1

Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis

 Practical
Physics
A Competence-Based Approach

2
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 This book is dedicated to all physics

students, may your imaginations and

experiments lead to revelations that will

inspire the future

3
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 NAME:

SCHOOL:

CLASS / STREAM:

YEAR:

4
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 5
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 6
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
FOR ORDERS, PLEASE CALL OR
WHATSAPP
▪ 0778370148 (CALLS & WHATSAPP)

▪ 0705272603 (ONLY CALLS)

 1.0 PREFACE AND INTRODUCTION
Embracing Competence-Based Methodologies
The landscape of education is constantly evolving, one of the most significant shifts in recent
years has been towards competence-based approaches which emphasize not just the acquisition
of knowledge, but the development of skills and competencies that students can apply in real-
world situations. The new lower secondary curriculum for physics reflects this shift, moving away
from rote learning and towards a more hands-on, inquiry-based approach to understanding the
physical world.

The New Approach to Practical Physics

Traditionally, practical physics assessments involved following a set of predefined instructions to
achieve a particular result. While this method ensured that students could carry out experiments,
it often lacked engagement with the underlying principles and theories. Students might complete
an experiment successfully without truly understanding why they were performing each step or
how the results related to the theoretical concepts they had learned in class.

In this new approach, practical physics is assessed differently. Students are no longer passive
recipients of instructions; instead, they are active participants in the learning process. They are
required to write extensive practical reports that demonstrate their understanding of the theory
behind the experiments, their ability to apply this theory to solve real-world problems, and their
proficiency in using scientific methods and techniques.

Writing Practical Reports

One of the key components of the new assessment strategy is the practical report. These reports
are not merely records of what students did during an experiment; they are comprehensive
documents that include:

▪ Title: A detailed title of the experiment, including its aim / objective and the scientific
concepts being investigated.
▪ Hypothesis: A clear statement of the expected / guessed outcome based on theoretical
understanding of the concepts.
▪ Materials and Methods: A detailed description of the apparatus used and the procedures
followed, written in the student’s own words; whenever possible, a diagram should also
be included to show how the apparatus were arranged.
▪ Choosing variables: The student has to choose their own dependent & independent
variables basing on the theoretical knowledge they are applying and what variables they
can control.
▪ Data Collection: Systematic recording of observations and measurements.
▪ Analysis: Interpretation of the data, including calculations, graphs, and discussion of
errors and uncertainties.

7
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 ▪ Conclusion: A summary of the findings, how they relate to the hypothesis, and their
implications for the scientific theory.
▪ Possible sources of error: Almost every measurement has an error within it, the errors
could be human errors, rounding errors, parallax errors, errors in instruments and more.
Knowing these errors allows you to mitigate them so as to get reliable conclusions.

Real-World Problem Solving

The heart of this new approach is problem-solving. Instead of conducting experiments in
isolation, students are presented with real-world problems that require them to use their
knowledge and skills to find solutions. This method encourages critical thinking, creativity, and
practical application of theoretical concepts. For example, rather than simply measuring the
resistance of a wire, students might be asked to investigate the design & properties of a heating
element for a specific application, taking into account factors such as efficiency, safety, and cost.

Encouraging Innovation and Creativity

By allowing students to use their own techniques and methods, the competence-based approach
fosters innovation and creativity. Students are not limited to a single way of conducting an
experiment; they are encouraged to think outside the box, try different approaches, and learn
from their successes and failures. This freedom helps students develop a deeper understanding
of scientific principles and how they can be applied in various contexts.

Preparing for the Future

The skills and competencies developed through this new approach to practical physics are
essential for students’ future success, both in their academic pursuits and in their careers.
Whether they go on to become scientists, engineers, doctors, or professionals in any field, the
ability to think critically, solve problems, and apply knowledge practically will serve them well.

Finally, this practical book aims to guide students through this exciting and challenging new
approach to learning physics. It provides a comprehensive framework for conducting
experiments, writing reports, and solving real-world problems, all while developing the skills and
competencies that are essential for success in the 21st century. Let us embark on this journey of
discovery and innovation together, as we explore the fascinating world of physics through a hands-
on, inquiry-based approach.

Byakatonda Denis.

8
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 2.0 WHY PRACTICAL PHYSICS?
Physics ‘practicals’ are a vital part of learning experiments help you see that the laws you
physics, offering hands-on activities that help learn about in textbooks really do apply in the
you understand the concepts you learn in real world.
class. By doing experiments, you get to see
how the principles of physics work in real life, Precision in Measurement and Data
making the subject more interesting and easier Collection
to grasp. Practical physics teaches you how to measure
accurately and collect data. You’ll use tools
Exploring Scientific Questions like meter rules, stopwatches, voltmeters, and
Physics practicals help you explore scientific ammeters to gather precise information.
questions through experiments. Instead of just Learning to measure correctly and record
reading about theories, you get to test them your observations carefully is crucial for
out. For example, you might conduct an ensuring validity and reliability of the results of
experiment to see how a spring stretches when your experiments.
you add weights to it, which helps you
understand Hooke’s Law. This way, you see Developing Experimental Design Skills
the relationship between force and extension Physics practicals help you learn how to design
firsthand. Doing these investigations helps you your own experiments. You’ll figure out what
learn how to ask questions, design variables to control, how to set up your
experiments, collect data, and make sense of experiment, and how to ensure your results
your results. are reliable. This process teaches you the
scientific method and helps you become a
Solving Real-World Problems better problem-solver. For example, designing
Physics practicals often involve solving real- an experiment to see how different angles
world problems. You use your knowledge to affect a projectile’s motion requires careful
tackle challenges you might encounter in planning and thinking.
everyday life, such as figuring out which
material is best for insulating a house by Understanding Complex Systems
measuring how well different materials keep through Simulations
heat. These activities encourage you to think Sometimes, it’s not practical or safe
critically and creatively, applying what you experiment on certain concepts in the lab.
know to solve practical problems. That’s where simulations come in. Using
computer models or laboratory models, you
Demonstrating and Verifying Physics can study things that are too complex or
Laws dangerous to experiment with directly.
Through practical experiments, you get to Simulations help you visualize and understand
prove and understand fundamental laws of difficult concepts in a safe and cost-effective
physics. For instance, you might measure the way.
current and voltage in a circuit to verify Ohm’s
Law or use light experiments to see how
reflection and refraction work. These

9
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 3.0 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
To understand the natural world around us, anomalies, or phenomena that spark
physicists follow a standard logical curiosity.
framework known as the scientific method.
This framework is similar to a detective’s Examples: Why do objects fall to the
investigation, ensuring that all possible ground? What causes the phases of the
questions are answered before making Moon?
conclusions.
Once an observation is made, it leads to a
By learning and applying the scientific question—often framed as, "How does this
method, you will develop critical thinking happen?" or "Why does this occur?"
and problem-solving skills that extend
beyond physics into everyday life. Before proposing an explanation, scientists
often review existing knowledge and
previous research. This step prevents
duplication of efforts and allows scientists to
build on already established knowledge.

Hypothesis Formation
A hypothesis is an educated guess or a
proposed explanation for the observation.
The hypothesis doesn’t have to be a correct
explanation but it must be testable and
falsifiable, meaning it can be proven false
through experiments or evidence. Examples
of hypotheses include;

Objects fall to the ground because they are

attracted by Earth's gravity.

The moon’s shape changes throughout the

month because the moon rotates around the
earth so it appears in different shapes
Figure 2.0 Steps in the scientific method depending on which parts are illuminated.

The scientific method generally follows Experimentation

these key steps:
To test whether a hypothesis is true or false,
Observation and Questioning: an experiment is designed and conducted.
The experiments are designed such that only
The process begins with careful observation one variable is changed at a time while others
of the world. Scientists look for patterns, remain constant, this enables the

10
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
experimenter to know how such a variable applied force is plotted; a straight line shows
affects the process. that the material under investigation obeys
Hooke’s law.
The experiments should be standard, i.e.
easy to replicate; other scientists should be Conclusion
able to perform the same experiment and Based on the data, the hypothesis is either
achieve the similar results. supported or refuted. If the hypothesis is
supported, it may lead to further testing or
Data Collection and Analysis refinement. If refuted, a new hypothesis is
formed, and the cycle begins again.
During the experiment, data is collected in a
structured format (tables, charts, graphs).
The final step involves sharing findings with
This data is then analyzed to identify trends
the scientific community through
or patterns.
publications, presentations, or discussions.
This ensures transparency, encourages
Example: In testing Hooke’s law, data about
collaboration and it is through such that
extension and applied force is collected, a
new knowledge is discovered.
graph of the extension of a spring against the

11
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
The vernier caliper is a versatile instrument used to measure internal and external dimensions
as well as depths. It offers more precision than a standard ruler, typically up to 0.1 mm or 0.02
mm depending on the model.

How to Use a Vernier Caliper:

Figure 4.3 How to use a vernier caliper.

Measuring External Dimensions:

o Place the object between the outside jaws
(Figure 4.3).
o Slide the vernier scale until the jaws grip
the object snugly, (Figure 4.3).
Measuring Internal Dimensions:
o Insert the inside jaws into the space to be
measured and expand them until they fit
snugly.
Measuring Depth:
o Extend the depth rod into the hole or
opening of the depth to be measured.

Figure 4.4 Measuring depth with a vernier

caliper.

13
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
2. Measure the internal and external diameters of a 250 ml beaker school laboratory, then use
your results to calculate the a) thickness of the beaker b) Internal and external surface areas
of the beaker. Suggest why your answer may not be accurate. (The figure provided here is for
reference purpose only, you’re required to take measurements from an actual beaker in the
lab)

Figure 4.6 Measuring the diameter of a beaker.

15
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
3. Could you suggest any other objects whose dimensions can best be measured by a vernier
caliper?

c) Micrometer Screw Gauge

The micrometer screw gauge is a more precise instrument used to measure very small
dimensions, typically to the nearest 0.01 mm. It is commonly used for measuring the diameter
of thin wires or small objects.

Figure 4.7 Parts of a micrometer screw gauge.

How to Use a Micrometer Screw Gauge: o Add these readings together for the final
result.
Measuring an Object:
Example: If the main scale reads 6.5 mm and
o Place the object between the anvil and
the thimble scale reads 48 (with each division
spindle.
representing 0.01 mm):
o Rotate the thimble until the object is gently
held. Use the ratchet stop to avoid
excessive pressure.
Taking the Reading:
o Read the main scale on the sleeve. This
gives the whole millimeters and half-
millimeter increments.
o Read the thimble scale, which shows the
additional measurement in hundredths of
a millimeter. Total reading = 6.5 mm + (48 × 0.01) mm =
6.98 mm.

16
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
TRY IT OUT
1. For each of the figures, determine the reading micrometer screw gauge.

2. Using a micrometer screw gauge, measure the thickness of this practical workbook. Repeat
the procedure using another micrometer screw gauge and comment on the two results.

17
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
Zero Errors in a Micrometer Screw Gauge
A zero error occurs when the micrometer To detect zero a zero error, close the anvil and
screw gauge does not read exactly zero when spindle gently using the ratchet stop to ensure
the anvil and spindle are fully closed. consistent pressure and observe the alignment
of the thimble’s zero mark with the sleeve’s
This can happen due to wear and tear,
datum line. If the zero aligns perfectly, there is
improper calibration, or manufacturing
no zero error but if the zero does not align, the
imperfections. A zero error affects the
instrument has a zero error that needs to be
accuracy of measurements, but it can be
accounted for depending on how far the zero
detected and corrected.
is displaced from the reference line.

Figure 4.8 types of zero errors in a micrometer screw gauge.

Zero errors in a micrometer screw gauge are subtract the positive zero error from all
of two types: measurements.
Positive Zero Error: Occurs when the zero Negative Zero Error: Occurs when the zero
mark on the thimble scale is below the mark on the thimble scale is above the datum
horizontal reference line (datum line) on the line on the sleeve when the anvil and spindle
sleeve when the anvil and spindle are in are in contact. This means the micrometer will
contact. This means the micrometer will read read a value smaller than the actual
a value greater than the actual measurement. measurement. To correct this error in
To correct this error in measurements, we measurements; we add the negative zero error
to all measurements taken.

Comparison of Vernier Caliper and Micrometer Screw Gauge

Feature Vernier Caliper Micrometer Screw Gauge
Measurement Range Larger (up to 200 mm or more) Smaller (up to 25 mm)
Accuracy Typically, 0.1 mm Typically, 0.01 mm
Applications General-purpose measurements High-precision tasks

18
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
4.2 Measurement of angles
Protractors
A protractor is a semicircular or circular tool used for measuring angles in degrees (°).
To use it, place the midpoint of the protractor at the vertex of the angle, align one side of the
angle with the zero line of the protractor, and read the scale where the other side of the angle
intersects the protractor.

Figure 4.9 How to use a protractor.

The least count of a standard protractor is 1 degree. Some protractors have finer graduations
with a least count of 0.5 degrees. The accuracy is usually ±0.5 degrees.
Angles are mostly read to the nearest whole number (e.g., 450) or to one decimal place (e.g.,
45.0°) depending on the type of protractor and its least count.

TRY IT OUT
1. Read and state the angle between the arrows shown in each of the diagrams
below. (read directly from the protractors)

19
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
2. Using a protractor, measure and state the marked angle in each of the figures
below.

20
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 These devices can be analog or digital. The
time is read directly from the digital display or
analog dials. For accuracy, ensure to start and
stop the clock precisely at the beginning and
end of the event being measured.

The least count of a stop clock can be as small

as 0.01 seconds for digital models hence these
are read to two decimal places for digital
models (e.g., 0 mins, 12 seconds & 34
microseconds, 00: 12: 34 ⇒ 12.34 𝑠), on
the other hand, most analog stopwatches have
a least count of 0.5 seconds or 0.1 seconds,
Figure 4.11 Digital stop clock.
which means their values are read to 1 decimal
place, e.g., 12.5s, 30.0s, 46.5s.

TRY IT OUT
Suspend a pendulum bob on a retort stand using a thread, displace the pendulum bob and let
it make 15 oscillations. Using a stop clock or stop watch, measure the time taken to make the
15 oscillations. What are some possible sources of error in this measurement.

Figure 4.12 A simple pendulum.

22
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
4.4 Measurement of Mass and Weight
In physics, mass and weight are distinct but The weights on one pan are adjusted until the
closely related concepts. Understanding their beam is perfectly horizontal; then the mass of
differences and knowing how to measure the object equals the sum of the standard
them accurately is essential for various masses.
applications in science and engineering.
b) Electronic Balance
Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in
A digital device that measures mass
an object. It is a scalar quantity, meaning it
electronically using sensors. The unknown
has magnitude but no direction, and is
mass is placed on the platform and the mass
typically measured in kilograms (kg) or grams
is displayed digitally in kilograms or grams.
(g) in the SI system. Mass remains constant
for an object regardless of its location (e.g.,
Earth, Moon, or outer space).
Weight on the other hand is the gravitational
force acting on an object due to its mass. It is
a vector quantity, meaning it has both
magnitude and direction (toward the center
of the Earth or another celestial body).
Weight is given by:
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑔)
Figure 4.14 An electronic beam balance.
Weight is measured in newtons (N). It varies
depending on the gravitational field strength c) Triple-Beam Balance
of the location. This is a mechanical balance with three
a) Beam Balance sliding weights on calibrated beams. The
instrument is first adjusted (by moving the
This is a classic instrument for measuring masses on the beam) so that the pointer is at
mass in the laboratory. It has two pans the zero mark, the unknown weight is placed
balanced on a horizontal beam. Standard on the pan and the masses are moved again
masses are placed on one pan, and the object to restore balance. The unknown mass is
to be measured is placed on the other. read directly from the horizontal scale by
adding the masses on the three beams.

Figure 4.13 A beam balance. Figure 4.15 A triple beam balance.

23
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
d) Spring Balance To determine weight of an object, the object
is hanged freely on the hook and the weight
is read directly from the scale.

(a)
This device that measures weight by the
Figure 4.16 (a), (b) Spring balances of different
extension of a spring, based on Hooke's law.
weight ranges.

TRY IT OUT
Using a triple beam balance, determine the mass of an empty beaker, Fill the beaker with 150
ml of water and measure the total weight; finally determine the mass of the 150 ml of water
alone.
Repeat the procedures above using a digital beam balance. Are your values the same? What
could be the possible sources of error when using each of the instruments?

24
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
To get a correct reading, connect the some voltmeters are read to 1 decimal place
voltmeter in parallel with the component while others in 2 decimal places.
across which the potential difference is to be
measured. The value of p.d, in Volts is read Just like ammeters, some voltmeters have 2
directly from the meter’s display. terminals while others have 3, for those with
3 terminals, use the common (black) terminal
The least count of a voltmeter depends on its and one of the 2 red terminals depending on
range and design, often 0.1 volts for some which range of voltage you’re measuring. Also
meters and 0.01 volts for others. Therefore, ensure that you’re reading from the right scale
depending on the terminals used.

TRY IT OUT

Connect a bulb, dry cells and switch as shown below ensuring that the bulb gives light.

Figure 4.21 A simple circuit.

Next, connect a voltmeter and ammeter appropriately to measure the value of current and
potential difference across the bulb (use the space below to show an adjusted circuit containing
the ammeter and voltmeter).

26
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 Voltmeter Voltage volts (V) 0.1 V or 0.01 V 1 d.p or 2 d.p
Ammeter Current amperes (A) 0.1 A or 0.01 A 1 d.p or 2 d.p
Measuring Volume mL, L 1 mL 0 d.p or 1 d.p
Cylinder

Beaker Volume mL, L 10 mL or 20 mL or 0 d.p

50 mL

Spring Balance Weight N Varies depending on Depends on the least

the type & range count of the instrument

Beam Balance Mass g, kg Varies depending on Depends on the least

the type & range count of the instrument

28
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 5.0 DATA COLLECTION AND MANIPULATION
In physics practical, handling and manipulating data accurately is important. Understanding the
rules for working with significant figures and decimal places ensures that your calculations are
precise and reliable.
In the previous section, you were introduced to some laboratory instruments that we use to take
measurements and collect data. This section will focus on how to manipulate data through
various mathematical operations, focusing on significant figures, decimal places, and working with
physical and mathematical constant values like π (pi), e and float values.

5.1 Significant Figures and Decimal Places

Significant Figures are the digits in a number that contribute to its accuracy. This includes all
non-zero digits, any zeros between significant digits, and trailing zeros in a decimal number.
Decimal Places refer to the number of digits to the right of the decimal point. Significant figures
& decimal concepts help maintain precision in your calculations.

How to count Significant Figures

▪ Non-Zero Digits: All non-zero digits (1-9) are always significant, e.g.,123 has 3 significant
figures, 56.789 has 5 significant figures.
▪ Trapped (or Captive) Zeros: These are zeros located between non-zero digits, they are
counted as significant; e.g., 1002 has 4 significant figures, 3.0701 has 5 significant figures.
▪ Leading Zeros: Leading zeros (zeros before the first non-zero digit) are not significant.
e.g., 0.0056 has 2 significant figures, 0.000789 has 3 significant figures.
▪ Trailing (or terminal) Zeros: Trailing zeros (zeros at the end of a number) are significant
only if they represent the accuracy or precision of an instrument, e.g.; if 23.0 cm is read
from a meter rule, it has 3 significant figures, 300 from a protractor has 2 significant figures.
▪ Scientific Notation: Scientific notation is often used to clearly indicate the number of
significant figures. In scientific notation, all digits in the coefficient are significant, e.g., in
4.00 × 103 , the coefficient (4.00) has 3 significant figures, in 1.230 × 10−4 , The
coefficient (1.230) has 4 significant figures.
▪ Exact Numbers: If a number was obtained by counting, e.g., 20 oscillations, 10 apples, 2
beakers, then the number is considered to be exact. Exact numbers have an infinite
number of significant figures. If a number is part of a definition, then the number is also
exact. For example, 1 cm is defined as exactly 100 m. Therefore, in the statement 1 m =
100 cm, both the 1 & 100 have an infinite number of significant figures.

29
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
5.2 Addition and Subtraction
When adding or subtracting numbers, the result should be rounded off to the same number of
decimal places as the value with the fewest decimal places. For example;
12.345 + 7.1=19.4
12.345 (has 3 decimal places) + 7.1 (has 1 decimal place) = 19.445 (3 decimal places)
But since 7.1 has the least number of decimal places in the above calculation (i.e. 1 decimal
place), then the final answer has to be rounded off to 1 decimal place; 19.4 (1 decimal place).
Confirm the same rule is followed for the next examples.

▪ 25.678 (3 d.p) - 3.12 (2 d.p) = 22.56 (2 d.p).

▪ 100.01 (2 d.p) + 2.1 (1 d.p) = 102.1 (1 d.p).

5.3 Multiplication and Division

For multiplication and division, the result should have the same number of significant figures as
the measurement with the fewest significant figures.

▪ 4.56 (3 significant figures) × 1.4 (2 significant figures) = 6.384, which is rounded to 6.4 (2
significant figures).
▪ 3.123 (4 significant figures) ÷ 2.1 (2 significant figures) = 1.487142857, which is rounded to
1.5 (2 significant figures).
▪ 5.678 (4 significant figures) × 2.0 (2 significant figures) = 11.356, which is rounded to 11 (2
significant figures).
Note: Much as reciprocals are obtained by dividing 1 by a given number, they follow quite a
different rule; since 1 is a constant value in this case, it is considered to have an infinite number
of significant figures (see float values), therefore, we consider the significant figures of the
1
denominator, e.g., 2.6 = 0.38 since the denominator has 2 S.F.

5.4 Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric functions can be very sensitive to the precision used; when using trigonometric
functions like sine, cosine, and tangent, the result should be written to three decimal places.

5.5 Square Roots

For square roots, the number of significant figures in the result should be the same as the number
of significant figures in the original number.
▪ √4.00 (3 significant figures) = 2.00 (3 significant figures).
▪ √16.56 (4 significant figures) = 4.069 (4 significant figures).
▪ √9.7 (2 significant figures) = 3.1 (2 significant figures).

30
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
5.6 Float & Constant Values
Constants such as π (pi) & acceleration due to gravity, g are used frequently in physics calculations,
some of these constants have a defined number of decimal places & significant figures while
others have an infinite number of decimal places & significant figures, these are known as float
values. When dealing with float values & constants, the rules of arithmetic operations are the
same as those already described.
E.g., 2.4 π = 7.5 (2 significant figures), since π has an infinite number of significant figures and
2.4 has 2 S.F, we consider the one with the least significant figures for the final result.

TRY IT OUT
Evaluate the following expressions using the precision rules of decimal places and significant
figures.

0.045×0.00465
1)
4.2

2) (15.3 − 11.56)2

4𝜋2
3) , where 4𝜋 2 is a constant
3.8

0.630
4) √
9.8

1 1
5) +
12.5 19.3

31
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 20.0×66.6
6)
20.0+66.6

17.27
7) , where 20 is a float value
20

5.7 Recording values in the table of results

It is important to maintain a consistent number of decimal places in a given column in the table,
this creates uniformity and ensures that all values have been recorded to the same level of
accuracy.
Having a uniform number of decimal places in a column of directly measured values from an
instrument is often obvious since each instrument gives readings already fixed to a certain number
of decimal places. The problem arises when dealing with ‘calculated columns.
For ‘calculated columns’ of addition & subtraction, we simply add the values and record the
answer with the least decimal places involved in the calculation. e.g., if a table has a column of 𝑥
and 𝑦, and we need a column of 𝑥 + 𝑦,

𝑥(𝑚) 𝑦 (𝑚) 𝑥 + 𝑦 (𝑐𝑚)

0.20 0.180 0.38
0.30 0.362 0.66
0.40 0.451 0.85
0.50 0.663 1.16
Note that the values in the ‘𝑥 + 𝑦’ column are all uniformly written to 2 dp.

For calculated columns involving multiplication and division however, numbers with different
numbers of decimal places are likely to be obtained since multiplication and division prioritize
significant figures over decimal places.
In such cases, to create a uniform number of decimal places in the column, we base on the
“largest product” or the “largest quotient” in the table to fix the number of decimal places for
the rest of the column; e.g.

32
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
In the column of 𝑥𝑦, we first calculate all values here using the rules of multiplication, which
obviously favor significant figures and not decimal places.

We then identify the largest value (largest product) in the column, in this case, it is;
0.30(2𝑠𝑓) × 0.620(3𝑠𝑓) = 0.19(2𝑠𝑓). This value has 2sf but most importantly, it has 2dp,
thus for uniformity, the rest of the smaller values in the column of 𝑥y are recorded to 2dp.

Below are some practice tables, complete them as you practice the concepts of data
manipulation.

Practice Table 1

The values of u (cm) and v (cm) were read from a meter rule.
𝑢 (𝑐𝑚) 𝑣 (𝑐𝑚) (𝑢 + 𝑣) (𝑐𝑚) 𝑢𝑣 (𝑐𝑚2 ) 𝑣 cos 𝑢 log 𝑣 𝑢𝑣 cos 𝑢 (𝑐𝑚2 ) log 𝑢𝑣
𝑢
20.0 66.6
25.0 41.7
30.0 32.8
35.0 28.5
40.0 26.5
45.0 24.2

Practice Table 2
𝑡
Assume, 𝑇 = 20 where 20 is a float value, the values of 𝑙 and 𝑡 were read from a meter rule
and stop watch respectively.

𝑙 (𝑚) 𝑡 (𝑠) T (s) 𝑇 2 (𝑠 2 ) 𝑙 3 (𝑚3 ) 1

(𝑠 −2 )
𝑇2
0.900 17.75
0.800 15.25
0.700 12.94
0.600 10.62
0.500 8.40
0.400 6.50

33
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
Practice Table 3

The values of y (cm) and v (v) were read from a meter rule and voltmeter respectively.

𝑦 (𝑐𝑚) 𝑉 (𝑉) 1 1 −1
(𝑐𝑚−1 ) (𝑉 )
𝑦 𝑉

30.0 0.90

40.0 0.95

50.0 1.15

60.0 1.35

70.0 1.55

34
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 6.0 DATA ANALYSIS
Analyzing data is an important part of any experiment. It involves interpreting the collected data
to identify patterns and relationships or performing calculations to draw meaningful conclusions.
In this section, we explore some common statistical measures & methods of analyzing data;

6.1 Using Mean or Average:

Average provides a simple summary of a set of data by giving a central value of the data. Average
is got by dividing the sum of all the data by the number of data values.
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑠

Average is useful when you want to find the central tendency of the data and when the data
distribution is approximately symmetrical without extreme outliers (values that deviate too much
from others).

As an example, suppose you’re given different samples of the same stone and you are to find the
density of the stone; assume the data about the mass, M and volume, V of each sample is
collected as follows.

Sample M (g) V (cm³) 𝝆 (g/cm³)

1 50 20 2.5
2 60 25 2.4
3 55 22 2.5
4 65 27 2.4
5 70 28 2.5

Since the samples are having slightly different densities; we can take the average to cater for all of
them.

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠

= (2.5 + 2.4 + 2.5 + 2.4 + 2.5)

5

= 2.46 𝑔/𝑐𝑚³

6.2 Mode
The mode is the value that appears the greatest number of times. Using data table from the
previous example; we could take the modal density as 2.5 g/cm³ which is still not far from the
average value obtained above.

35
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
Mode is most useful when the data set has outlier values (those that are too unique; too large or
too small). Outlier values can greatly affect averages, that’s why we sometimes use mode as it is
less affected by these extreme values.

6.3 Median
Median is the middle value when the data is ordered from smallest to largest. If there’s an even
number of observations, median is the average of the two middle numbers. Median is best used
for analyzing data which has outliers or is skewed, since it is also less affected by extreme values.

6.4 Graphical Analysis

Graphs are used to visually represent data, making it easier to identify patterns, trends, and
relationships. Graphical analysis is preferred when you want to find the relationship between 2
variables; graphs can show us if the variables are;
a) Directly proportional to each other, e.g., voltage & current, force & extension, etc. this
can be seen if the graph is plotted and both quantities increase or decrease at the together
or when we obtain a straight line with positive gradient.

Figure 4.0 Graphs showing quantities that are directly proportional

b) Inversely proportional to each other, e.g., pressure & volume (Boyle’s law), deceleration,
etc. this can be seen if the graph is plotted and one quantity decreases when the other
increases, or a straight line with negative gradient.

Figure 4.1 Graphs showing quantities that are inversely proportional

36
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
Plotting Graphs for Experimental Data
Graphing is an essential skill in physics that helps visualize and interpret experimental data.
The following are some best practices when plotting graphs for experimental data.

Finding a Suitable and Convenient Scale

Choosing the right scale is crucial for accurately representing your data. When choosing a scale,
aim to use as much of the graph paper as possible to enhance readability. Scales that result in a
crowded or sparsely populated graph should be avoided.

The most common way of finding a scale is to divide the range of the given values by the
available spaces on the graph paper.

ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

Be sure to select scales that are easy multiples to simplify your work; these include 1, 2, 2.5, 5,
or 10 units per division. This simplifies plotting points and reading values.

Figure 4.3 A graph with a vertical scale of 10 and horizontal scale of 0.1. Both axes start at 0.

39
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
Finding Suitable Starting Values
Deciding where to start your axes can make your graph clearer:
• Include Zero: If the data includes or is near zero, start your axes at zero to give a
complete view of the trend. If you intend to use your graph to find y-intercept, then the
x-axis must start at zero, for x-intercept, then the y-axis must start at zero.
• Non-Zero Start: If your data doesn't include zero and the data values are far from zero,
then starting your axis at zero will waste space, it is better in this case to use a starting
value that is slightly lower than your smallest data value for that axis.

Axis Titles and Units

Proper labeling is vital for understanding the graph:
• Descriptive Titles: Clearly indicate the title for the graph basing on the variables plotted;
e.g. “A graph of T against L”, “A graph of Distance against Time”
• Units: Always include labels and units next to the horizontal and vertical axes. This
helps in accurately interpreting the data values.
• Variable Placement: we plot the independent variable on the vertical axis (y - axis) and
the dependent variable on the horizontal axis (x - axis); this is a standard convention.

Line of best fit

When the plotted points show a sufficient pattern but cannot be joined together with one
straight line, then a line of best fit is drawn.

Figure 4.4 Drawing the line of best fit.

The line of best fit is one that best expresses the relationship between the plotted points. It
aims to represent the pattern of the data as accurately as possible. When drawing the line of
best fit, first identify the general trend of the plotted values, then aim to have an equal number
of points above and below the line, also ensure that is passes close to as many points as
possible. Points that are far away from the line of best fit are usually outliers and off-the-trend.

40
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
TRY IT OUT
𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍
1. Complete the table below; Plot a graph of against 𝑅 and determine the slope of the graph.
𝒍

𝑅 (Ω) 𝑙 (𝑐𝑚) (100 − 𝑙) (𝑐𝑚) 100 − 𝑙

𝑙
1 75.0
2 60.9
3 50.9
4 44.1
5 38.4
6 34.4

2. Complete the table below; Plot a graph of 𝑇 2 against 𝑥 2 , determine the

intercept on the 𝑇 2 axis and the slope of the graph.

𝑥 (𝑐𝑚) 𝑥 2 (𝑐𝑚2 ) 𝑇 (𝑠) 𝑇 2 (𝑠 2 )

0.10 0.73
0.15 0.75
0.20 0.80
0.25 0.85
0.30 0.93
0.35 1.00

1
3. Complete the table below; Plot a graph of against sin2 𝑖, find the gradient
𝑙2
1
of your graph and the intercept on the axis.
𝑙2

𝑖 (0 ) sin 𝑖 sin2 𝑖 𝑙 (𝑐𝑚) 1

(𝑐𝑚2 )
𝑙2
10 6.5
20 6.6
30 6.8
40 7.1
50 7.4
60 7.9

41
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 7.0 WRITING A PRACTICAL REPORT
Writing a practical report is an essential skill in practical physics. It helps you to document your
experiment and key findings.
A practical report typically consists of, title, Hypothesis, Apparatus and Materials, Setup diagram,
Procedures, Data Collection, Data Analysis & Conclusion.
1. Title or Aim
The title should be concise yet descriptive, indicating the main focus of the experiment. A good
title gives the reader a clear idea of what to expect from the report and why the practical
investigation was done.

2. Choosing Variables

Variables are quantities or characteristics that can be measured in some way within the
experiment; we always need to state our variables especially if the experiment involves comparing
two quantities and how they relate with one another. Variables are also necessary if graphs are to
be used during your data analysis.

Identifying and choosing the correct variables is crucial for a successful experiment. There are
three main types of variables:

• Independent Variable: This is the variable that you change or manipulate in the
experiment. It is the cause that affects the outcome.
• Dependent Variable: This is the variable that you measure. It is the effect or outcome
that happens as a result of changing the independent variable.
• Control Variables: These are the variables that you keep constant to ensure that the test
results are due to the independent and dependent variables alone.

To choose the right variables, focus on what you are trying to achieve with the experiment and
the theory behind the experiment you are doing (if it is known) – for this physics formulas are a
good place to get your variables from.
If say you’re doing an experiment to determine resistance of a given material, the related
theoretical concepts here include Ohm’s law; which is summarized mathematically as 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅,
from the formula, we can see that to find resistance, we shall need the potential difference, V and
current, I; these become our variables. We then determine which one can easily be changed
easily and make it the independent variable – for this case, we can easily change the current by
using a rheostat in the circuit.
Note: If the experiment is going to be done in one trial, then there’s no need to identify which
variable is dependent or independent; using the above example, you can just take one
measurement of V and one for I and then calculate resistance. However, you are advised not to

42
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
rely on answers from single trials as they may yield results with a big error without any other value
to be compared to. Only do single trials in cases where the variables can’t be changed easily.
3. Hypothesis
The hypothesis is a statement predicting the outcome of the experiment based on prior
knowledge or research. It should be clear and testable, providing a foundation for the
experiment. However, not all experiments require a hypothesis, it is mostly useful for
experiments whose outcome is predictable based on a certain set of outcomes; e.g., in an
experiment to investigate the relationship between mass and length of a swinging pendulum, the
possible hypotheses can be, “the period of oscillation of a pendulum is not affected by the mass
of the bob” or “the period of oscillation of a pendulum increases with increase in the mass of the
bob” or “the period of oscillation of a pendulum decreases with increase in the mass of the bob”,
the experiment can then be carried out to prove if the hypothesis is true or otherwise.
As you can see in the example above, such an experiment has a defined set of outcomes (which
can be guessed). The experiment is then carried out to determine if the hypothesis is true or
false.

4. Experimental Setup Diagram

The setup diagram is a visual representation of the experimental setup. It helps readers
understand how the apparatus and materials are arranged and connected. A clear and accurate
diagram can be helpful in replicating the experiment and understanding the procedure.

Remember, “a good picture is worth a thousand words”. Some best practices when drawing setup
diagrams

▪ Drawing the Diagram: Use simple, labeled sketches to illustrate the arrangement of
equipment. Ensure all components mentioned in the apparatus list are included in
the diagram.
▪ Labeling: Clearly label all parts of the setup. Use arrows or lines to point to specific
components. If your diagram uses internationally recognized symbols for the
apparatus, then you do not need to label.
▪ Neatness and Clarity: Ensure the diagram is neat and easy to read. Avoid cluttering
the diagram with too much information; focus on the essential components and their
connections.
▪ Consistency: Ensure the diagram matches the written procedures and descriptions in
the report. Any disagreements between the procedures and the diagram can lead to
confusion or errors when trying to replicate the experiment.

5. Apparatus and Materials

In this section, you list all the laboratory equipment (apparatus) and any other objects (materials)
needed for the experiment. Providing a detailed list ensures that anyone replicating the
experiment knows exactly what is required.

43
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 Practical Report: An Example
Problem: A newly launched company in your area wants to start manufacturing submersible
water heaters. To accomplish this, they need to use a high resistance conducting material. A
senior engineer has advised them that to make better heaters, that efficiently convert electric to
heat energy, the material’s resistance should be higher than 3 Ω.
Task: As a student of physics, you are provided with a sample X of the material that they want
to use for the heater. Carryout an investigation to determine if the material is suitable for use.

Solution:
Title: An experiment to determine the Resistance of a Material to check if it is suitable for use
in a Heater.

Hypothesis: The material has a high resistance (R > 3 Ω), and will be suitable for use in a heater
as it will convert electrical energy into heat efficiently.
Variables:
▪ Independent variable: Voltage or Potential difference (because this is the quantity or
variable you change during the experiment to observe how it affects current)
▪ Dependent variable: Current (because it depends on the applied voltage and resistance
of the material)
▪ Control variables: Temperature (because temperature must be kept constant
throughout the experiment to keep the values of resistance reliable, ensuring that
resistance obtained entirely depends on voltage and current)
Apparatus and Materials:
Ammeter, Voltmeter, Power supply (Dry cells), Rheostat, Connecting wires, Material sample,
Jockey, crocodile clips.
Experimental setup diagram:

Procedures:
a) The circuit is set up as shown in the diagram above, with the material sample connected
in series with the ammeter and the dry cells.
b) The voltmeter is connected in parallel across the material sample.

45
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
From the graph of V against I, a straight line passing through the origin was obtained which
indicates that as potential difference increases, so does the current. The gradient or slope of the
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉
line ( 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐼 ) is the resistance of the material;

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉 2.5 − 0
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = = 2.5 𝛺
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐼 1.0 − 0
Note: The values used in this experiment were not obtained from a practical experiment, in
practice, the values obtained usually do not all lie along one straight line; in these cases, a line
of best fit is drawn as an average line for all plotted points.
Conclusion: The experiment successfully determined the resistance of the material sample to
be 2.5 Ω. This value is less than the recommended 3 𝛺 that was, therefore, the material is not
suitable for use in designing the heater, as it cannot efficiently convert electrical energy into
heat.
The hypothesis that a material has a high resistance was not supported by the experimental
data.

Possible sources of error Precautions taken

Parallax error when viewing the pointer on I viewed the pointer from multiple angles to
the ammeter and voltmeter ensure accuracy

Zero error; some meters were not set to zero I accounted for zero errors on my
at the start of the experiment measurements.
I used well calibrated instruments
Resistance of connecting wires I used thick and shorter wires of low
resistance
Human errors (such as improper placement Great care was taken to reduce human error.
of instruments and inconsistent readings) Multiple results were also taken to outweigh
errors in some measurements
Fluctuations / changes in voltage The experiment was done within a short time
before the cells were drained.

47
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
8.0 THEORY OF COMMON EXPERIMENTS
Understanding the underlying theory before carrying out an experiment is very important as it
provides a foundational context for the procedures and outcomes. It allows you to grasp the
principles and concepts that govern the experiment, ensuring you can easily understand what you
are observing and why it occurs.
Applying theoretical knowledge to practical scenarios, encourages critical thinking and problem-
solving. It also helps in predicting results, troubleshooting issues, and interpreting experimental
data accurately.
Without this theoretical understanding, experiments may become mere procedural tasks, losing
the educational value and the opportunity to connect practical experiences with scientific
principles.

8.1 Density of Liquids and Solids Procedure:

Density (ρ) is defined as the mass per unit ▪ Measure the mass of the empty measuring
volume of a substance. It is expressed in units cylinder using the balance, e.g., 𝑚𝑏 .
of grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³) or ▪ Fill the measuring cylinder with a known
kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³). volume of the liquid, V.
▪ Measure the mass of the measuring
1g/cm³ = 1000 kg/m³ cylinder with the liquid, 𝑚𝑏+𝑙 .
▪ Subtract the mass of the empty cylinder
Each substance has a unique value of density from the total mass to find the mass of the
which is why we commonly use density to liquid, 𝑚𝑙 = 𝑚𝑏+𝑙 − 𝑚𝑏 .
identify substances. and ▪ Calculate the density using 𝜌 =
𝑚𝑙
𝑉

Mathematically, density is the mass (m) of a ▪ For accuracy, you can take different
substance divided by its volume (V). measurements and calculate the density in
each case, then take the average value.
𝑚
𝜌= 𝑚𝑙 (g) V(cm³) 𝜌 (g/cm³)
𝑣

Mass (m) is the amount of matter in an object,

measured in grams (g) or kilograms (kg) while
Volume (V) is the amount of space an object
occupies, measured in cubic centimeters 8.3 Measuring the Density of a Solid:
(cm³) or cubic meters (m³).
Apparatus: Balance, measuring cylinder or
8.2 Measuring the Density of a Liquid water displacement method, solid sample.
Steps:
Apparatus: Measuring cylinder: to measure ▪ Measure the mass of the solid using the
volume, beam balance: to measure the mass, balance.
liquid sample. ▪ If the solid is regular, measure its
dimensions and calculate its volume.

48
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
▪ If the solid is irregular, use the to large scales; we use oscillations to describe
displacement method to find its volume, movement of atoms, waves & signals, and a lot
i.e., fill a measuring cylinder with water more!
and record the initial volume, 𝑉1 ,
Submerge the solid in the water and The simple pendulum
record the new volume, 𝑉2. One of the common oscillating systems we use
in the physics laboratory is the simple
pendulum; which is a setup involving a small
mass attached at the end of a string tied to a
fixed support.

▪ Calculate the volume of the solid by

subtracting the initial volume from the new
volume, 𝑉 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1.
𝑚
▪ Calculate the density using 𝜌 = 𝑣

Applications of density:
Material Identification: Density is used to When the small mass is pulled through a
identify substances and determine their purity. certain angle, it starts to oscillate. The period
(T) is the time taken for the bob to make one
Quality Control: Ensures that materials used complete oscillation; it is measured in seconds
in manufacturing meet specific density (s).
criteria.
The relationship between the period of
Buoyancy and Shipbuilding: Understanding oscillation (T), length of the bob, L and
density helps in designing ships and acceleration due to gravity, g is;
submarines to ensure they float or submerge
correctly.
𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
Geology: Helps in identifying minerals and 𝑔
understanding Earth's composition.
Most experiments with the simple pendulum
8.4 Oscillations and are based on this equation.

Acceleration Due to Gravity We can see from the equation that the period
of oscillation is not affected by the angle of
An oscillation is the to and fro movement of displacement and the mass of the bob as these
an object. Oscillations occur in many aspects variables do not appear in the equation.
of the physical world, from the atomic scales

49
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 The Elastic Limit is the maximum extent to
which a material can be stretched without
permanently deforming.

Investigating Hooke’s Law:

Apparatus: Spring, weights, ruler, stand, and

clamp.

The relationship between the period of

oscillation, T, and the attached mass is given
𝑚
by the equation: 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝐾 , where K is the
spring constant.
We can design an experiment around this
formula to determine some unknown mass, m
Steps:
or to determine the spring constant K.
▪ Attach the spring to a stand and measure
its original length or position along a meter
8.5 Extension and Hooke's rule scale.
Law ▪ Add a known mass to the spring and
measure the new length or the new
Hooke’s Law describes the behavior of position.
springs and other elastic materials like rubber ▪ Calculate the extension 𝑥 by subtracting
bands. It states that the extension of an elastic the original length from the new length.
material is proportional the applied force ▪ Repeat steps 2) to 3) with different masses
provided the elastic limit is not exceeded; and tabulate your results in a table.
mathematically written as, 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥, where, F is
M (kg) F (N) 𝑥(m)
the applied force, 𝑥 is the extension

The Spring Constant (K) is a measure of the

stiffness of the spring, if K is high, the spring is
very stiff and if K is lower, the spring can easily
▪ A graph of the applied force, F is plotted
be stretched or compressed. K is measured in
against the extension; a straight line
Newton per meter (N/m).
through the origin should be obtained
indicating that 𝐹 ∝ 𝑥.

51
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 Keep doing this until you identify the point at
which the spring no longer returns to its
original length when the masses are removed.
This point is the elastic limit.

Applications
▪ Engineering and Construction: Hooke's
Law is fundamental in designing structures
and mechanical components that must
withstand forces without permanent
▪ The gradient of the graph of F against 𝑥
deformation.
gives the spring constant K.
▪ Consumer Products: It is applied in the

Determining the Elastic Limit: design of everyday items like mattresses,

car suspensions, and various types of
We can attach different masses to the spring,
springs.
one at a time as we increase them. For each
▪ Material Science: Helps in understanding
mass we add, we notice the extension and then
and predicting the behavior of materials
remove it to see if the spring or material
under stress.
returns to its original length.

8.6 Moments and Equilibrium

A moment is the turning effect of a force applied to a rotational system at a distance from the
axis of rotation. It is a measure of the tendency of the force to cause an object to rotate.
Mathematically speaking; a moment is the product of the force (F) and the perpendicular distance
(d) from the pivot point or axis of rotation.

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹 × 𝑑
Principle of Moments: For a stiff body to be in equilibrium (a state of balancing), the sum of the
clockwise moments about any pivot must equal the sum of the counterclockwise moments about
that pivot.
Investigating Moments Using a Meter Rule:

52
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
Apparatus: Meter rule, pivot, weights, and a clamp.
Steps:

▪ Balance the meter rule horizontally on the pivot.

▪ Hang weights at different distances from the pivot.
▪ Adjust the weights and their positions until the meter rule is in equilibrium.
▪ Record the forces and their distances from the pivot.
▪ Verify the principle of moments by checking that;

∑ 𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = ∑ 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

Note: Since most meter rules used in such experiments are not so stiff / rigid, the moments may
not exactly be equal but they should be close to each other.
▪ The experiment can be repeated with different weights attached.

𝐹1 (𝑁) 𝐹2 (𝑁) 𝑑1 (𝑚) 𝑑2 (𝑁) 𝐹1 𝑑1 (𝑁𝑚) 𝐹2 𝑑2 (𝑁𝑚)

Determining an unknown Mass

The experiment above can be modified to determine some unknown mass or weight. As long as
one of the weights is already known, we can apply the principle of moments to determine the
other.
Determining the Mass of a meter rule

We know that for a uniform meter rule, the center of mass or center of gravity acts at its midpoint.
By using a known mass, m on one end, we can find determine the mass of the meter rule on the
other end which makes the meter rule to balance.

Note: It is not always safe to assume that the midpoint of the meter rule is the 50.0 𝑐𝑚 mark,
due to manufacturing errors, sometimes the meter rule is not perfectly uniform and the center
of gravity is slightly shifted. Always start by balancing the meter rule alone to determine its center
of mass.

53
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 4. Insert an optical pins P and Q along the line of the angle of incidence; you should now
see their images 𝑃′ and 𝑄 ′ in the mirror.
5. Looking through the opposite side, insert pins R and S such that they appear to be in line
with 𝑃′ and 𝑄 ′ .
6. Remove the mirror and pins. Draw a line through the markings left by markings of R and
S, this is the reflected ray.
7. Measure the angle of reflection 𝑟, this should be equal to 𝑖.
8. You can repeat the experiment with different values of angle 𝑖

𝑖(0 ) 𝑟(0 )

By projecting line RS behind the mirror and then joining, 𝑃 𝑡𝑜 𝑃′ or 𝑄 𝑡𝑜 𝑄 ′ , we can also show
that the distance of the image behind the mirror is the same as the object distance in front of the
mirror.

8.8 Refraction of light

Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another with different optical
densities.

Different materials refract light differently depending on their Refractive Indices (n), the higher
it is, the more it bends (or refracts) the light.
Refractive index is the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction. It is a constant that depends on the nature of the material.
Mathematically;
sin 𝑖
𝑛=
sin 𝑟
In the laboratory, we can verify the laws of refraction and also determine the refractive index of
a given material.

55
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
Investigating Refraction Using a Glass Block:

Apparatus: Glass block, optical pins, white paper, protractor and soft board.

Steps:
1. Place the glass block on a sheet of white paper and draw its outline ABCD.
2. Remove the glass block & draw a normal on side DC of the glass block.
3. Using a protractor, draw an angle of incidence on the normal at point O, e.g., 𝑖 = 300
4. Fix two optical pins 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 along the angle of incidence; replace the glass block back
to its outline.
5. Looking through side AB of the glass block, fix pins 𝑃3 and 𝑃4 such that they appear to
be in line with the images of 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 seen through the glass block.
6. Draw a line through 𝑃3 and 𝑃4 to meet the glass block at 𝑂′ , Join 𝑂 𝑡𝑜 𝑂′ and measure
the angle of refraction using a protractor.
7. Repeat the experiment for different values of angle 𝑖 and measure the corresponding
angles of refraction, 𝑟.
8. For each case, determine 𝑛, the ratio of sin 𝑖 to sin 𝑟.

𝑖(0 ) 𝑟(0 ) sin 𝑖 sin 𝑟 𝑛

The values "𝒏" should be fairly the same (i.e. constant) which proves the second law of reflection.
Meanwhile, the value of 𝒏 is also the refractive index of the material. For accuracy’s sake, we can
go ahead and find the average value of the refractive index.

We can also plot a graph of 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊against 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓, the result a straight line with positive gradient
through the origin.
The gradient of this line would be the refractive index.
∆ sin 𝑖
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = =𝑛
∆ sin 𝑟

56
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
Real & apparent depth can also be used to determine refractive indices of transparent solids like
glass. Instead of a pin, a line is drawn on a piece of paper on which the transparent material such
as a glass block is placed.

8.9 Lenses and Curved Mirrors

Lenses:
Lenses are transparent optical devices that refract light to converge or diverge the rays. They are
used extensively in various applications, including eyeglasses, cameras, and scientific instruments.
Lenses come in two major types; convex or converging lens (one that is thicker in the middle
than at the edges) and concave or diverging Lens (one that is thinner in the middle than at the
edges). Due to their diverging nature and the fact they form virtual images, experimenting with
concave lenses is a bit challenging, we shall only deal with experiments of convex lenses which
form mostly real images (except when the object distance is less than the focal length).

58
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
When a lens converges or diverges the light, the rays will always converge to a certain point (for
a convex / converging lens) or they will appear to be diverging from a certain point (for a concave
/ diverging lens); this point is known as the focal point of the lens.

Determining the Focal Length of a Convex Lens:

Apparatus: Convex lens, lens holder, meter rule, screen, distant light source (e.g., a lamp or
sunlight, or an open window).
Steps:
1. Place the convex lens in the lens holder.
2. Position the lens so that it faces a distant light source, with this setup, light rays are
considered to be coming from infinity and thus they converge at the focal point.

3. Move a screen along the principal axis until a sharp image of the light source is formed
on the screen.
4. Measure the distance between the lens and the screen. This distance is the focal length
of the convex lens.
This method is quick to use but is considered rough and is mostly used to estimate the focal
length.
A more accurate way to determine focal length is to use an illuminated object together with the
lens formula. The lens formula is a mathematical relationship between the focal length, 𝑓, object
distance, 𝑢 and image distance, 𝑣.
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣

Making 𝑓 the subject of the formula, we get;

𝑢𝑣
𝑓=
𝑢+𝑣
To use this method;
1. The materials are arranged as below;

59
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 2. The illuminated object is placed a distance, u from the lens.
3. The screen is moved until a sharp image is formed on it.
4. The distances 𝑢 and 𝑣 are measured and recorded.
𝑢𝑣
5. The focal length 𝑓 of the lens is then got from; 𝑓 = 𝑢+𝑣.
6. The experiment can be repeated with different values of 𝑢 so that different values of 𝑓
can be got and averaged.

𝑢 (𝑐𝑚) 𝑣 (𝑐𝑚) 𝑓 (𝑐𝑚)

We can also plot a graph of 𝑢𝑣 against 𝑢 + 𝑣, this will yield a straight line through the origin
whose slope is equal to the value of 𝑓 since;

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 "𝑢𝑣"
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = =𝑓
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 "𝑢 + 𝑣"

Curved Mirrors
Curved mirrors reflect light to form varying
images depending on the location of the
object. Just like lenses, curved mirrors are
categorized in 2 main types; concave
(converging) mirror which have a reflecting
surface that curves inward, and convex
(diverging) mirrors which have a reflecting
surface that curves outward. We shall focus on
concave mirrors since they form mostly real
images that can easily be experimented with. To determine the focal length of a concave
mirror, we focus it towards a distant object
The focal point (F) of the concave mirror is a
such as an open window and then move the
point where parallel rays of light converge after
screen until a clear image of the window (or
reflecting from the mirror. The distance from
another object) is formed on it. At this point,
the mirror to the focal point is known as the
the light rays are considered to be coming
focal length, 𝑓, twice this distance gives us the
from infinity and converging at F, thus 𝑓 is the
radius of curvature, 𝑟; 𝑟 = 2𝑓.
distance between the screen and the mirror.

60
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 We can also plot a graph of 𝑢𝑣 against 𝑢 + 𝑣,
this will yield a straight line through the origin
whose slope is equal to the value of 𝑓 since;

This method is mostly used for rough 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 "𝑢𝑣"

𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = =𝑓
estimation of focal length, for more accurate 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 "𝑢 + 𝑣"
considerations; an illuminated object is used
as shown below.
Another common method for finding the
focal length of a concave mirror is known as
the ‘no parallax method’.

The object (illuminated crosswire) is placed at

a known distance 𝑢, the screen and lens are
adjusted until a clear image is formed in the Here, an object (usually an optical pin) is
screen. The image distance 𝑣 is measured. moved along the axis of the mirror until its
The focal length is then calculated from; image is seen to coincide with the object pin
itself, the distance from the mirror to the point
𝑢𝑣 of coincidence is the radius of curvature and
𝑓=
𝑢+𝑣 since 𝑟 = 2𝑓, the focal length can be
This formula was introduced earlier on the calculated. This method works on the theory
section about lenses. that when an object is placed at the center of
curvature of the concave mirror, C, the image
is also formed at C.

8.10 Current Electricity

This is the kind of electricity that flows from one point to another in a closed circuit. Electric
current is the flow of electrons in a closed circuit; mathematically speaking, it is the amount of
charge flowing through a given point per second; (𝐼 = 𝑄/𝑡), current is measured in Amperes
(A).
As current flows, so do electrons; however, these electrons constantly collide with stationary
atoms converting their kinetic energy into heat and effectively slowing down; This creates a

61
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
phenomenon known as Resistance. Electrical resistance is the opposition that a material offers
to the flow of electric current, measured in Ohm (Ω).
Resistance is a fundamental concept in electricity, affecting how circuits function and how
electrical energy is consumed. A resistor is a component that provides resistance in a circuit.
When current is flowing through a resistor, the battery / source of energy has to do work to push
the electrons through the resistance, hence the batteries get used up over time.
Resistance & Heating: Materials with high resistance are preferred when making heating
components because they easily convert electricity to heat, while those with low resistance are
preferred in transmission lines so that power is transmitted with minimal losses.
Ohm’s Law: Ohm’s Law states that the current (I) passing through a conductor between two
points is directly proportional to the voltage (V) across the two points provided other physical
conditions such as temperature remain constant, this is summarized as 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅, where 𝑅 is a
constant of a material known as resistance.
To verify ohm’s law, we setup an experiment in which we can vary the current I through a
capacitor as well its potential difference, V, then we can use 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 to find resistance, R. the
circuit below is commonly used;

The voltmeter is connected across R to read the potential difference across the resistor, the
ammeter is connected is connected in series with R to read the current going through the resistor.
To obtain several values of I and V, the ammeter is added to circuit, by adjusting the ammeter,
we change the current and hence the p.d. in the circuit; we can tabulate the values and find the
average value of R.
V(v) I(A) R(Ω)

We can also plot a graph of V against I, it should give a straight line passing through the origin,
this graph proves Ohm’s law, that V is proportional to I. The slope of this graph is the value of
resistance.

62
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉 𝑉
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = ⟹ =𝑅
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐼 𝐼

Resistivity (ρ): is the property of a material that describes how strongly it resists current flow,
𝐿
defined by the formula; 𝑅 = 𝜌 𝐴 , R is resistance of the material, L is the length of the material,
and A is its cross-sectional area. This equation tells us that resistance increases with increase in
length but decreases with increase in area.
Measuring the Resistance of a Wire:
We can measure the resistance of wires such as Nichrome, Constantan, Copper, etc. in a similar
manner described above. We cut a piece of the wire to a known length. Then set up the circuit
as already discussed above but with the piece of wire connected instead of the resistor R.
Investigating Factors Affecting Resistance:
𝐿
As stated already; 𝑅 = 𝜌 𝐴, the resistance of a material is directly proportional to the length and
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area. We can investigate these through an
experiment too.
To do this, we set up an experiment with the voltmeter across the resistance wire of a given length
between the terminals XY, and an ammeter in series with the wire.

63
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
The switch is closed, the voltmeter reading V and ammeter reading I are noted and the resistance
of the wire is calculated from 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅.
The length of the test wire is increased by adjusting the terminals X or Y, the new values of V
and I are noted and the resistance is calculated again as above. The experiment can be repeated
with different lengths and the corresponding resistances noted.

L(m) V(v) I(A) R(Ω)

If the experiment is done well, we can observe that as we increase the length of the wire, the
resistance also increases. We can also plot a graph of resistance and length and it should be a
straight line showing that resistance increases with length.
Repeat the experiment with wires of different lengths and thicknesses to observe how resistance
changes.
To investigate the effect of cross-sectional area on resistance of the wire, we follow the same steps
but using wires of the same material and length but with different thicknesses / cross sectional
areas.

Internal resistance
Just like conductors, batteries / cells also have a resistance within them; this is known as internal
resistance. This resistance arises due to the fact that the electrodes and electrolytes making up
the cell are themselves not perfectly conductive.
Internal resistance can greatly reduce the efficiency of the cell due to energy losses.
The relationship between internal resistance, r, EMF, E and current is;

𝐸 = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟).
To determine the internal resistance, we first measure the EMF of the cell(s), i.e. the voltage of
the cell with no resistor connected on it, then we connect a resistor into the circuit and measure
the current flowing; we then use the above expression to determine the internal resistance. (R is
a standard / known resistance)

64
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 9.0 MECHANICS EXPERIMENTS

Problem / Scenario Based Item 1

Scenario: There has been an argument among physics students in the country
that the acceleration due to gravity on earth is different for different places on
earth depending on altitude. To stop the argument, different students will carry
out experiments to determine the acceleration due to gravity at their school
locations and you are one of those selected to participate.

Task: Using common laboratory apparatus, carry out an experiment to determine

the value of acceleration due to gravity at your school.

65
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 LAB Name: ………………………………………………………
Date: …... /……. /…….. Experiment No…….
REPORT

66
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 67
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 GRAPHICAL
ANALYSIS

ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION

68
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 LAB REPORT SCORING RUBRIC
Teacher’s marks &
Basis of evaluation
Comments
 A descriptive title/aim/objective of the
Aim of the experiment is well stated (2 pts)
experiment  The title / aim / objective is stated but lacking
(2 scores) some elements (1 pt)
 Irrelevant or no title / aim / is stated (0 pts)
 Hypothesis is well stated and descriptive (2 pts)
Hypothesis  Hypothesis is stated but lacking (1 pts)
(2 scores)  Irrelevant, Incorrect or no hypothesis stated (0
pts)
 Independent, dependent and control are
Experimental variables stated (3 pts)
Variables  Only 2 variables are stated (2 pts)
(3 scores)  Only 1 variable is stated (1 pts)
 Irrelevant or no variables stated (0 pts)
 Necessary and relevant apparatus mentioned (1
Apparatus
pts)
(1 score)
 Irrelevant or no apparatus mentioned (0 pts)
 Working diagram is presented by the learner
Setup showing all relevant components (2 pts)
diagram  Diagram is presented but lacking some features
(2 scores) (1 pts)
 Irrelevant or no diagram presented (0 pts)
 Complete, correct and logical procedures
presented (3 pts)
Procedures  Correct procedures but not in a logical and
(3 scores) coherent order (2 pts)
 Incomplete procedures (1 pts)
 Irrelevant or incorrect procedures (0 pts)

69
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 Data  Relevant data collected with correct accuracy
collection, (significant figures and decimal places) (4 pts)
presentation  Relevant data collected but with incorrect
and precision / accuracy in terms of d. p’s and
manipulation significant figures. (1-3 pts)
(4 scores)  Incorrect or irrelevant data collected. (0 pts)
 Correct data analysis using appropriate
techniques i.e. statistics, graphs, etc. (4 pts)
Data Analysis  Correct data analysis using inappropriate
(4 scores) techniques for the problem. (1-3 pts)
 Analysis is partially correct (1-2 pts)
 Incorrect or no data analysis presented. (0 pts)
Conclusion in
relation to the  Relevant and meaningful conclusion made. (2
hypothesis pts)
and the  Conclusion is stated but lacking (1 pts)
problem in  No conclusion or interpretation of results made
the question (0 pts)
(2 scores)
 Possible sources of errors and precautions taken
Errors and
were stated (2 pts)
precautions
 Errors stated without precautions (1 pts)
(2 scores)
 No relevant errors / precautions stated (0 pts)

TOTAL …….……… / 25

Note: The scores given in the above rubric and scores for each success criteria may vary from
one experiment to another, they can be modified for each specific experiment.

70
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 Problem / Scenario Based Item 3

Scenario: ‘Quantum Electronics’ is a new company that plans to start

manufacturing torches in your area. They intend to use springs to hold dry cells
within their torches. Their chief engineer has advised that for the torches to be
long lasting, the springs to be used should obey Hooke’s law. The company has
therefore decided to send a sample of the spring they plan to use to your school
for lab investigation.

Task: As a student of physics, you have been provided with a sample spring that
the company intends to use, carry out an investigation on it and make a
recommendation.

77
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 LAB Name: ………………………………………………………
Date: …... /……. /…….. Experiment No…….
REPORT

78
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 79
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 GRAPHICAL
ANALYSIS

ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION

80
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 LAB REPORT SCORING RUBRIC
(For the Examiner)
Teacher’s marks
Basis of evaluation
Comments
 A descriptive title/aim/objective of the
Aim of the experiment is well stated (2 pts)
experiment  The title / aim / objective is stated but lacking
(2 scores) some elements (1 pt)
 Irrelevant or no title / aim / is stated (0 pts)
 Hypothesis is well stated and descriptive (2
pts)
Hypothesis
 Hypothesis is stated but lacking (1 pts)
(2 scores)
 Irrelevant, Incorrect or no hypothesis stated
(0 pts)
 Independent, dependent and control are
Experimental variables stated (3 pts)
Variables  Only 2 variables are stated (2 pts)
(3 scores)  Only 1 variable is stated (1 pts)
 Irrelevant or no variables stated (0 pts)
 Necessary and relevant apparatus mentioned
Apparatus
(1 pts)
(1 score)
 Irrelevant or no apparatus mentioned (0 pts)
 Working diagram is presented by the learner
Setup showing all relevant components (2 pts)
diagram  Diagram is presented but lacking some
(2 scores) features (1 pts)
 Irrelevant or no diagram presented (0 pts)
 Complete, correct and logical procedures
Procedures presented (3 pts)
(3 scores)  Correct procedures but not in a logical and
coherent order (2 pts)

81
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
  Incomplete procedures (1 pts)
 Irrelevant or incorrect procedures (0 pts)
Data  Relevant data collected with correct accuracy
collection, (significant figures and decimal places) (4 pts)
presentation  Relevant data collected but with incorrect
and precision / accuracy in terms of d. p’s and
manipulation significant figures. (1-3 pts)
(4 scores)  Incorrect or irrelevant data collected. (0 pts)
 Correct data analysis using appropriate
techniques i.e. statistics, graphs, etc. (4 pts)
 Correct data analysis using inappropriate
Data Analysis
techniques for the problem. (1-3 pts)
(4 scores)
 Analysis is partially correct (1-2 pts)
 Incorrect or no data analysis presented. (0
pts)
Conclusion in
relation to the  Relevant and meaningful conclusion made.
hypothesis (2 pts)
and the  Conclusion is stated but lacking (1 pts)
problem in  No conclusion or interpretation of results
the question made (0 pts)
(2 scores)
 Possible sources of errors and precautions
Errors and
taken were stated (2 pts)
precautions
 Errors stated without precautions (1 pts)
(2 scores)
 No relevant errors / precautions stated (0 pts)

TOTAL …….……… / 25

Note to examiners: The scores given in the above rubric and scores for each
success criteria may vary from one experiment to another, you may modify them
as you deem fit for a specific experiment.

82
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
FOR ORDERS, PLEASE CALL OR
WHATSAPP
▪ 0778370148 (CALLS & WHATSAPP)

▪ 0705272603 (ONLY CALLS)

 Problem / Scenario Based Item 4

Scenario: According to the world market, the price of paraffin depends on its
purity which also depends on its density. The table below shows how prices vary
with density.

Density range Price (US. Dollars) per 20-liter Jerry can

500 kg/m3 to 749 kg/m3 50
750 kg/m3 to 950 kg/m3 60
Above 950 kg/m3 65

Uganda has just started mining & purifying crude oil from its reserves. It is
expected that 3,000,000 liters of paraffin will be produced per day.

Task: You are provided a sample of paraffin that Uganda will be producing; carry
out an investigation to determine how much money Uganda will be making from
paraffin per day; assuming all the paraffin is sold.

83
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 LAB Name: ………………………………………………………
Date: …... /……. /…….. Experiment No…….
REPORT

204
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 EXAM QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1 [UNEB, UCE 2024, PHY PAPER 3]

Your brother wants to equip the physics laboratory of his school with concave mirrors. He
wishes to buy concave mirrors of focal lengths between 9.0 cm and 11.0 cm inclusive. Your
brother has received samples of concave mirrors from a supplier who claims that they are of
the required range of focal lengths, however, your brother wants to confirm the supplier’s
claims before buying the concave mirrors but lacks the knowledge.

You have been provided with a sample of the concave mirror that was supplied to your
brother.

Task: Determine whether or not your brother should buy the concave mirrors.

QUESTION 2 [UNEB, UCE 2024, PHY PAPER 3]

During school project work, you came up with an idea of making your own dry cell whose
quality is comparable to that of the dry cells on the open market. Through research, you found
out that the quality of a dry cell is affected by its internal resistance.

The dry cells on the market are of EMF 1.5 V. however, their internal resistances are not
indicated. You wish to determine the internal resistance of one of these cells so that you use it
as a standard when making yours.

Your teacher has provided you with a sample of a new dry cells from the market.

Task: determine the internal resistance you will base on when making your cell

QUESTION 3 [UNEB, UCE 2024, PHY PAPER 2]

Your school wishes to buy glass blocks of refractive indices between 1.4 and 1.6 inclusive, to be
used during physics practical lessons. The director of studies (DOS) has received samples of
glass blocks from a supplier who claims that they are of the required range of refractive indices.

The DOS wants you to confirm the supplier’ s claims but lacks knowledge yet both the physics
teacher and the laboratory attendant are absent.

You have been provided with a sample of the glass block that was delivered to the DOS.

224
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
 APPENDIX

APPARATUS AND HINTS FOR SELECTED PROBLEMS

MECHANICS EXPERIMENTS
SCENARIO BASED ITEM 1
Apparatus Required Theoretical Background
Option I Option I
▪ Pendulum bob or The problem is to determine acceleration due to gravity.
mass One option is for the student to use an oscillating
▪ Thread (about 1.5) pendulum bob.
▪ Retort stands with
clamp The relationship between period of oscillation and
▪ Stop clock / watch 𝑳
length of the pendulum is; 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√ , where T is the
𝒈
period and L is the length.
Option II
▪ Tape measure The experimenter may determine g, by determining the
▪ Solid object e.g. a period of oscillation T for a given length L, then
mass substitute for them in the expression to get g.
▪ Stop clock / watch
▪ Ticker timer
(optional)

(see more details in the ‘theory’ section of the book

under oscillations)
Option II

The second option is to use a freely falling object. The

object can be made to freely fall from rest from a vertical
height h, and the time for the fall is determined. Then
the acceleration due to gravity can be determined by the
equations of motion, i.e.
𝟏
𝒉 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐

227
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis
SCENARIO BASED ITEM 2

Apparatus Required Theoretical Background

▪ Pendulum bob or The problem is to investigate the relationship
mass between mass of the pendulum and period of
▪ Thread (about 1.5) oscillation.
▪ Retort stand with
clamp 𝑳
From the relationship 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√ , we can see that
▪ Stop clock / watch 𝒈
there’s no mass in the equation hence the mass does
not affect the period.
To prove this however, an experiment is setup using
masses instead of a pendulum bob; different masses
are used and the period is calculated in each case.

SCENARIO BASED ITEM 3

Apparatus Required Theoretical Background

▪ Spring The problem here is to verify if the spring obeys
▪ Masses (50 – 600 g) Hooke’s law; Extension is directly proportional to
▪ Retort stand with 2 the applied force (𝐹 ∝ 𝑒).
clamps
▪ Meter rule

To prove this, different masses are hanged on a

spring, the extension is measured in each case and a

228
Practical Physics © 2025 Byakatonda Denis