakonda (Andhra)
• Adichanallur (TN)
• Pottery types: Painted Grey Ware (PGW), Black & Red Ware
• PGW culture → Cultivated rice (unique to this age)
Other Important Sites:
• Piral (Pak)
• Mundigak (Afghanistan)
• Daimabad & Inamgaon (MH)
• Atranjikhera (UP)
• Eran (Central India)
• Mahurjhari (near Nagpur)

Cultures (Region-Wise)
• Ahar culture – Rajasthan
• Kayatha culture – Madhya Pradesh
• Malwa culture – Largest Chalcolithic settlement (MP)
• Jorwe culture – Maharashtra
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 • Gavaldha culture – Maharashtra
• Janer culture – Maharashtra
• Rangpur culture – Gujarat

PREHISTORIC SITES MAP

Map includes sites such as:
• Mehrgarh
• Burzahom
• Koldihwa, Mahagara, Chirand
• Bagor, Ahar, Kayatha
• Hallur, Brahmagiri, Adichanallur, Utnur, Daojali Hading, Piklihal, Maski,
Inamgaon, etc.

Chapter 3: Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) — 2500 BCE to 1750 BCE

Contemporary Civilizations
• Egypt (Nile)
• Mesopotamia (Euphrates and Tigris)
• China (Yellow River & Yangtze)
Key Discoveries
• Harappa – Discovered by Dayaram Sahni (1920)
• Mohenjo-Daro – Discovered by R.D. Banerjee (1924)
• O cial announcement of IVC by John Marshall, Director-General of ASI

Phases of Evolution
1. Pre-Harappan – Eastern Balochistan (e.g., Mehrgarh)
• Nomadic to settled agriculture society
2. Early Harappan
• Rudimentary town planning
• Ghaggar-Hakra Valley
• Transition from rural to urban life
• Sites: Amri, Kot Diji
3. Mature Harappan
• Full- edged civilization
• Urban planning, town life
4. Late Harappan
• Gradual decline, urban decay (e.g., Lothal)

Harappan Sites Overview

Harappa (UNESCO WHS 1980)
• Bank of Ravi River (Sahiwal district, Pakistan)
• Granaries
• Great pattern city
• Cemetery-H
• Nandi Bar → trade
Mohenjo-daro (UNESCO WHS 1980)
• Bank of Indus (Larkana district, Pakistan)
• Largest IVC site
• Great Bath (ritual bathing)
• Granary, Citadel
• Pashupati seal
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 • Mother goddess idol
• Bronze dancing girl
• Bearded man idol
Kalibangan
• Ghaggar River (Rajasthan)
• Ploughed eld → agriculture
• Fire altars
• Earthquake destruction
Lothal
• Bhogava River (Gujarat)
• Arti cial dockyard (naval trade)
• Terracotta gurines
• Chess board
Rakhigarhi
• Largest IVC site in India (Haryana)
• Planned city
Dholavira (UNESCO WHS 2021)
• Island in Rann of Kutch (Gujarat)
• 3 city divisions
• Unique water harnessing
• Largest inscription
• Evidence of dams, stadium
Banawali
• Haryana
• Both pre & post Harappan phases
• Barley & mustard cultivation
• Fire altars
Ropar
• Punjab (Satluj river)
• Dog buried with human
Sutkagendor
• Pakistan-Iran border
• Trade port (sea route)
Chanhudaro
• Sindh (Pakistan)
• Only site without citadel
• Bead making & shell bangles
• Inkpot & writing material
Alamgirpur (UP)
• Post-Harappan pottery only
• Cotton impression
Kot Diji
• Pakistan (Sindh)
• Pre-Harappan forti cation
Amri
• Pakistan
• Antelope evidence
Nageshwar
• Gujarat (shell industry)
Desalpur
• Gujarat (beads, burial graves)
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 Salient Features of IVC
1. Town Planning & Structure
• Grid pattern streets, cutting at right angles
• Two parts: Citadel (admin) & Lower Town (residential)
• Only Chanhudaro lacks citadel
• Rectangular planning
• Use of burnt bricks, gypsum mortar
• Absence of stone buildings
• Emphasis on sanitation
• Drains, soak pits
• Covered streets with stone slabs
• Underground drainage
• Inspection holes

2. Water Systems
• Kalibangan: Individual wells in homes
• Mohenjo-daro: Great bath for ritual use, changing rooms
• Toilets connected to drains
• People
• Likely used ush toilets

3. Political Life
• No clear idea about government.
• Centralized authority likely:
• Standard brick ratio across settlements.
• Standardized weights and measures.
• No temples found.
• Possibility of ruling priests (like Mesopotamia).
• No evidence of army or warfare.
• Excellent drainage → e cient municipal admin.
• No palaces or evidence of kings found.

4. Social Life
• Social divisions existed:
• Hierarchy in urban housing.
• Food: Wheat, barley, rice, animal food.
• Dress: Cotton and wool usage.
• Ornaments: Gold, silver, semi-precious stones.
• Cosmetics used widely (lipsticks, kohl).
• Terracotta models of plough and carts.

5. Agriculture & Subsistence

• Crops: Wheat, barley, ragi, peas, lentils, chickpeas, mustard.
• Millets & rice (Lothal, Rangpur).
• Bull used for ploughing.
• Domesticated animals: Bu alo, ox, sheep, goat, pigs, elephant, humped bull.
• Irrigation likely through wells and canals.
• Horse use not yet established.
• Ploughed elds: Kalibangan.
• Terracotta plough models found.
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 6. Economy
6.1 Trade & Commerce
• Inland and foreign trade.
• Weights & Measures:
• Cubical weights (no marking).
• Binary system (1, 2, 4, 8...).
• Decimal system also followed.
• Trade routes: Mesopotamia (texts show trade).
• Intermediate trading stations:
• Dilmun (Bahrain), Makran coast, Meluhha = IVC.
• Imports: Tin, copper, gold.
• Exports: Agricultural produce, beads, gems, pottery.
• Trading centers were developed.
6.2 Industry
• Textile industry – spinning & weaving.
• Brick industry – brick kilns and storage areas.
• Metallurgy – use of copper, bronze, tin, lead.
• Sources: Afghanistan (tin), Khetri mines (copper).
• Toy industry, Boat-making, Bead-making (Chanhudaro & Lothal).

7. Religion
• Predominantly secular civilization.
• Religious elements were present but not dominant.
• Mother Goddess worshipped.
• Pashupati Mahadev seal:
• 3-faced deity (proto-Shiva), seated in yogic posture, surrounded by animals (rhino,
elephant, bu alo, tiger).
• Unicorn seal, trees worship, amulets worn.
• Burial customs:
• Evidence of belief in afterlife.
• No re altars (except Kalibangan).

8. Harappan Script
• Pictographic script.
• Written from right to left (sometimes boustrophedon).
• Over 400 symbols.
• Undeciphered.
• Short inscriptions, no long texts.

9. Arts & Crafts

• Covered in Ancient Art notes.
• Sculptures, seals, terracotta, pottery, beads.

10. Seals and Sealing

• Square plaques mostly of steatite.
• Used for trade, amulets, identity tags.
• Unicorn, Pashupati, bull, rhino, elephant gures.
• Seals used for economic, religious, administrative purposes.
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11. End/Decline of IVC
• Theories:
• Aryan Invasion
• Climate Change
• Floods
• Tectonic Factors
• Late Harappan phase (1900–1300 BCE)
• Gradual decline.
• Planned cities → rural villages.
• Use of bricks reduced.
• Rajasthan sites don’t show urban traits.

Chapter 4 – Vedic Culture

Phases:
• Early Vedic Period
• Later Vedic Period

Economy
Early Vedic:
• Pastoralists – cattle rearing = main occupation.
• Horse & cow = most important animals.
• Reared: cattle, sheep, goats, horses.
• Consumed: milk, meat.
• Gopa/Jana – People who revered cows.
• Gamat – Wealthy person.
• Duhitri – Daughter.
• Gavishana – Literally means search for cows.
• Often cattle battles (wars fought over cattle).
• Agriculture knowledge existed but not main occupation.
• Produced Yava (barley).
• Nishka = medium of exchange (unit).
• Coins not known.
• No regular revenue system → voluntary tribute (Bali).
Later Vedic:
• Agriculture = main occupation.
• Introduced: Iron, gold, bronze, copper tools.
• Forest clearing helped by iron axes.
• Land now classi ed: Sangrahitri, Bhagadukha.
• Land acquired characteristics of private property.
• Emergence of hereditary merchants (Vanija).
• New crops: rice, pulses, lentils, millet, sugarcane.
• Use of coins:
• Nishka
• Krishnala
• Satmana

Society
Early Vedic:
• Kinship-based system:
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 • Kula → Gram → Vish → Jana.
• Kulapa = head of family.
• Marriage = for status.
• No child marriage.
• Swayamvara existed.
• Monogamy was prevalent (polygamy among chiefs).
• Not fully strati ed; labor & gender divided.
• Women could choose husbands, join assemblies (Sabha, Samiti).
• Cows’ meat eating not prohibited.
• Women respected.
• Ex: Apala, Vishwavara, Lopamudra.
• No use of iron tools.
• Technology similar to Copper Age.
Later Vedic:
• Indra had new epithets.
• Family = basic unit → large joint families emerged.
• Varna system based on lineage.
• Mention of Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra.
• Growth in rituals & sacri ces → Brahmins more powerful.
• Polygamy increased.
• Women status declined:
• Restricted religious roles.
• No more Swayamvara.
• Ideal life: student → householder → hermitage → renunciation.
• Caste system strengthened.
• Outcastes: Nishad, Chandala, Shvapacha.
• Texts like Manusmriti, Maitrayani Samhita mention:
• Evils: liquor, women, dice.

Religion & Polity – Vedic Period

Religion
Early Vedic:
• Priests received dana (gifts) and dakshina (sacri cial o erings) for ritualistic
services.
• Prayers for physical protection and material gains.
• No temple or idol worship.
• Recitation of hymns, chanting, sacri ces = important.
• Patriarchal in nature (all male gods).
• Indra = most mentioned god in Rigveda.
• Associated with war, thunder (also god of fertile elds).
• References to:
• Varuna (cosmic order)
• Agni ( re)
• Yayu/Vayu (wind)
• Prithvi (earth)
• Indra, Soma
• Female deities: Aditi, Usha
• Pusan – god of roads, herdsmen, cattle.
• Natural forces were worshipped.
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 Later Vedic:
• Gods like Indra, Agni lost prominence.
• Vishnu and Rudra (lesser in Rigveda) became important.
• Rituals became elaborate and tied to Yajnas.
• No references to avatars yet.
• Increase in frequency of Yajnas.
• Cattle sacri ces at end of each yajna.
• Rise of Jainism & Buddhism was due to reaction against excessive sacri ces.
• Still no temple or idol worship.

Polity
Early Vedic:
• Monarchical; succession was hereditary.
• Purohit (domestic priest) + Senani (military chief) assisted king.
• Vish = group of villages.
• Grama → Vish → Jana hierarchy.
• Vrishayapati = head of Vish.
• Chief of Jana = Rajan.
• Tribal Assemblies:
• Sabha – smaller elite body.
• Samiti – broader public body (chaired by Rajan).
• Vidhata – oldest tribal assembly.
• Gana – assembly of troops.
• No mention of o cial tax collection.
• Tributes were voluntary.
• Women attended Sabha, Vidhata.
• Right to property for women existed.
Later Vedic:
• Rashtra – term rst appeared.
• Wars now fought for territory.
• Rajan's post became hereditary and divine.
• Ashvamedha Yajna – horse sacri ce = symbol of power.
• Army = part of political structure.
• No standing army.
• Taxes: Bali, Shulka, Bhaga.
• Rituals used to justify kingship.
• Rajasuya – consecration of king.
• Ashvamedha – for territorial claims.
• Vedic texts mention regions:
• Aryavarta (North India)
• Madhyadesha (Central India)
• Dakshinapatha (South India)

Chapter 5: Mahajanapadas (600 BCE) – 2nd Urbanisation

Key Highlights:
• Period in uenced by urbanisation and philosophical ideas (Jainism & Buddhism).
• Emergence of urban settlements, supported by large territorial states.
• Rich landowners: called Gahapatis.
• Mahajanapadas: larger political units.
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• Smaller landowners: Kshatriyas.
• Labourers: Dasa & Karmakaras.
Mahajanapadas Map:
• Republics: Vajji, Malla, Yadu, Panchala, Sambh, Shakya, Koliyas, Moryas.
• Monarchies: Anga, Magadha, Kashi, Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti, Shursena, Matsya,
Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara.
Additional Points:
• Total 16 Mahajanapadas during the period.
• Sources:
• Buddhist: Anguttara Nikaya.
• Jain: Bhagvati Sutra.
• Brahmi Script appeared during this time.

Chapter 6: Pre-Mauryan Empire

Northern India (BAU – Before Alexander's Upanishad period):
• Magadha Dynasties:
• Haryanka:
• Bimbisara (543 BCE)
• Ajatashatru (493 BCE) – Killed Bimbisara.
• Udayin – built fort at Pataliputra.
• Shishunaga Dynasty:
• Kalashoka – conducted 2nd Buddhist Council.
• Nanda Dynasty:
• Mahapadma Nanda – rst empire builder.
• Key Features:
• Rise of urban centres.
• Use of punch-marked coins.
• Buddha Sculpture emerged.
• Lichchhavi and Chetiyas – important republics.
Northwest India (ISN – Iranian and Greek Invasions):
• Achaemenid Invasion:
• Darius I annexed NW India (~518 BCE).
• Tax collection initiated.
• Alexander’s Invasion (326 BCE):
• Entered NW India.
• Impacted Indian polity and economy.

Chapter 7: Jainism and Buddhism

Background Context:
• Period: Later Vedic Period (~6th–5th century BCE)
• Around 63 sects evolved; 3 turned into major religions:
• Ajivikas
• Buddhism
• Jainism

Causes of Origin:
• Expensive, complex Vedic rituals; superstition & mantras confused common
people.
• Upanishadic teachings too philosophical for masses.
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 • Caste system reinforced inequalities.
• Sacri cial economy burdened public.
• Kshatriyas challenged Brahmanic dominance.
• Vaishyas sought social upliftment due to increased trade.
• Rise of towns = urbanisation & unrest.
• Opposition to Brahmanic supremacy and cow slaughter.

Buddhism
Founder:
• Siddhartha Gautama (b. 563 BCE)
Teachings:
• Avoid two extremes:
• Worldly indulgence
• Extreme asceticism
• Follow Middle Path (Madhyam Marg).

Doctrine of Buddhism:
• Avoided discussion on the soul (Atman).
• Focused on earthly conduct.
• Accepted:
• Transmigration
• Impermanence
• Rejected Atman
• Desire = root cause of su ering
• Emphasized:
• Nirvana (liberation)
• Ahimsa
• Ethical living

Life of Gautama Buddha (563–483 BCE):

• Birth: Lumbini
• Parents: Shuddhodana & Mahamaya
• Teachings: Uruvela, Sarnath, Rajgir, Vaishali, etc.
• Enlightenment: Bodhgaya (under Bodhi tree)
• 1st Sermon: Sarnath (Dharmachakra Pravartana)
• Death (Mahaparinirvana): Kushinagar, aged 80

Buddhist Literary Sources:

Chronicles:
• Mahavamsa – by Mahānāma
• Dipavamsa – by Mattagāmani
Philosophical Texts:
• Tripitakas:
• Sutta Pitaka – sermons of Buddha
• Vinaya Pitaka – monastic rules
• Abhidhamma Pitaka – doctrine & philosophy
• Jataka Tales – Previous lives of Buddha
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 • Milinda Panha – Q&A between Menander (Indo-Greek king) and Buddhist monk
Nagasena

Core Concepts:
• Three Jewels of Buddhism (Triratna):
• Buddha
• Dhamma (teachings)
• Sangha (monks/nuns)

Great Events in Buddha’s Life (and Symbols):

5 Teachings of Buddha (प शील)

1. No killing / respect for life
2. Abstention from theft
3. Abstention from sexual misconduct
4. Abstention from falsehood
5. Abstention from intoxication

4 Noble Truths (आ स )
1. World is full of sorrow and misery (Dukkha)
2. Desire is the root of sorrow (Trishna, Pratityasamutpad)
3. Desire can be conquered (Nirodha)
4. Desire can be conquered by following the Ashtangika Marg

8 Fold Path (अ क मा )
The path consists of various interconnected activities related to knowledge, conduct, and
meditative practices:
• Right View
• Right Intention
• Right Speech
• Right Action
• Right Livelihood
• Right Mindfulness
• Right E orts
• Right Concentration

3 Pitakas ( टक / 3 baskets or collections)

1. Vinayapitaka – Discipline and conduct (rules applicable to monastic life of monks
and nuns)
2. Suttapitaka – Main teachings and sermons of Buddha, divided into 5 Nikayas:
• Digha Nikaya
• Majjhima Nikaya
• Samyutta Nikaya
• Anguttara Nikaya
• Khuddaka Nikaya
3. Abhidhammapitaka – Philosophical and metaphysical explanation of teachings

Buddhist Sangha & its Features

• Slaves, diseased & insolvents not allowed
• 64 types of crimes (Patimokkha) prohibited
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त्रि
पि
ष्टां
गि
र्य
त्य
र्ग
ञ्च
• Women also allowed to join after conditions (8 rules) – Ananda helped
• Dancers → Amrapali
• Dacoits also allowed – Angulimala
• Shudras also given a place

Places Visited by Buddha

• Sarnath
• Rajgriha
• Vaishali
• Lumbini
• Kapilavastu
• Vesali
• Pava / Nalanda
• Kushinagar
• Mathura
• Champa
• Kosala
• Vatsa
Gandhara and Kuru (Kurukshetra) were NOT visited by Buddha (important for exams)

Kings who adopted Buddhism

1. Prasenjit of Kosala
2. Bimbisara of Magadha
3. Ajatshatru of Magadha

Important Disciples of Buddha

• Sariputta
• Moggalana
• Ananda
• Upali
2 kinds of disciples:
• Monks (bhikkhu)
• Lay followers (upasaka / upasika)

Anti-Buddhist Kings
• Pushyamitra Shunga (destroyed Buddhist viharas)
• Huna King Mihirkula
• Sasanka of Gauda
• Tirath ruler

Important Buddhist Scholars & Their Work

• Moggaliputta Tissa – Launched Ashoka’s Dhamma campaign
• Buddhadatta – Abhidhamma scholar
• Buddhaghosa – Pali scholar; Samanta Pasadika (commentary)
• Vasubandhu – Madhyamika school of Nagarjuna
• Ashvaghosha – Buddhacharita, Sutralankara
• Nagarjuna – Madhyamika school (Shunyavada)
• Aryadeva – Student of Nagarjuna
• Dignaga – Logician, Nyaya school
• Dharmakirti – Philosopher & logician
• Vimuktisena – Commentary work on Abhisamayalankara
• Asanga & Vasubandhu – Yogachara school
• Vasubandhu – Abhidharmakosha
• Santarakshita – Brought Buddhism to Tibet; Tattvasamgraha

Buddhist Councils
Major Schools of Buddhism
1. Mahayana ("Greater Vehicle")
• Sought salvation through grace and role of Bodhisattvas
• Believed Buddha will be born again
• Worship of Buddha in idol form
• Language: Sanskrit
• Compassion is the highest virtue
• Politically: liberal
• Region: Northern India, Kashmir, Central Asia, China, Korea, Japan
Sub-sects:
• Mahasanghika
• Sarvastivada
• Ekavyavaharika
• Prajnapativada
• Uttarashaila
• Aparashaila
• Bahusrutiya
• Lokottaravada
• Chaitika
• Vatsiputriya
• Dharmottariya
• Bhadrayaniya
• Sammitiya
• Sannagarika

2. Hinayana ("Lesser Vehicle")

• Older, more conservative
• Follow original teachings of elders
• Sought individual salvation through self-discipline
• Did not believe in idol worship
• Language: Pali
• Wisdom is the highest virtue
• Politically: conservative
• Region: Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia
Sub-sects:
• Sthaviravada
• Theravada
• Vibhajyavada
• Dharmaguptaka
• Mahisasaka
• Kasyapiya
• Sankrantika
• Sauntrantika
Important Concepts and Developments
Theravada
• Oldest, most conservative
• Closest to original teachings of Buddha
• Seeks Nirvana through wisdom & monastic discipline
Sammitiyavadins
• Consider anything subject to impermanence as non-real
• Reality = existing factors (dharmas)
• Aim: understanding causal factors that produce reality
Vajrayana (Tantric Buddhism)
• Origin: India around 700 CE
• Esoteric Buddhism; use of mantras, mandalas, rituals
• Aim: salvation via Tantra (rituals & mystical practices)
• Region: Tibet, Nepal, Mongolia, Eastern India
Zen Buddhism
• Origin: China → spread to Japan
• Developed under Madhyama Buddhism
• Emphasizes meditation
• Unique feature: No scriptures or rituals

Buddhist Texts
Past Mauryan:
• Mahavamsa
• Divyavadana
• Lalitavistara Sutra
• Lotus Sutra
• Avatamsaka Sutra
• Ratnagotravibhanga
• Vishuddhimagga
• Vimalakirti Nirdesha Sutra
• Shurangama Sutra
• Dharmashastras
• Tattvasamgraha
• Milindapanho
• Upadana (this is oldest life of Buddha & his disciples)
• Vajrayana Sutra (Mahayana)
• Suttavibhanga
• Khandaka
• Patimokkha
• Udanavarga
• Ashokavadana
Gupta & Post-Gupta:
• Mahavastu
• Samadhiraja Sutra
• Pratityasamutpada
• Karandavyuha Sutra
• Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra
• Abhidharma Kosha
• Udayanavarga
• Avadanasataka
• Dashabhumika Sutra
• Kavyauddesa
• Bandhi (in Chinese)

Bodhisattvas (Mahayana Buddhism)

• A Bodhisattva is one who has attained enlightenment but delays nirvana to help
others.
4. Maitreya – Future Buddha; associated with Ajita Bodhisattva; popular laughing
Buddha
5. Samantabhadra – Universal virtue Bodhisattva; manifestation for rituals
6. Vajrapani – Thunderbolt bearer, protector of Buddha
7. Manjushri – Symbol of wisdom; holds a sword to cut ignorance
8. Avalokiteshvara – Compassionate Bodhisattva (Padmapani); manifested
as Buddha of mercy
9. Kshitigarbha – Guardian of purgatories, vows to rescue beings from hell
10. Saddaprarudita – Manifests intense compassion
11. Akashagarbha – Bodhisattva of wisdom & space
12. Amitabha – Buddha of the west (Sukhavati)
13. Dipankara – Buddha of the past

Buddhist Universities & Their Founders

UNESCO World Heritage Sites Related to Buddhism
• Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara, Bihar
• Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi, MP
• Mahabodhi Temple Complex, Bodhgaya, Bihar
• Ajanta Caves, Aurangabad, Maharashtra

Important Terms
• Arhat – One who seeks/achieves nirvana
• Nirat – Liberated beings
• Vajras – Emblems of destruction of desires
• Paramitas – Perfections needed to attain Bodhisattva path
• Tapasvin – One who performs austerity
• Upasaka/Upasikas – Male/Female lay followers of Buddhism
• Patimokkha – Rules for monks & nuns
• Skandhaka – Religious group members
• Vassa – Retreat during monsoon for monks
• Pratimoksha – Monk vows (227 rules)
• Vinaya Pitaka – Monastic rules
• Sthaviras – Elders or senior monks
• Tirthankaras – Teachers in Jainism
• Parivrajaka – Traveling renouncers
• Bhikshu/Bhikshuni – Monks/Nuns
• Upanishads – Hindu scriptures
• Kathina – Robe-o ering ceremony
• Uposatha – Monastic confession days
• Dhyana – Meditation
• Amitayus/Amitabha – Buddha of in nite life
• Maitreya – Future Buddha
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• Pratyekabuddha – Achieves salvation alone, doesn’t teach

Jainism
Origins and Terminology
• Rig Veda mentions names of Rishabha and Arishtanemi (Jain Tirthankaras)
• Jainism is older than Buddhist doctrine
• Terms: Jaina / Jina = “Conqueror”
• Jainism has no single founder — 24 Tirthankaras (teachers):
• 1st: Rishabhanatha
• 23rd: Parshvanatha
• 24th: Vardhamana Mahavira

Five Doctrines (Vratas)

1. Ahimsa (non-injury)
2. Satya (truth)
3. Asteya (non-stealing)
4. Aparigraha (non-possession)
5. Brahmacharya (celibacy/continence)
Parshvanatha only emphasized rst 4; Mahavira added Brahmacharya
• Symbol of hand with wheel = symbolizes Ahimsa
• Ahimsa is central; "Ahimsa" written inside the palm

Philosophy of Jainism
• Universe is created & maintained by Universal Laws (not by God)
• Souls are indestructible, eternal
• Jiva (soul) and Ajiva (non-soul) are core elements
• Soul is bound by karma through thoughts & actions
• Kevala Jnana = supreme knowledge
• Liberation = shedding all karma

Core Beliefs
• All life forms (including plants, animals, natural elements) have souls
• Strict non-violence, even towards microbes
• Karma must be eliminated via penance

Mahavira
• 540–468 BCE
• Born at Kundalagrama (Vaishali)
• Belonged to Jnatri Kshatriya clan
• Teachers: Parshvanatha tradition
• Attained Kevalya (perfect knowledge) at age 42
• Jina: One who conquers senses
• Niggantha: One who is free from all bonds
• Died at age 72 at Pavapuri, attained moksha
• First sermon at Pava (Nalanda, Bihar)
• Symbol: Lion

Teachings of Mahavira
• Rejected Vedas and rituals
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• Denied existence of God
• Believed in karma & rebirth
• Supported equality and rejection of caste

Tenets of Jainism
Key Concepts
• God: Exists but is less than Jina
• Rebirth due to karma
• Agnanikas: Heretics (non-believers)
Important Philosophies
• Anekantavada: Multiple viewpoints, acceptance of truth in diverse forms
• Syadvada: Conditional judgments
• Saptabhangi: 7-fold logic system
• Triratna (Three Jewels):
1. Right Faith
2. Right Knowledge
3. Right Conduct
Two Elements of the World
• Jiva – conscious
• Ajiva – unconscious
Anuvrata – Lesser vows for laymen
• 5 great vows (Mahavratas) for ascetics only

Spread of Jainism
• Through Sangha (community)
• Led by Mahavira & Gandhara
• Spread in South India via:
• Tevaram poets
• Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas
Split in Jainism
• After Bhadrabahu's death:
• Bhadrabahu went south (Karnataka) with followers
• Others remained in north under Sthulabhadra
Sects of Jainism
• Shvetambara (“white-clad”) – North India
• Digambara (“sky-clad”) – South India

Sects of Jainism
Main Division:
• Caused by a famine in Magadha.
• Led Bhadrabahu and followers to move south.
• Split into two:
1. Digambara (Sky-clad)
2. Shvetambara (White-clad)

1. Digambara
• Complete nudity for monks.
• Male monks do not wear clothes
• Female monks not allowed (no liberation for women)
• Follow all 5 vows: Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha, Brahmacharya
• Bhadrabahu was an exponent
• Major subsects:
• Mula Sangh
• Bispantha
• Taranpantha / Samayapantha
• Minor subsects:
• Gumanpantha
• Totapantha

2. Shvetambara
• Monks wear white clothes
• Follow only 4 vows (exclude Brahmacharya for laypeople)
• Believe women can attain liberation
• Sthulabhadra was an exponent
• Major subsect:
• Murtipujaka
• Other subsects:
• Sthanakvasi
• Terapanthi

Subsect Tree (Simpli ed Lineage)

Jains
── Shvetambara (under Sthulabhadra)
│ ── Murtipujaka
│ ── Sthanakavasi
│ └── Terapanthi
└── Digambara (under Bhadrabahu)
── Mula Sangh
── Bispanthi
└── Terapanthi

Other Jain Sects

• Uchhedvad – Believes everything gets destroyed (Nihilist)
• Atyantavad – No good or bad deeds exist
• Nityavad – 4 elements eternal: earth, water, re, air
• Sandhavad / Sanjiv Belatuputta – Neither accepts nor denies anything
• Sthanakvasis – Do not believe in idol worship; part of Murtipujaka sect

Jain Councils
1. First Council (300 BCE) – Pataliputra
• Presided by Sthulabhadra
2. Second Council (512 AD) – Vallabhi
• Presided by Devardhigani
• Final compilation of 45 Agamas & Purvas
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Royal Patrons of Jainism
North India
• Bimbisara
• Chandragupta Maurya
• Bindusara
• Harshavardhana
• Kharavela (Kalinga)
• Pradyot
• Udayin
South India
• Kadamba Dynasty
• Ganga Dynasty
• Amoghavarsha
• Rashtrakuta
• Kumarapala (Chalukya)

Jain Literature & Scholars

• Mostly in Prakrit language
Agamas
• Canonical texts based on Mahavira’s teachings
• 12 Angas, 12 Upangas, Prakiranakasutra, Chedasutra, Mulasutra
Kalpasutra
• Biography of Tirthankaras
• Written by Bhadrabahu
Niryukti
• Commentary/lit. explanation of Agamas
Languages Used
• Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil, Kannada, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Hindi, German, English, etc.

Other Jain Texts

• Sthananga Sutra
• Samavayanga Sutra
• Acharanga Sutra
• Vyakhyaprajnapti (Bhagavati Sutra)
• Vipakasutra
• Tattvarthasutra / Tattvarthadhigamasutra
• Universal Jain text

Famous Jain Scholars

• Gunabhadra
• Jinasena
• Haribhadra
• Nemichandra
• Hemchandra
• Samantabhadra
• Bhadrabahu
• Umaswati (aka Umasvami) – Tattvarthasutra
• Siddhasena Divakara
• Vimalsuri
• Yashovijaya
 • Jinasena (Mahapurana)

Terms for Prelims – Jainism

Important Concepts:
• Asrav: In ow of karmas to the soul that occurs every second in life.
• Samvar: Stoppage of the further in ow of material karmas into the soul
consciousness.
• Nirjara: Shedding/removal of accumulated karmas from the soul (atma), essential
for breaking free from the samsara cycle (birth, death, rebirth) and achieving
moksha (liberation).
• One of the 7 fundamental truths in Jain philosophy.
• Sallekhana / Santhara: Religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death,
gradually reducing intake of food and liquids.
• Kaivalya: Complete understanding or supreme wisdom.
• Pratikraman: A process during which Jains repent for their sins during their daily
life and commit themselves not to repeat them.
• Shivapanthiya: Practice of half clothes (followed by Digambaras).
• Kurchakas: Term related to Jainism.
• Gandhara: Chief disciples of the Tirthankaras.
• Samavasarana: Tirthankaras sat on thrones without touching them.
• Siddha: Liberated soul.
• Shravakas / Shravikas: Lay followers in Jainism.
• Samayika: Practice of belief periods in meditation.
• Nirgrantha: One without bonds.
• Anekantavad: Doctrine of multiple viewpoints.
• Syadvada: Doctrine of conditional predication.
• Gunastahanas: State of soul from complete dependence on karma to freedom
from it.
• Pallitana: Main temple dedicated to Rishabha (Adinath)
• Holiest shrine for Shvetambara's Murtipujaka sect.

Comparison Between Buddhism & Jainism

• Both systems were non-theistic.
• Buddha was agnostic (ignored God), Mahavira denied God and creators of the
universe.
• Both do not accept Vedas.
• Both were against the Varna system, though:
• Buddha condemned it.
• Mahavira did not actively condemn or support it.
• Both were opposed to caste, but did not aim to abolish it.
• Both accepted doctrines of karma and rebirth.
• Both had Kshatriya clan founders.
• Both denied e cacy of rituals.

Key Di erences:
• Jainism believes in transmigration of soul via reincarnation.
• Buddhism does not.
• Jainism remained con ned to India (though it survived).
• Buddhism spread abroad but declined in India.
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 • Buddhism prescribed a middle path.
• Jainism advocated a life of complete austerity.

Chapter 8: Pre-Mauryan Empire

Overview
• Several Mahajanapadas fought among themselves and were
ultimately conquered by Magadha, which emerged as the most powerful state
and center of a vast empire.
• Magadha – First mentioned in Atharvaveda.
• Magadha's political supremacy began with Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty.
• First king of Magadha was Brihadratha.

Dynasties of the Magadhan Empire:

1. Haryanka Dynasty
• Bimbisara
• Ajatashatru
• Udayin
2. Shishunaga Dynasty
• Shishunga
• Kalashoka
3. Nanda Dynasty
• Mahapadma Nanda
• Dhanananda

Timeline & Events

Key Figures & Events:
• 544 BCE – Bimbisara’s reign begins.
• Ajatashatru:
• Killed his father Bimbisara.
• Forti ed Rajgriha and built fort at Pataliputra.
• Shifted capital from Rajgriha to Pataliputra.
• Known for wars with Avanti, Kosala, and Lichchhavis.
• Built a thorny fort, used Mahashilakantaka (war engine).
• Udayin:
• Built Pataliputra at the con uence of Ganga and Son.
• Made it the capital.
• Maitreyi, Kosala Devi, and Chellana mentioned as associated queens.

Religious Associations:
• Bimbisara:
• Associated with Buddha and Mahavira.
• Maintained friendship with Avanti.
• Ajatashatru:
• Said to have met Buddha.
• Associated with Barabar sculptures.

Contemporaries in the West:

• Cyrus, Darius I, Xerxes (Persian kings).
• Alexander’s invasion in NW in 326 BCE.
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Chapter 9: Mauryan Empire
General Overview
• Except Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and some parts of Northeast India, the Mauryas ruled
over most of the Indian subcontinent.
• Founder: Chandragupta Maurya
• Brahmanical traditions: Born of Shudra woman in the court of Nandas.
• Buddhist tradition: He was a Kshatriya.
• Chanakya’s plot and how he helped Chandragupta defeat his enemies is
described in Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta (a play).

Sources for Mauryan Empire

1. Literary Sources (esp. Saptangadhanta theory):
i. Arthashastra by Kautilya (Chanakya)
• Talks about government, state, kingship, diplomacy, war, and peace.
ii. Jataka Stories
• Describe Buddha’s previous lives.
iii. Ashokavadana and Divyavadana
• Describe Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism, Kalinga war, and rebellion.
iv. Trinity of Buddhist Literature:
• Mahavamsa
• Milindapanho
• Mahabhashya
v. Dipavamsa & Mahavamsa (Sri Lankan chronicles)
• Detail Ashoka’s e orts in spreading Buddhism to Sri Lanka.
vi. Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta
• Discusses socio-economic conditions of Mauryan times.
vii. Rajatarangini by Kalhana
viii. Kathasaritsagara & Somadeva
ix. Brihatkatha-Manjari by Kshemendra
x. Indica by Megasthenes
• Accounts of Mauryan administration, society, and court life.
xi. Brahmin literature (Puranas)
• Lists Mauryan kings.

2. Archaeological Evidence
A. Ashokan Edicts
• Deciphered by James Prinsep (1837)
• Divided into:
• Major Rock Edicts
• Minor Rock Edicts
• Pillar Edicts
• Cave Edicts
B. Major Pillar Edicts
• Erected toward the end of Ashoka’s reign.
• Mention Ashoka’s vision of Dhamma.
• Carved in polished sandstone, usually monoliths.
C. Content of Edicts
Dhamma principles include:
• Prohibit animal sacri ces
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• Social welfare measures
• Respect for Brahmanas and elders
• Appointment of Dhamma Mahamatras
• Religious tolerance
• Condemnation of meaningless rituals
• Promotion of moral values
Ashoka:
• Renounced war after Kalinga conquest
• Promoted Dhamma over conquest
• Encouraged religious tolerance and harmony
• Inspired people to lead religious lives

Important Edict Locations:

• Kalsi (Uttarakhand)
• Barabar Caves (Bihar)
• Lumbini (Nepal)
• Rampurva (Bihar)
• Delhi-Topra
• Dhauli, Jaugada (Odisha)
• Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh)
• Sopara (Maharashtra)

Mauryan Dynasty Timeline & Key Events

Dynasties
• Hariyanka Dynasty → Shishunaga Dynasty → Nanda Dynasty → Mauryan
Dynasty
Mauryan Rulers
1. Chandragupta Maurya (322 BCE)
• Defeated Dhanananda
• Founder of Mauryan Empire
• Associated with Chanakya
2. Bindusara
• Son of Chandragupta Maurya
• Continued expansion
3. Ashoka (273 BCE)
• 261 BCE – Kalinga War
• Post-war transformation: Embraced Buddhism
• Promoted Dhamma policy
• Held Buddhist Council (3rd) at Pataliputra
• Important inscriptions: Major Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts
• Promoted:
• Path of non-violence
• Religious tolerance
• Welfare for people
4. Post-Ashoka rulers (weaker successors)
• Dasaratha
• Samprati
• Brihadratha (last Mauryan ruler; killed by Pushyamitra Shunga)
 Administrative Structure
1. Political Administration
• King: Supreme head of military, judicial, executive, and legislative functions
• Council of Ministers: Mantri Parishad
• Tirthas & Amatyas: Highest o cials
• Kautilya mentions:
• Presence of civil and criminal courts
• Saptanga theory by Kautilya (7 limbs of state)
Key O cials
• Karmakara: Hired laborers
• Bhandagaradhikrita: Head of royal treasury
• Sitadhyaksha: Agriculture in-charge
• Mahadandnayak: Chief Justice
• Dandpashika: Police head
• Mahasandhivigrahika: Foreign a airs
• Panyadhyaksha: Superintendent of commerce
• Yuktas: Subordinate revenue o cers
• Paulsasika: Chief revenue o cer
• Samsthadhyaksha: Market control
• Rupadarshaka: Currency examiner
• Lohadhyaksha: Mint o cial
• Sthanikamadhyaksha: Local committee head (5 members)
• Megasthenes: Greek ambassador, described city administration

2. Revenue Administration
• Samharta: Chief of Revenue Dept.
• Responsible for land, irrigation, customs, trade, and mines
• Land Revenue: Main source, normally 1/6th of produce
• Could be higher in irrigated land (Udatta bhaga)
Other Taxes & Duties
• Bhaga: Land tax (1/6th)
• Bali: Additional tax
• Hiranya: Cash crops (possibly gold)
• Pindakara: Assessed from villages
• Choradhyaksha: Collected nes from thieves
• Nishkramya: Export duty
• Shulkadhyaksha: Customs duty
• Vishthi: Forced labour
Economic Notes
• State held monopoly over mines, liquor, salt
• Adhyaksha of all o cials: Reported directly to the king
• Taxes and duties were tightly regulated

Provincial & Local Administration

Capital:
• Pataliputra
Provincial Administration:
• Headed by Royal Princes (Kumar)
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District Administration:
• Under Rajukas (similar to modern-day collectors)
• Assisted by Yuktas
Local Administration:
• Vish or Ahoras: Units of a province
• Megasthenes' account:
• 6 committees with 5 members each for municipal administration
Village Administration:
• Managed by Gramini (head of village, elected)
• Gopa: Supervisor of 5 villages
• Gramikas: Panchayat system – elders settled disputes
• Gramikavidhas: Panchayat with elected elders

Army
According to Greek Author Pliny:
• 6,00,000 Infantry
• 30,000 Cavalry
• 9,000 Elephants
• 8,000 Chariots
• Navy also existed
• Well-organized under control of Senapati

Mauryan Society
• Followed 4-fold varna system with slavery
• Vaishyas and Shudras enjoyed improved status
• Ashokan edicts:
• No mention of varna or caste
• Kautilya:
• Mentions slave categories
• Megasthenes:
• Reports absence of slavery
• Jataka tales:
• Mention various Chandals (outcastes) like:
• Chandal, Nishad, Shabar
• Women’s status:
• Some improvement
• Widow remarriage accepted
• Ganikas (prostitutes) were institutionalized and respected

Religious Aspects
• Vedic religion: Preached but not state-supported
• Royal family: Followed Ajivika sect
• Chandragupta Maurya:
• Converted to Jainism
• Bindusara:
• Supported Jainism
• Ashoka:
• Converted to Buddhism
Ashokan Inscriptions
Languages:
• Aramaic, Greek, Prakrit (Magadhi), Brahmi, Kharosthi
Important Inscriptions:
• Rahat (Laghman):
• Mentions Ashoka and 5 Greek kings
• Directional reference to Ashoka’s empire
• Kandahar Inscription:
• Bilingual: Greek and Aramaic
• Refers to Ashoka’s edicts
• Rumandehi Inscription:
• Mentions donation by Queen Piyadasi

Inscriptions related to Mauryas

• Junagarh Rock Inscriptions
• Sohgaura Copper Plate Inscription
• Mahasthan Inscription
Mauryan Inscription
• Junagarh
• Sohgaura
• Mahasthan

Satavahana Related Inscriptions

• Nasik Inscription
• Naneghat Inscription
(Note: "SA NA NA" is written next to this, possibly a mnemonic or code.)

Chera Inscriptions (Chera Dynasty)

• Pugalur Inscription

Gupta Inscriptions
• Mehrauli Iron Inscription

Samudragupta Inscription
• Allahabad Pillar Inscription

Harsha Related Inscriptions

• Banskheda Inscription
• Madhuban Inscription
• Sonepat Inscription
• Aihole Inscription

Chalukya Related
• Aihole Inscription (by Ravikirti)
(For Pulakeshin II)

Pallava Related
• Mahendravarman – Mandagapattu Inscription
• Narasimhavarman – Kuram Copper Plate Inscription

Extent of Ashokan Empire

• Chela, Chera, Pandyas as border states
• Satraps, Kshatrapas, Leonophras
According to Rajatarangini (Kalhana’s Text)
• Kashmir was part of the Mauryan Empire
• Nepal was also within Mauryan Empire
• NW Frontier was already annexed by Chandragupta Maurya

Later Mauryas (After Ashoka’s Death - 232 BCE)

Western Line
• Kunala (son)
• Bad narration (vision collapsed)
Eastern Line
• Dasaratha (grandson)
• Samprati
• Brihadratha (last Maurya)

End of Maurya Dynasty

• Pushyamitra Shunga
→ Shunga Dynasty

Map Highlights
• Key inscriptions and cities:
Junagarh, Sohgaura, Mahasthan, Nasik, Naneghat, Pataliputra, Ujjain, Sanchi, etc.
• Regions marked as part of Ashoka's Empire

Chapter 10: Post-Mauryan Development

Successor Dynasties:
• Shunga
• Kanva
• Satavahanas

Later Invaders:
• Indo-Greeks
• Shakas
• Parthians
• Kushanas

Timeline Overview:
• Mauryas → Shungas (185 BCE) → Kanvas → Satavahanas (100 CE)
• Later Invasions: c.200 BCE onward

Shungas (185–78 BCE)

• Founder: Pushyamitra Shunga
• Capital: Pataliputra → Vidisha (2nd capital)
• Notable Rulers:
• Pushyamitra Shunga:
• Capital: Pataliputra & Vidisha
• Fought 2 Demetrius (Bactrian)
• Staunch Brahminism
• Patron of Ashvamedha Yajna
• Promoted Sanskrit
• Agnimitra: Known from Kalidasa's Malavikagnimitram
• Vasumitra:
• Continued Pushyamitra’s policies
• Defended Buddhist monks
• Devabhuti:
• Last ruler
• Killed by minister Vasudeva Kanva → led to Kanva Dynasty

Kanvas (72–28 BCE)

• Founder: Vasudeva Kanva
• Satavahana conquered Magadha during Kanva rule → Kanvas came to an end

Kalinga (Chedi Dynasty)

• Founder unknown
• Notable ruler: Kharavela (Mahameghavahana)
• Capital: Kalinga / Ujjain
• Fought neighbors
• Known for Hathigumpha Inscription
• Ruled in 1st–2nd century BCE

Shunga Simuka
• Satavahanas:
• Rose post-Mauryas
• Initial rule around Andhra/Deccan region
• Related inscriptions at:
• Nasik
• Nanaghat
• Founder: Simuka
• Defeated Kanvas
• Established rule in Krishna Valley
• Capital: Pratishthana

Satavahana Rulers
• 1st king: Hala
• Ruler: Gautamiputra Satakarni (c.106–130 AD)
• Greatest ruler
• Defeated Shakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas
• Mentioned in Nasik Inscription by mother Gautami Balashri
• Used Kshatriya dharma against foreigners
• Promoted Vedic culture, used Prakrit language
• Vashishtiputra Pulumavi
• Ruled: c.130 CE
• Gained land through marriage alliance with western Kshatrapas
Later Ruler: Yajna Sri Satakarni

Cultural & Administrative Notes:

• Satavahanas:
• Promoted Prakrit language
• Performed Ashvamedha Yajna
• Used Kshatriya dharma for ruling
• Distributed land to Brahmanas, villages to teachers and monasteries
• Acted as protectors of Brahmanism and supporters of Buddhism

Inscriptions Highlighted:
• Nasik Inscription
• Nanaghat Inscription
• Hathigumpha Inscription

Administration of Satavahanas:
• Entirely based on Shastras
• King: Upholder of Dharma
• Kingdom divided into districts called Ahara
• Head: Amatyas, Mahamatras
• Gram (village): Village headman (Gramika)

Social Life of Satavahanas:

• Matrilineal in uence:
• Names of mothers mentioned more than fathers
• Supported both Brahmanism and Buddhism
• Women had status and respect
• Mentioned in Brahmanical texts

Culture:
• Satavahana graves: Made of stone, often megalithic
• Also known as Megalithic People
• Naganika – Satavahana Queen
• Ajanta caves initiated

Economy:
• Guild system: Organized guilds
• Silversmiths used silver coins called Karsapanas
• Gold coins used more as bullion than for trade
• Trade centers:
• Paithan
• Tagara
• Kondapur
• Amaravati
• Kandakasela
• Ganjam (East coast)
• Rulers issued own coins with names
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• Tax system:
• Collected Agri & Trade tax
• Land grants to Brahmanas & Buddhist Sanghas

Foreign Invasions:
1. Indo-Greeks:
• Merged Hellenistic Art with Gandhara Art
• Important Ruler: Demetrius
• Commanders:
• Apollodotus
• Menander (Milinda)
• Famous in Milinda Panha

2. Shakas:
• Pushed out Indo-Greeks in 57 BCE
• Ruler: King Azilises
• Important rulers:
• Rudradaman I (Western Satrap)
• Junagadh Rock Inscription: Sanskrit

3. Parthians:
• Important Ruler: Gondophernes
• St. Thomas visited India during his reign (spread of Christianity)

4. Kushans (1st–3rd CE):

• Renowned for horsemanship
• Major contributors to Sanskrit literature
• Two dynasties:
• Kadphises
• Kanishka (Zenith under his rule)
• Started Saka Era (78 CE)
• Patron of Mahayana Buddhism
• Built cities:
• Purushapura (Peshawar)
• Mathura
• Nagarjuna Konda
• Takshashila
• Adopted title: Devaputra
• Empire divided into Satrapas
• Maintained military governance

Coinage Highlights:
• Indo-Greeks: 1st to issue gold coins
• Kushans: 1st to issue high quantity and quality of gold coins
Chapter 11: Sangam Age (300 BCE – 300 AD)
Assembly of Tamil Poets: Sangam

Sangam Clans and Capitals:

• Chola – Capital: Uraiyur / Puhar (Kaveripattinam)
• Pandya – Capital: Madurai
• Chera – Capital: Vanji (Karur / Muziris port)

Sangam Assemblies:

• Tolkappiyam – Oldest Tamil grammar book

• Sangam Literature mainly in Tamil

Notable Sangam Works:

• Silappadikaram – Ilango Adigal
• Manimekalai – Sittalai Sattanar
• Jivaka Chintamani – Tirutakkadevar (Book of marriage)
• Valayapathi
• Kundalakeshi
• Tirukkural – By Thiruvalluvar (Bible of Tamil)

Geographical Classi cation – Five Types of Lands (Tinai):

1. Paalai – Desert (warfare)
2. Mullai – Forest (pastoral)
3. Marutham – Agricultural land
4. Kurinji – Hilly areas
5. Neithal – Coastal areas ( shing, salt)

Key Notes:
• Maduram = Nadu
• Siru/Nattar = Villages
• Ur – Village level
• Perur – Large village
• Nadu – Group of villages
• Valanadu – Group of Nadus
• Mandalam – Group of Valanadus

Trade and External Contacts:

• Roman trade via Muziris, Arikamedu, Korkai, Puhar
• Yavanas – Greek/Roman traders
• Use of Roman coins
• Periplus of Erythrean Sea and Ptolemy’s Geography mention Tamilakam
• Sati, Widow remarriage, matriarchy existed
• Capital cities and ports mapped:
• Puhar, Madurai, Korkai, Vanji, Tondi, Arikamedu, Muziris
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Key Events:
• Kalabhra Invasion – Disrupted Sangam polity
• Sangam literature provides insight into social, political, and economic life.

Chapter 12: The Gupta Age

Gupta Dynasty Timeline:
• 230 AD: Rise of Gupta Empire
• Founder: Sri Gupta
• Ghatotkacha – Son of Sri Gupta
• Chandragupta I – Married Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi
• Title: Maharajadhiraja
• Established Gupta Era (319-320 AD)

Important Gupta Rulers:

• Samudragupta (335–375 AD)
• Allahabad pillar inscription by Harisen
• Title: Napoleon of India (Vincent Smith)
• Policies: Digvijaya (military conquest) and Dharma Vijaya (diplomatic control)
• Conquered parts of north & south India
• Performed Ashvamedha Yajna
• Patron of art and music
• Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (375–415 AD)
• Defeated Shakas
• Married Naganjika (Naga princess)
• Court of Navaratnas (Nine Gems)
• Included Kalidasa
• Issued silver coins like Shakas
• Promoted trade with the Roman world
• Capital shifted to Ujjain (alternate capital)
• Kumaragupta I (415–455 AD)
• Founded Nalanda University
• Skandagupta (455–467 AD)
• Faced Hun invasion
• Successfully repelled Huns ( rst wave)

Other Notes:
• Decline after Skandagupta due to:
• Weak successors
• Continuous Hun invasions
• Economic decline
• Rise of regional kingdoms

Fa-Hien’s Visit during Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya):

• Spent 6 years in Gupta Empire
• Entered India via land route: Khotan → Kashmir → Gandhara → Punjab
• Visited:
• Peshawar, Mathura, Kannauj, Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Kushinagar, Bodh Gaya,
Kashi, Pataliputra
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 • Returned via sea route (Sri Lanka → Java → China)
• Stayed at Pataliputra for 3 years
• Learned Sanskrit & copied Buddhist texts
• Purpose: Collect Buddhist manuscripts
• Observations:
• Buddhism ourishing in NW India & South India
• Ganga valley = land of Brahmanism
• Did not mention Chandragupta II directly

Timeline Overview
• 320 AD – Samudragupta's reign begins
• 375 AD – Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
• 450 AD – Skandagupta (defended against Huns)
• 550 AD – Start of Post-Gupta Era

Post Gupta Era (550 AD onwards):

• Important Post-Gupta Kingdoms:
• Maukharis
• Pushyabhutis (Harshavardhana’s dynasty)
• Later Guptas
• Vardhans
• Yashovarman (Kannauj)
• Gaudas
• Vakatakas
• Pallavas
• Kadambas

Nine Gems (Navaratnas) of Chandragupta II:

1. Kshapanaka – Astrology, Jyotishastra
2. Dhanvantari – Medicine, Ayurveda
3. Charaka (controversially mentioned) – Medicine
4. Sanku – Architecture, Shilpashastra
5. Kalidasa – Drama, Poetry
6. Varahamihira – Astronomy
7. Amarasimha – Lexicography (Amarakosha)
8. Vararuchi – Grammar
9. Vetalabhatta – Scholar, Tantric knowledge

Gupta Administration:
• Empire Structure:
• Bhukti → Vishaya (district)
• Parishad (council), Adhikarana (court)
• O cials: Uparikas (district head), Vishayapatis (local admin)
• Nagaram/Gramik – Village administration

Important Terms:
• Sandhivigrahika – Minister for Foreign A airs
• Punishment System:
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 • Mild, benevolent governance
• Enjoyed personal freedom, no strict interference
• Corporal punishment used, but with fairness
• Spies existed, but fewer than Mauryas
• Prisons existed with rehabilitation

Taxation:
• Bali – Voluntary o erings
• Bhaga – State share (1/6th of produce)
• Vishthi – Forced labor
• Ayuktas – O cers granting land to Brahmins
• Agrahara – Land grants to Brahmins
• Pallavas: Land grants = Brahmadeya

Architecture:
• Nagara Style Temples:
• Originated during late Gupta or post-Gupta period
• More visible in North India

Administration
King:
• Titles: Paramabhattaraka, Chakravartin, Param-daivata, Parameshvara
• Given divine status (similar to gods)
• Kumaragupta I → Prajāpati (lord of all)
• Political continuity seen among kings who accepted Gupta suzerainty.

O cials:
• Mahadandanayaka – Chief Justice
• Upārika – Provincial o cer
• Vishayapatis – District o cers
• Chinese traveler Fa-Hien noted no capital punishment in Gupta era
• Mahārājasthāniya – Chief of police
• Pratīhāras – Regulated ceremonies and guarded palace entrances
• Dūtakas – Implemented gifts or land grants to Brahmins and o cers

Army / Ministers:
• Sāndhi-vigrahaka – Peace and war minister
• Mahādandādhikrit – High judicial o cial
• Pillupati – Head of elephant corps
• Āśvapati – Head of cavalry
• Vanapāti – Head of forest o cers
• Ranabhandāgārika – O cer in charge of war treasury

Revenue Administration:
• Land revenue was the main source of income
• Under Samudragupta, Aśvapati-adhikrit supervised Gopāsramin, who:
• Maintained ancient religious institutions
• Collected nes and taxes
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• Rūpalekhaka – Record keeper
• Kāmādhanakas / Nivṛttas – Claimed treasury resources were for state survival
• 1/6th of produce (Bhāga) was the usual tax
• Upakāra – Tax on goods like cloth
• Vishṭi – Forced labor
• Bali – Became compulsory

Province / District / Village Administration:

• Bhukti (province) – Governed by Upārika
• Vishaya (district) – Administered by Āyuktaka / Vishayapati
• Grāma (village) – Managed by Grāmapati / Grāmādhyakṣa
• Types of village o cers:
• Kumārika, Kulumbika, Mahattara
• Grāma Vṛiddhas – Elders resolving village disputes

Economy
Agriculture:
• Kshetra – Cultivated land
• Khilā / Aprahata – Uncultivated land
• Nivartana – Land measurement unit
• Kulyavāpa – Measuring plough land
• Ghatiyāntra – Device to extract water from wells

Animals – Various types for agricultural purposes

Agricultural Classes:
• Kṣetrajīvī, Karṣaka – Cultivators
• Vṛṣṭhī – Forced unpaid labor

Crafts, Production, and Trade:

• Kṣaum – Silk cloth
• Pattavastra – Silk varieties
• Nāgarasresthī – Merchant guild representatives
• Sārthavāha – Head of trade caravans
• Sreṇīs – Merchant guilds

Society:
• Brahmadeyas, Agrahāras – Brahmin settlements
• Antyajāti – Untouchables
• Chāṇḍālas – Impure, outcaste
• Charmakāras – Leather workers

Timeline of Harsha’s Reign:

• 590 CE: Period before Harsha's rule
• Regions: Pushyabhutis of Thaneshwar, Maukharis of Kanauj, Maitrakas, Later
Guptas, Varmans, Chalukyas, Pallavas, etc.
• 606 CE: Start of Harsha’s reign
• Harsha becomes ruler after uniting Thaneshwar and Kanauj.
• 625 CE:
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• Harsha’s empire (highlighted in yellow) expands
• Covers regions: Thaneshwar, Kanauj, Maukharis, Later Guptas, Varmans, Gauda
(Shashanka), part of central and eastern India
• Empire blocked from expanding south by Pulakeshin II of the Chalukyas
• 647 CE: Death of Harsha

Key Political Players and Regions:

Harsha's Empire (Northern and Eastern India):
• Capital: Kanauj
• Important regions: Thaneshwar, Maukharis, Later Guptas, Varmans, Gauda
(Shashanka)
Deccan and South India:
• Pulakeshin II (Chalukya king)
• Defeated Harsha and halted southern conquest
• Took title of “Parameshvara”
• Aihole inscription records victory
• Court poet: Ravikirti (र )
• Other Southern Dynasties:
• Pallavas
• Cholas
• Cheras
• Pandyas
• Kalachuris
• Yadavas

Important Inscriptions and Notes:

• Aihole Inscription: Celebrates Pulakeshin II's victory over Harsha
• Pulakeshin’s title after victory: Parameshvara

Hiuen Tsang’s Account (to India):

• Provided detailed information on:
• Social, economic, religious, and cultural conditions during Harsha’s reign.
• Tsang was robbed of his belongings during his travel.
• Harsha:
• Worshipped Shiva at rst.
• Later embraced Buddhism under the in uence of his sisters and Tsang.
• Occupations of the four Varnas (castes) continued as in earlier times.
• Duties (dues) were paid regularly without fail.
• Founder of Pushyabhuti dynasty: Prabhakaravardhana
• His son Harsha described as "lion to the Huna deer" (by Banabhatta).

Harsha’s Era:
• Military Conquests:
• Defeated Shashanka of Gauda.
• Gained Bengal after Bhaskaravarman’s alliance.
• Malwa (Maitraka dynasty) king was also defeated.
• Took titles: Uttarapatheshwara / Uttarapathapati
• Defeated by Pulakeshin II at the Battle of Narmada (crossing Narmada).
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 Administration:
• Decentralized (similar to Gupta period).
• O cials appointed by the king were hereditary.
• Maintained records (Harsha period archives called Niyoga).
• First ruler to o er land grants to military o cers and Brahmans.
• Land tax: 1/6th of produce.

Religion:
• Mahayana Buddhism spread.
• Tsang converted Harsha to Buddhism.

Assemblies:
1. Kannauj Assembly:
• Organized by Harsha to honor Tsang.
• Invited representatives of all sects.
• Hiuen Tsang praised the discussions held there.
2. Prayag (Allahabad) Assembly:
• Held every 5 years.
• Massive charity work by Harsha.

Social Life:
• Women’s status declined.
• Swayamvara system ended.
• Widow remarriage not permitted.
• Child marriage became common.
• Casteism was prevalent.

Economy:
• Decline in trade; no large-scale demand for goods.
• Self-su cient village economy.

Taxation:
• Types:
• Bhaga (produce tax)
• Bali (religious tax)
• Mostly light taxation.

Punishments:
• Usually nes.

Art and Culture:

• Temples built by Harsha at Nalanda.
• Copperplate edicts (e.g., Banskheda).
• Patronized poets:
• Banabhatta (Harshacharita)
• Mayura
• Divakar
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• Literary works:
• Harshacharita (Banabhatta)
• Kadambari (Banabhatta)
• Harsha’s own plays (in Sanskrit):
• Nagananda
• Ratnavali
• Priyadarshika

Nalanda University:
• Originally Gupta-period, ourished under Harsha.
• Harsha granted it endowments.
• Famous teachers:
• Dharmapala
• Silabhadra
• Shantirakshita

Inscriptions:
• Banskheda Inscription
• Madhuban Inscription
• Sonpat Inscription

Vakataka Empire (225 AD – 500 AD)

Contemporary of Guptas
• Founder: Vindhya Shakti
• Region:
• Extended from southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat (north)
• To the Tungabhadra river (south)
• Arabian Sea (west) to parts of Chhattisgarh (east)
• Successors of: Satavahanas
• Cultural Contribution:
• Rock-cut Buddhist viharas & chaityas of Ajanta caves
• Patronage of King Harishena
• Painting titled "Mahabhinishkraman"

Art References
• Sangam Art: 3rd BCE – 3rd AD
• Associated with Pandyas and Cholas
• Kalabhra: Ruled for about 250 years till 500 AD
• Pallavas & Pandyas: After 550 AD

Pallavas (550 – 800 AD)

Origin Theories:
• Descendants of Bhartri (Chola)
• Natives
• Other Satavahanas captured Tondaimandalam → Pallavas became their
feudatories → Later became independent
Kingdom in: Tondaimandalam
Capital: Kanchipuram (Kanchi)
Later captured and annexed by Imperial Cholas in 10th century AD
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 Prominent Rulers:
1. Simhavishnu
• Time: 580–630
• Destroyed Kalabhras & extended rule to Cauvery
• Defeated Cholas
• Son: Mahendravarman I

2. Mahendravarman I (600–630)
• Harsha was contemporary
• Con ict:
• Pulakesin II marched against Pallavas, captured north
• Lost part of their kingdom
• Converted to Jainism → Shaivism
• Art & Architecture:
• Rock-cut temples (Mamandur, Mahendravadi, Mandagapattu inscription)
• Used term "Builder without bricks"
• Title: Gunabhara
• Works: Mattavilasa, Bhagirath
• Son: Narasimhavarman I

3. Narasimhavarman I (630–668)
• Title: Mamalla (great wrestler)
• Avenged father’s defeat
• Defeated Pulakesin II (Vatapi captured)
• Architecture Flourished:
• Shore temple, Mahabalipuram
• Rock-cut architecture progressed
• Naval Expedition: Sent to Ceylon (helped Manavarma)
• Kanchi: Capital
• Shaivite

4. Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha) (700–728)

• Peaceful reign
• Built Kailashnath temple, Kanchi
• Promoted Sanskrit scholarship
• Dandin in his court
• Sent embassies to China
• Maritime trade ourished
• Built shore temple at Mahabalipuram
• Shaivite

5. Nandivarman II (reign after Narasimhavarman II)

• Struggled against Cholas
• End of Dynasty:
• Defeated by Chola King Aditya I
• Pallava dynasty ended in 897 AD

Administration of Pallavas
• Well-organized administration
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• Pallava state
Kottams
• Administered by o cers appointed by the king
Land Grants
• Dev Dhan → to temples
• Brahmadeya → to Brahmans
• Exempted from land tax
Irrigation and Revenue
• Numerous irrigation tanks during Mahendravarman I
• Land tax = primary source of state revenue
Autonomous Village Assemblies
• Sabhas and their committees
• In contrast: Chalukyas had complete centralization

Religion
• Rise of Shaivism (Nayanmar)
• Rise of Vaishnavism (Alvars)
• Decline of Jainism/Buddhism
Bhakti Movement
• Started in the South (7th AD)
• Spread to North (11th AD)

Education and Literature

• Capital: Kanchi
• A great ancient centre of learning
• Known for Ghatika @ Kanchi
Notable Scholars and Writers
• Dinnaga – Buddhist writer, studied at Kanchi
• Dharmapala – Became head of Nalanda University, belonged to Kanchi
• Bharavi – Great Sanskrit scholar, Simhavishnu's time
• Dandin – Time of Narasimhavarman II
• Mahendravarman I – Wrote the play Mattavilasa Prahasanam

Religious Literature
• Nayanar – Composed Shaivite hymns
• Alvars – Composed Vaishnavite hymns
• Example: Nalayira Divya Prabandham (Alvars – Vishnu)

Art & Architecture

• Dravidian style of temple architecture began during Pallavas
• Peaked under the Cholas
Architectural Progression
• Started with cave temples (Mahendravarman)
• Progressed to Rathas (monolithic)
• Then to structural temples (e.g., Shore Temple, Kailashnath)
• Sittanavasal paintings belong to this period
• Pallavas were the founders of this style
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Chalukyas (540–750 AD)
Important Rulers & Timeline
Ruler Reign Key Events
Pulakeshin I 543–566 Established the dynasty
Kirtivarman I — Succeeded Pulakeshin I
Pulakeshin II 609–642 - Defeated Harsha (Aihole Inscription)
- Defeated Kadambas of Banavasi
- Court poet: Ravikirti (Jain)
- Huen Tsang's visit
- Attacked
by Narasimhavarman, Vatapi sacked
Vikramaditya I — Re-consolidated the kingdom after Pallava
invasion
Kirtivarman II 740–750 - Last Chalukya ruler
- Defeated by Dantidurga, founder
of Rashtrakutas

Contemporaries
• Huen Tsang (Chinese traveler) – 606 AD
• Harsha – 606 to 647 AD
• Mahendravarman I (MV I) – 600 AD
• Pallavas – till 630 AD
• Pulakeshin II and Harsha were contemporaries

Inscriptions
• Aihole Inscription:
• Mentions defeat of Harsha by Pulakeshin II
• Written by court poet Ravikirti

Territorial Information (Map-based notes)

• Early Chalukyas capital: Badami
• Other regions: Vengi, Pallavas
(Kanchipuram), Cheras, Pandyas, Maitrekas, Guptas, Pushyabhutis, Maukhar
is
• Later Chalukyas succeeded by:
• Rashtrakutas under Dantidurga
• Associated with the decline of Pallavas and rise of Imperial Cholas

Administration & Social Life (Chalukyas)

• Highly Centralized administration
• Unlike Pallavas and Cholas
• Village autonomy was absent
• Great naval power
• Brahmanical Hindus, but:
• Gave respect to every other religion
• Importance given to Vedic sites and rituals
• Pulakeshin I – Founder of Chalukya dynasty
• Religious Developments:
• Huen Tsang noted:
• Decline of Buddhism in western Deccan
• Jainism was on the path of progress
• Ravikirti (court poet of Pulakeshin II) was a Jain

Administrative Structure
Rashtra (Empire)
↓
Vishya (Province)
↓
Bukthi (District) – headed by Bhogapati
↓
Gram/Town – headed by Nagarpati
• Note: Under the Guptas, Bhukti referred to provinces, but under Chalukyas, they
were districts

Art & Architecture

Vesara Style (Developed by Chalukyas)
• Reached its peak under Rashtrakutas and Hoysalas
• Cave temple architecture ourished (locations: Ajanta, Ellora, Nasik)
• Structural temples at:
• Aihole
• Badami
• Pattadakal

Comparison (Bubble Diagram)

Dynasty Architecture Style Administration
Chalukyas Vesara style Centralised
Pallavas Dravidian style Autonomous villages

1. Dynasties & Founders

• Haryanka: Bimbisara
• Shishunaga: Shishunaga
• Nanda: Mahapadmananda
• Mauryan: Chandragupta Maurya
• Shunga: Pushyamitra Shunga
• Kanva: Vasudeva Kanva
• Satavahanas: Simuka
• Gupta: Sri Gupta
• Pushyabhuti: Prabhakaravardhana
• Pallava: Simhavarman
• Chalukya: Pulakeshin I
• Rashtrakuta: Dantidurga
• Gurjara Pratiharas: Nagabhata I
• Pala: Gopala
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• Chola: Vijayalaya

2. Important Inscriptions
• Mauryas:
• Junagadh (GJ) – Rudradaman
• Sohgaura (UP)
• Mahasthan (Bangla)
• Satavahanas:
• Nasik (MH) – Gautami Balashri
• NA
• Chera:
• Pugalur inscription
• Gupta:
• Mehrauli Iron Pillar (Delhi)
• Ganga:
• Allahabad Pillar Inscription (Samudragupta)
• Yashodharman's Mandsaur Inscription
• Harisena
• Harsha:
• Banskheda
• Madhuban
• Sonepat Inscription
• Chalukyas:
• Aihole – Ravikirti (Pulakeshin II)
• Pallavas:
• Mahendravarman – Mandagapattu
• Narasimhavarman – Huen Tsang

3. Important Ports
• Nirppeyin – Ancient port (TN)
• Muziris – Kerala (Chera)
• Tamralipti – Bengal, Gupta port
• Bharuch – Bhrigukachchha (GJ)
• Sopara – Mauryan port
• Chandraketugarh – Bengal
• Tondi – Pandya, TN
• Puhar/Kaveripattinam – Chola, TN
• Poduca – TN
• Motupalli – Kakatiya, Andhra
• Arikamedu – Puducherry
• Barbaricum – Port near Karachi
• Masulipatnam – East India trade port
• Mylapore – TN
• Puri port – During Vijayanagara
• Surat – GJ, port of Mughals

4. Vedas and Religious Literature

• Vedas → Brahmanas → Aranyakas → Upanishads
• Brahmanas are commentaries on Vedas
• Earliest references to Krishna:
• Chandogya Upanishad
• Dialogue between Yama & Nachiketa:
• Kathopanishad (Atma-paramatma)
• Isha Upanishad (Monist doctrine)
• Mundaka Upanishad
• Shvetashvatara Upanishad
• Taittiriya Upanishad
• Aitareya Upanishad
• Maha Upanishad – Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam
• Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
• Yajurveda
• Yajnavalkya (important philosopher)

5. Literary Works & Authors

Early Works
• Ashtadhyayi – Panini (6th BCE) – Sanskrit grammar
• Mahabhashya – Patanjali
• Mrichchhakatika – Shudraka
• Mudrarakshasa – Vishakhadatta
• Buddhacharita – Ashvaghosha
• Kadambari – Banabhatta
Notable Sanskrit Dramas and Epics
• Kamasutra – Vatsyayana
• Ratnavali, Nagananda – Harsha
• Kiratarjuniyam – Bharavi
• Vikramorvashiyam, Malavikagnimitram, Abhijnanasakuntalam – Kalidasa
• Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava, Meghaduta – Kalidasa
• Dashakumaracharita – Dandin
• Avantisundari Kathasara – Dandin
• Kavyadarsha – Dandin
• Geeta Govindam – Jayadeva
• Rajatarangini – Kalhana
• Kathasaritsagara – Somadeva
• Nitisara – Kamandaka
• Subhashitasudhanidhi – Samaya
• Bhasha – authored 13 plays
• Soundarananda – Ashvaghosha
• Natyashastra – Bharata
Jain & Buddhist Contributions
• Natyashastra – Bharata
• Bhadrabahu – Jain
• Sudraka – dramatist
Regional and Later Works
• Ramayan – Kamban (Tamil, Chola era)
• Lilavati – Bhaskara II
• Vikramankadeva Charita – Bilhana
• Brihatkatha – Gunadhya
• Kavyamimamsa – Rajasekhara
• Kalpamulakam – Jain work