PRACTICUM MANUAL

for
Physics I
(Course Code: Z5SCB102)

B.Tech. for All Branches

Semester – I/II
2025

Course Title: Physics I

for
All Branches

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND DESIGN

ALLIANCE UNIVERSITY
BENGALURU

Page 1 of 72
 Preface
This practicum manual has been designed by the Faculty of Physics at Department of Science,
at Alliance University, keeping in mind the expectations of industry from academia. Designed
to bridge the gap between theoretical physics and its practical applications, this manual will
enable students to engage with physics within an engineering-focused framework. It aims to
cultivate both the competencies and skills that are essential for success in the industry, taking
a significant step toward making every student employable and industry ready.

One of the salient features of this Practicum Manual is that it is self-instructional. This means
that if the student knows the underpinning theory in order to perform that concerned
practicum (which s/he should have read before coming for the lab/workshop/field), each
Practicum will give the student a ‘feel’ of an ‘Operational Manual’ that he will handle in the
industry where there will be nobody to instruct him/her. In other words, each practicum is
written in such a way that even without the teacher’s oral instruction, the student will be able
to perform the practicum, thereby giving him/her a ‘feel’ of the workplace/industry. The
teacher’s duty is only to oversee the Practicum work and assess the student as s/he performs.

A solid foundation in physics empowers engineering students to develop innovative solutions

across a wide range of industrial applications. This Physics Practicum Manual offers hands-on
experience with key techniques and principles relevant to engineering disciplines. It
encompasses a variety of practicums covering topics such as Quantum Mechanics,
Semiconductors, Electromagnetism, Photonics and XRay/Electron Optics. Each practicum is
carefully structured with clear objectives, foundational theories, self-guided procedures, and
observation guidelines to ensure students acquire industry-relevant skills that prepare them
for real-world challenges.

The meticulous efforts of our departmental faculty are evident in the design of each
practicum, crafted to be self-instructional and promote independent learning. Students are
expected to thoroughly understand the theoretical background and practical details of each
experiment before entering the lab. This approach fosters lifelong learning skills, encouraging
students to become proactive learners beyond the classroom.

It is our hope that this practicum manual will serve as an invaluable resource, inspiring
curiosity and fostering innovation at the intersection of physics and engineering.

- Faculty of Physics, Department of Science

Page 2 of 72
 Contents

S. No. Title of the Practicum Page No.

1 Stefan’s Law 5-8
2 Wavelength of LED 9-13
3 Newton’s Rings 14-17
4 Fermi Energy 18-21
5 Zener Diode 22-25
6 Bridge Rectifier 26-29
7 Dielectric Constant 30-34
8 Magnetic Moment 35-37
9 B-H Curve 38-42
10 Magnetic Field in Coil 43-46
11 Diffraction Grating 47-50
12 Acceptance angle and Numerical Aperture 51-54
13 Attenuation and Bandwidth 55-59
14 Air Wedge 60-63
15 2D Grating 64-67

Page 3 of 72
 List of Industry Specific Skills that will be Developed
through this Fundamental Physics course

1) Select relevant instruments with right specifications (Psychomotor Domain LO).

2) Use the relevant instruments correctly and safely (Psychomotor Domain LO).
3) Calibrate the relevant measuring equipment periodically for accuracy (Psychomotor
Domain LO).
4) Maintain the proper functioning of the various equipment and related processes
(Psychomotor Domain LO).
5) Follow safety protocols (Affective Domain LO).
6) Practice ethics (Affective Domain LO).
7) Work as a team member co-operatively (Affective Domain LO).
8) Perform as an effective team leader (Affective Domain LO).
9) Practice good housekeeping (Affective Domain LO).
10) Interpret the results of any phenomena correctly (Cognitive Domain LO).
11) Take right decisions based on the interpretation of results (Cognitive Domain LO).
12) Prepare various types of reports and documents required for various purposes
(Cognitive Domain LO).

Page 4 of 72
Practicum No. 1 Date:……….
Stefan’s Law

I. Practical Significance
In industries such as thermal engineering, astrophysics, and manufacturing, understanding the energy
emitted by radiating bodies is essential for optimizing heat-based processes and technologies. A
thorough grasp of Stefan’s Law is vital for applications involving star luminosity studies, industrial heat
transfer analysis, and radiometric calibration. This practicum offers hands-on experience in calculating
the energy output and estimating the temperature of a radiating object, which is crucial for
professionals working with heat management systems and thermal design across various industrial
domains.

II. Competency and Practical Skills

This practicum is expected to develop the following skills/outcomes towards the development of the
industry-specific competency,
• ‘Use the principles of Physics to solve complex engineering problems.’ (As stated in the Course Structure)
a) Use the relevant instruments correctly and safely (Psychomotor Domain LO).
b) Practice good housekeeping (Affective Domain LO).
c) Interpret the results of any phenomena correctly (Cognitive Domain LO).

III. Related CO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

CO1 - Use the fundamental principles of Quantum Mechanics to solve engineering problems.

IV. Practical Outcome (PrO) (As stated in Course Structure):

PrO1 - Determine the relationship between the power and the temperature of the given
radiating object.

V. Related ADO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

a) Follow safe practices.
b) Practice ethics.

VI. Minimum Underpinning Theory

According to Stefan’s Law of Radiation, the power (P) radiated from a black body is proportional to the
4th power of its absolute temperature (T).
𝑃 ∝ 𝑇 4 ………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………… Eq. 1.1

Taking logarithm on both sides of Eq.1.1,

log 𝑃 ∝ 4 log 𝑇 ………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………Eq. 1.2

In the case of metals, the resistance and temperature are directly proportional to each other. The black
body in this case is the Tungsten filament inside the incandescent bulb. Hence the resistance (R) of the
filament varies directly with temperature (T), as

𝑅 ∝ 𝑇 ………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………..……………………. Eq.1.3

Taking logarithm on both sides of Eq.1.3,

log 𝑅 ∝ log 𝑇 …………………………………………………………………………………………………...………………….. Eq. 1.4

Combining Eq. 1.2 and Eq. 1.4,

log 𝑃 ∝ 4 log 𝑅 …………………………………………………………………………………………………...………………… Eq.1.5

Page 5 of 72
Therefore,

log 𝑃
log 𝑅
= 4 …………………………………………………………………………………………………...………………….…… Eq.1.6

In this practicum, the power (P) and resistance (R) can be calculated using the following equations:

𝑃 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 …………………………………………………………………………………………………...………………….…. Eq. 1.7

𝑉
𝑅= 𝐼
……………………………………..…………………………………………………………………...………………….…. Eq.1.8

where, B
‘I’ is the current through the filament
‘V’ is the voltage across the filament

log P
A graph plotted with log R on the X-axis and log P on the Y-axis
would be a straight line since log P and log R are directly A
proportional (Eq. 1.5).
Select points A and B on the graph as shown in Figure 1.1 and
calculate the slope using the equation:
𝑦2 −𝑦1
Slope = 𝑥2 −𝑥1
………………………………………………………………Eq.1. 9 log R
Figure 1.1. Slope
The slope of this straight-line graph would be 4, and this would (Image Courtesy:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slope)
indicate that Stefan’s Law is verified.

VII. Practical Setup

Figure 1.2. Circuit for Stefan’s Law

(Image Courtesy:
https://vtuphysicslab.blogspot.com/2008)/08/experimen
t-no11.html)

VIII. Resources Required

S. No. Name of Resource Broad Specification Quantity

1 DC Regulated Power supply Digital 0-30 V, 1 A, Single channel output 1
2 DC Voltmeter 0-20 V 1
3 DC Ammeter 0-2 A 1
4 Incandescent Bulb Red, Green, Orange, Blue, Unknown 1

IX. Precautions
a. Avoid loose connections.
b. Don’t touch wire with wet/bare hands.

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 c. Ensure that the voltage is not increased beyond the value specified in the procedure, to
avoid damage to the components.
d. Keep the DC power supply source voltage to minimum before switching it on.

X. Self-Instructional Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 1.2.
2. Switch-on the power supply.
3. Gradually increase the applied source voltage from 0V in steps of 0.5V.
4. Record the source voltage, and the current and voltage across the bulb, in the observation
table, after the bulb begins to glow.
5. Increase the applied voltage in steps of 0.5V to record the corresponding current and voltage
across the bulb in the observation table
6. Repeat step 5 till the source voltage is 5V.
7. Switch off the power supply.
8. Keep all the instruments in their respective places.

XI. Observations and Recordings (students can use the blank page on left if space is not sufficient)

S. No. Source Voltage across Current through Resistance (R) Power (P) Log P Log R
Voltage (Vs) Bulb (V) Volts Bulb (I) Amp ohms Watts
Volts
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

a) Calculate the power (P) in watts and resistance (R) in ohms for each step, using Eq. 1.7 and
Eq. 1.8.
b) Plot a graph with log R on the X-axis and log P on the Y-axis (Refer Figure 1.1).
c) Calculate the slope of the resulting straight-line graph using Eq. 1.9.
d) Verify all the observations, graphs and result by the faculty.

XII. Results (To be provided by students)

1. Slope of the graph = …………………………..

XIII. Interpretation of Results (Students to provide meaning to above results)

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XIV. Conclusions (Actions/decisions to be taken based on the interpretation of results).

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XIV. Sample Practical Related Questions (Change the 2 questions for every group)
a. Explain why the observations have to be noted only after the bulb starts to glow.
b. Explain why the resistance and temperature are linearly proportional, in the filament.

Page 7 of 72
XV. References/Suggestions for Further Reading
M.N. Avadhanulu, P.G. Kshirsagar, A Textbook of Engineering Physics, A Textbook of Engineering
Physics, S. Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2018, 978-9352833993

XVII. Suggested Assessment Scheme (The performance indicators and their weightages will differ from practicum-
to-practicum)
The performance indicators given serves as a guideline for assessment regarding the ‘process-related
skills/LOs’ (marks to be awarded in real-time in the laboratory by the faculty member, as these cannot
be measured after practicum is over) and ‘product-related skills/LOs’.

Performance indicators Weightage Marks Obtained

Process related: Marks - 50%
1. Handling instruments correctly 20 %
2. Following lab safety protocol 05 %
3. Recorded observations correctly 15 %
4. Working as team member amicably 10 %
Product related: Marks - 50%
5. Calculation and Result 15 %
6. Interpret results correctly 10 %
7. Draw the relevant conclusions 10 %
8. Answered Practical related questions correctly 10 %
9. Submit the Record Book on time 05%
Total 100 %

Names of Student Team Members

1. …………………………
2. …………………………
3. …………………………
4. …………………………….

Marks Obtained Dated signature of Teacher

Process Product Total
Related (5) Related (5) (10)

*********

Page 8 of 72
Practicum No. 2 Date:……….
Wavelength of Unknown LED

I. Practical Significance
The experiment introduces students to foundational quantum concepts, such as the quantization of
energy and the relationship between photon energy and frequency. This experiment bridges physics
and electronics, demonstrating interdisciplinary applications and promoting understanding of modern
technological devices like Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs).

II. Competency and Practical Skills

This practicum is expected to develop the following skills/outcomes towards the development of the
industry-specific competency,
• ‘Use the principles of Physics to solve complex engineering problems.’ (As stated in the Course
Structure)
a) Select relevant instruments with right specifications (Psychomotor Domain LO).
b) Work as a team member co-operatively (Affective Domain LO).
c) Interpret the results of any phenomena correctly (Cognitive Domain LO).

III. Related CO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

CO1 - Use the principles of Quantum Mechanics to solve engineering problems.

IV. Practical Outcome (PrO) (As stated in Course Structure):

PrO2 - Determine the wavelength of the given type of LED required for the specified application.

V. Related ADO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

a) Follow safe practices.
b) Practice Ethics.

VI. Minimum Underpinning Theory

An LED (Light Emitting Diode) is a P-N junction diode which emits light when connected in forward bias.
In forward bias, the electrons in the conduction band recombine with the holes in the valence band
and radiate photons (light). So, the energy of the photon depends on the bandgap of the material.

When electrons and holes recombine to radiate photons in an LED,

𝑒𝑉𝑘 = ℎ𝜈 ………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………….. Eq. 2.1

𝑐
Since, 𝜈 = , Eq. 2.1 can be re-written as:
𝜆

𝑐
𝑒𝑉𝑘 = ℎ 𝜆 …………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………….………Eq. 2.2

Therefore, the Plank’s Constant can be calculated as:

𝑒𝑉𝑘 𝜆
ℎ = ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………Eq. 2.3
𝑐

The wavelength λ could be calculated as,

ℎ𝑐
𝜆 = 𝑒𝑣 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….Eq. 2.4
𝑘

Where,
‘h’ - is the Planck’s constant
e is the charge of the electron
‘Vk’ - is the knee voltage of the LED
‘λ’ - is the wavelength of the LED light

Page 9 of 72
 ‘c’ - is the velocity of light in vacuum.

VII. Practical Setup

Figure 2.1. LED in Forward biasing Figure 2.2. LED

(Image Courtesy: chrome- (Image Courtesy: www.electrical4u.com)
extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/http://froehlichsphysi
cs.com/gbn/gbn_physics/devices/planck/planck_constant_apparatus.
pdf)

Table 2.1. Wavelength of various LED’s

LED Wavelength (λ)

Blue 460nm
Green 520nm
Orange 612nm
Red 660nm

Figure 2.3. I-V Graph

VIII. Resources Required characteristics

S. No. Name of Resource Broad Specification Quantity

1 Power supply Digital 0-30V, 1 A, Single channel 1
output
2 DC Voltmeter 0-20 V 1
3 DC Ammeter 0-2 A 1
4 LEDs Red, Green, Orange, Blue, Unknown As required
5 Breadboard 830 points long size solderless for 1
prototype circuit
6 Resistor 1 KΩ 1

IX. Precautions
a. Avoid loose connections.
b. Don’t touch wire with wet/bare hands.
c. Keep the DC power supply source voltage to minimum before switching it on.

X. Self-Instructional Procedure
1. Connect the circuit with blue (say) LED as shown in figure 2.1.
2. Connect the anode of the diode to the positive terminal of the variable DC power supply and
the cathode to the negative terminal to confirm that the blue LED is forward biased as seen
in Figure 2.2.
3. Switch-on the supply.
4. Record the current and voltage across the diode in the observation table.
5. Increase the applied voltage in steps of 0.5V to record the corresponding current and voltage
across the diode in the observation table

Page 10 of 72
 6. Increase the current to 1mA to record the corresponding current and voltage across the
diode in the observation table.
7. Repeat step 6 till the current in 10 mA
8. Switch off the power supply.
9. Connect the next LED (say, green) in forward bias, in the circuit.
10. Switch on the power supply
11. Repeat steps 1-8 for the green LED.
12. Connect the unknown LED in forward bias, in the circuit.
13. Switch on the power supply.
14. Repeat steps 1-8 for the unknown LED.
15. Switch off the power supply.
16. Keep all the instruments in their respective places.

XI. Observations and Recordings (students can use the blank page on left if space is not sufficient)

For Blue LED (say)

S. Source Voltage Current Knee Wavelength Planck’s
No. Voltage across LED through Voltage (λ) Constant (h)
(Vs) volts (VD) volts LED (ID) mA (VK) volts Joule.sec
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

For Green LED (say)

S. Source Voltage Current Knee Wavelength Planck’s
No. Voltage across LED through Voltage (λ) Constant (h)
(Vs) volts (VD) volts LED (ID) mA (VK) volts Joule.sec
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

For Unknown LED

S. Source Voltage Current Knee Wavelength Planck’s
No. Voltage across LED through Voltage (λ) Constant (h)
(Vs) volts (VD) volts LED (ID) mA (VK) volts Joule.sec
1
2
3

Page 11 of 72
 S. Source Voltage Current Knee Wavelength Planck’s
No. Voltage across LED through Voltage (λ) Constant (h)
(Vs) volts (VD) volts LED (ID) mA (VK) volts Joule.sec
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

a) Plot forward I-V characteristics of the blue and green LED on a graph separately, with the
voltage across the diode on the x-axis and the current through the diode on the y-axis (Refer
Figure 2.3).
b) Determine the ‘knee voltage’ from the characteristic curve, by extrapolating the linear part
of the curve to the x-axis referring to Figure 2.3.
c) Determine the Planck’s constant (h) for both types of LEDs using Eq. 2.3 and substituting the
value of λ from Table 2.1.
d) Calculate the average value of Planck’s Constant.
e) Plot the I-V characteristics of the unknown LED.
f) Determine the knee voltage of the unknown LED from the graph by extrapolating the linear
part of the curve to the x-axis referring to Figure 2.3.
g) Calculate the wavelength of the unknown LED using Eq. 2.4.
h) Verify all the observations, graphs and result by the faculty.

XII. Results (To be provided by students)

1. Knee Voltage of known LED 1(Blue/Green/Orange/Red) = …………………………..
2. Planck’s constant of the known LED 1 Blue/Green/Orange/Red) = …………………………..
3. Knee Voltage of known LED 2(Blue/Green/Orange/Red) = ………………………….
4. Planck’s constant of the known LED 2 (Blue/Green/Orange/Red) = …………………………..
5. Average value of Planck’s Constant =……………………………
6. Wavelength of unknown LED =……………………………

XIII. Interpretation of Results (Students to provide meaning to above results)

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XIV. Conclusions (Actions/decisions to be taken based on the interpretation of results).

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XVI. Sample Practical Related Questions (Change the 2 questions for every group)
a. State the sources of error that might affect your determination of Planck's constant in this
experiment.
b. Interpret how is the wavelength associated with each LED.

XVII. References/Suggestions for Further Reading

M.N. Avadhanulu, P.G. Kshirsagar, A Textbook of Engineering Physics, A Textbook of Engineering
Physics, S. Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2018, 978-9352833993

Page 12 of 72
XVIII. Suggested Assessment Scheme (The performance indicators and their weightages will differ from practicum-
to-practicum)
The performance indicators given serve as a guideline for assessment regarding the ‘process-related
skills’ (marks to be awarded in real-time in the laboratory by the faculty member, as these cannot be
measured after practicum is over) and ‘product-related skills’ (or LOs).

Performance indicators Weightage Marks Obtained

Process related: Marks - 50%
1. Handling instruments correctly 20 %
2. Following lab safety protocol 05 %
3. Recorded observations correctly 15 %
4. Working as team member amicably 10 %
Product related: Marks - 50%
5. Calculation and Result 15 %
6. Interpret results correctly 10 %
7. Draw the relevant conclusions 10 %
8. Answered Practical related questions correctly 10 %
9. Submit the Record Book on time 05%
Total 100 %
Names of Student Team Members
1. …………………………
2. …………………………
3. …………………………
4. …………………………….

Marks Obtained Dated signature of Teacher

Process Product Total
Related (5) Related (5) (10)

*********

Page 13 of 72
Practicum No. 3 Date:……….
Newton’s Ring

I. Practical Significance
In industries such as optical manufacturing, quality control, and coating technology, the Newton’s Ring
phenomenon plays a significant role in assessing the surface quality and curvature of lenses. It is
commonly used in lens inspection to detect dents or scratches and in coating industries to evaluate
the uniformity and integrity of anti-reflective layers. This practicum provides hands-on experience with
Newton’s Ring setup, enabling students to measure the radius of curvature of a plano-convex lens,
which is essential for professionals involved in precision optics and optical instrumentation.

II. Competency and Practical Skills

This practicum is expected to develop the following skills/outcomes towards the development of the
industry-specific competency,
• ‘Use the principles of Physics to solve complex engineering problems related to all the branches
of engineering’. (As stated in the Course Structure)
a) Maintain the proper functioning of the various equipment and related processes
(Psychomotor Domain LO).
b) Work as a team member co-operatively (Affective Domain LO).
c) Interpret the results of any phenomena correctly (Cognitive Domain LO).

III. Related CO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

CO 3 - Use the principles of Quantum Mechanics to solve engineering problems.

IV. Practical Outcome (PrO) (As stated in Course Structure):

PrO3 - Determine the radius of curvature of the given optical lens.

V. Related ADO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

a) Follow safe practices.
b) Practice ethics.

VI. Minimum Underpinning Theory

Newton’s rings are an example of an interference pattern created by light (see Figure 3.2). Newton’s
rings are formed when monochromatic light illuminates a plano-convex lens on a glass plate. The
combination forms a thin circular air film of variable thickness in all directions around the point of
contact of the lens and the glass plate. The set of all points corresponding to a specific thickness of air
film falls on a circle. Interference fringes are observed in the form of a series of concentric bright and
dark rings. The radius of a plano-convex lens can be estimated using the relevant equation:

𝐷𝑚 2 −𝐷𝑛 2
𝑅= 4(𝑚−𝑛)𝜆
………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………….Eq. 3.1

Where,
‘𝑅’ – the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens.
‘𝐷𝑚 ’ – the diameter of the 𝑚𝑡ℎ ring.
‘𝐷𝑛 – the diameter of the 𝑛𝑡ℎ ring.
‘𝑚 and 𝑛′ – the order of the rings.
‘λ′ – the wavelength of the light from sodium vapour lamp.

Page 14 of 72
VII. Practical Setup

Figure 3.1. Schematic of the Newton’s Ring Experimental Setup

(Image courtesy: https://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age16-19/Wave%20properties/Interference/text/Newton's_rings/index.html)

Figure 3.2. Interference Pattern

(Image courtesy: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_rings)

VIII. Resources Required

S. No. Name of Resource Broad Specification Quantity

1 Sodium Vapour Lamp Source Wavelength: 589.3 nm 01
2 Travelling 10X Objective lens with x-y movement 01
Microscope
3 Glass plate Flat 01
4 Plano-convex lens Focal length: 50 m 01

IX. Precautions
a. Handle the plano-convex lens, glass plate, and microscope with care.
b. Ensure proper alignment of the plane glass plate and the lens.
c. Adjust the light intensity to an optimal level for accurate observation.
d. Avoid vibrations near the experimental setup.
e. Prevent parallax error while taking observations.

X. Self-Instructional Procedure
1. Switch on the sodium vapour lamp and wait until it stabilizes and emits a bright yellow light.
2. Place the plane glass plate on the black panel of the travelling microscope.
3. Focus the light from the sodium lamp through the microscope.
4. Incline the glass plate to around 45° to achieve maximum brightness through the eyepiece as
shown in Figure 3.1.
5. Place the plano-convex lens on top of the plane glass plate.
6. Adjust the microscope to clearly observe the concentric bright and dark circular fringes as shown
in Figure 3.2.

Page 15 of 72
 7. Identify the central dark ring as the 0th ring.
8. Take all measurements in one consistent direction (e.g., from right to left) to reduce error.
9. Verify all the observations, results and graphs by the faculty member.
10. Align the microscope cross wire with the centre of each ring while taking measurements.
11. Ensure precise alignment of the cross wire with the middle of the fringe.
12. Record the left (L) and right (R) positions of each ring.
13. Switch off the sodium vapour lamp
14. Keep all the instruments in their respective places.

XI. Observations and Recordings (student can use blank page on left if space is not sufficient)
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
Least Count of the travelling microscope = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
= cm

Travelling Microscope Readings Average

Order of Diameter 𝑫𝟐 𝑫𝒎+𝟏 𝟐 − 𝑫𝒎 𝟐
Left side reading (L) Right side reading (R) 𝑫𝒎+𝟏 𝟐 − 𝑫𝒎 𝟐
the ring D = L- R (𝒄𝒎𝟐 ) (𝒄𝒎𝟐 )
M.S.R C.S.D T.R M.S.R C.S.D T.R (𝒄𝒎𝟐 )
(m) (cm)
(cm) (div) (cm) (cm) (div) (cm)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6

a) Calculate the diameter (D) of each ring using the difference (R - L).
b) Calculate the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens using Equation 3.1.
c) Verify all the observations, results and graphs by the faculty member.

XII. Results (To be provided by students)

1. Radius of Curvature of the given optical lens is = …………………………cm.

XIII. Interpretation of Results (Students to provide meaning to above results)

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XIV. Conclusions (Actions/decisions to be taken based on the interpretation of results).

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XV. Sample Practical Related Questions (Change the 2 questions for every group)
a. Interpret the effect on the interference pattern if the properties of the plano-convex lens are
altered.
b. State the impact on the ring pattern if the radius of curvature of the lens is increased or
decreased.

XVI. References/Suggestions for Further Reading

M.N. Avadhanulu, P.G. Kshirsagar, A Textbook of Engineering Physics, A Textbook of Engineering
Physics, S. Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2018, 978-9352833993

XVII. Suggested Assessment Scheme (The performance indicators and their weightages will differ from practicum-
to-practicum)

Page 16 of 72
The performance indicators given serves as a guideline for assessment regarding the ‘process-related
skills’ (marks to be awarded in real-time in the laboratory by the faculty member, as these cannot be
measured after practicum is over) and ‘product-related skills’ (or LOs).

Performance indicators Weightage Marks Obtained

Process related: Marks - 50%
1. Handling instruments correctly 15 %
2. Maintain proper functioning 05 %
3. Following lab safety protocol 05 %
4. Recorded observations correctly 15 %
5. Working as team member amicably 10 %
Product related: Marks - 50%
6. Calculation and Result 15 %
7. Interpret results correctly 10 %
8. Draw the relevant conclusions 10 %
9. Answered Practical related questions correctly 10 %
10. Submit the Record Book on time 05%
Total 100 %
Names of Student Team Members
1. …………………………
2. …………………………
3. …………………………
4. …………………………….

Marks Obtained Dated signature of Teacher

Process Product Total
Related (5) Related (5) (10)

*********

Page 17 of 72
Practicum No. 4 Date:……….
Fermi Energy

I. Practical Significance
In industries such as electronics, power generation, automotive, and materials science, understanding
how temperature affects the electrical properties of materials is crucial. The Fermi Energy practicum
offers fundamental insights into the temperature-dependent changes in resistance, which are
essential for designing conductive materials, electronic components, and energy-efficient systems.
This practicum provides hands-on experience in analyzing these properties, equipping future engineers
with the ability to optimize performance, reliability, and energy efficiency in real-world applications of
electrical and electronic systems.

II. Competency and Practical Skills

This practicum is expected to develop the following skills/outcomes towards the development of the
industry-specific competency,
• ‘Use the principles of Physics to solve complex engineering problems related to all the branches
of engineering’. (As stated in the Course Structure)
a) Use the relevant instruments correctly and safely (Psychomotor Domain LO).
b) Follow safety protocols (Affective Domain LO).
c) Interpret the results of any phenomena correctly (Cognitive Domain LO).

III. Related CO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

CO 2 - Interpret the behaviour of semiconductor devices in various engineering applications.

IV. Practical Outcome (PrO) (As stated in Course Structure):

PrO4 - Interpret the temperature - resistance relationship of the given material.

V. Related ADO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

a) Follow safe practices.
b) Practice ethics.

VI. Minimum Underpinning Theory

In metals, the highest energy level occupied by the electrons when all the lower energy levels are filled
is known as Fermi energy. In metals like copper, the electrical resistance increases with temperature
due to electron scattering with lattice vibrations. By understanding this temperature dependence (see
Equation 4.1), the Fermi energy can be estimated. At any given temperature, the Fermi energy can be
calculated (in Joules and in eV) from the mean free path of the electron, the change in resistance with
temperature, the dimensions of the metal (copper wire in the case of this experiment), and some
known constants. The speed of an electron with a kinetic energy equal to the Fermi energy is called
the Fermi velocity (see Equation 4.2). The relevant equations are:

∆𝑅 2
𝐸𝐹 = 5.12 × 10−13 [∆𝑇 ] ……………………………………………………….…………………………………………………Eq. 4.1

2𝐸𝐹
𝑣𝐹 = √ 𝑚
…………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………..Eq.4.2
Where,
‘𝐸𝐹 ’ – the Fermi Energy in Joule.
‘∆𝑅’ – the change in resistance.
‘∆𝑇′ – the change in temperature.
‘𝑣𝐹 ′ – the Fermi velocity.
‘𝑚′ – the mass of electron.

Page 18 of 72
 B

Resistance (ohms)
A

Temperature oC
Figure 4.1. Slope Calculation by Resistance Vs Temperature Graph

A graph has to be plotted with the temperature (on X-axis) and the resistance on (Y-axis) as shown in
Figure 4.1. Select Point A and B on the graph as shown in Figure 1 and calculate slope by using
formula:
𝑦 −𝑦
Slope = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 …………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………….Eq. 4.3
2 1

The slope that is calculated indicates the change in the resistance of the material with respect to
increase in temperature. By substituting the value of slope in Equation 4.1 the fermi energy (EF) can
be determined. Again, substituting the value of EF in equation 4.2. Fermi velocity (vF) can be
calculated. This fermi energy will help the industry to optimize the use of material in different
applications.

VII. Practical Setup

Figure 4.2. Schematic of the Fermi Energy Experimental Setup

(Image courtesy: chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://ijiset.com/vol2/v2s11/IJISET_V2_I11_83.pdf)

VIII. Resources Required

S. No. Name of Resource Broad Specification Quantity

1 Fermi Energy kit Copper coil (with two electrodes emerging out) 01
wound around the non-conducting rod immersed into
the test-tube filled with liquid paraffin
2 Electric Kettle with 1.5 L 01
water
3 Test tube 5 01
4 Paraffin Liquid As per the requirement 01
5 Thermometer Radius= 7.5 cm (measure up to 120oC) 01
6 Patch Cords - As required

Page 19 of 72
IX. Precautions
a. Avoid loose connections.
b. Do not touch wire with wet/bare hands.
c. Do not touch the kettle when hot.
d. Do not touch hot water inside the kettle.

X. Self-Instructional Procedure
1. Fill the water in the electric kettle as shown in Figure 4.2.
2. Immerse the copper coil setup consisting of copper coil (with two electrodes emerging out)
wound around the non-conducting rod immersed into the test-tube filled with liquid paraffin
in the kettle.
3. Place the glass thermometer in the test tube.
4. Connect both the ends of the coiled copper wire as shown in Figure 4.2.
5. Record the initial temperature of the thermometer.
6. Switch on the power supply of the setup to slowly heat the copper coil.
7. Record the voltage (V) and the current (I) in the observation table when the temperature in
the thermometer has risen by 5°C.
8. Repeat step 8 for every increment of 5°C till the thermometer reaches 85°C.
9. Switch off the electrical supply.
10. Keep all the instruments in their respective places

XI. Observations and Recordings (student can use blank page on left if space is not sufficient)

Variation of Resistance with Temperature

S. No. Temperature (°C) Voltage (mV) Current (mA) Resistance (Ω)
1 35
2 40
3 45
4 50
5 55
6 60
7 65
8 70
9 75
10 80
11 85

a) Calculate the resistance (R) for each reading using Ohm’s Law R=V/I.
b) Plot a graph with Temperature (°C) on the X-axis and Resistance (Ω) on the Y-axis (Refer
Figure 4.1).
c) Determine the slope of the graph as discussed in underpinning theory section VI (Equation
4.3).
d) Calculate the fermi energy of the copper, based on underpinning theory discussed in section
VI using Equation 4.1.
e) Calculate the fermi velocity of the copper based on underpinning theory discussed in section
VI using Equation 4.2.
f) Verify all the observations, results and graphs by the faculty member.

XII. Results (To be provided by students)

1. Slope of the graph is = ………………………….
2. Fermi energy =……………………. Joule
3. Fermi velocity =…………………… m/s

Page 20 of 72
XIII. Interpretation of Results (Students to provide meaning to above results)
1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XIV. Conclusions (Actions/decisions to be taken based on the interpretation of results).

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XV. Sample Practical Related Questions (Change the 2 questions for every group)
a. State the effect if the polarity of the electrodes is reversed.
b. Interpret the effect on the temperature measurement, if the paraffin wax is removed from the
test tube.

XVI. References/Suggestions for Further Reading

M.N. Avadhanulu, P.G. Kshirsagar, A Textbook of Engineering Physics, A Textbook of Engineering
Physics, S. Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2018, 978-9352833993

XVII. Suggested Assessment Scheme (The performance indicators and their weightages will differ from practicum-
to-practicum)
The performance indicators given serves as a guideline for assessment regarding the ‘process-related
skills’ (marks to be awarded in real-time in the laboratory by the faculty member, as these cannot be
measured after practicum is over) and ‘product-related skills’ (or LOs).

Performance indicators Weightage Marks Obtained

Process related: Marks - 50%
1. Handling instruments correctly 20 %
2. Following lab safety protocol 05 %
3. Recorded observations correctly 15 %
4. Working as team member amicably 10 %
Product related: Marks - 50%
5. Calculation and Result 15 %
6. Interpret results correctly 10 %
7. Draw the relevant conclusions 10 %
8. Answered Practical related questions correctly 10 %
9. Submit the Record Book on time 05%
Total 100 %
Names of Student Team Members
1. …………………………
2. …………………………
3. …………………………
4. …………………………….

Marks Obtained Dated signature of Teacher

Process Product Total
Related (5) Related (5) (10)

*********

Page 21 of 72
Practicum No. 5 Date:……….
Zener Diode

I. Practical Significance
The practical illustrates how Zener diodes maintain a constant output voltage despite variations in load
or supply voltage. It helps in analyzing the knee point or Zener breakdown voltage accurately.
Understanding this behavior is crucial for designing circuits like voltage regulators, clippers, and
protection devices. It strengthens knowledge of semiconductor physics and PN junction behavior. It
prepares students for real-world applications involving power supply stabilization and signal
conditioning.

II. Competency and Practical Skills

This practicum is expected to develop the following skills/outcomes towards the development of the
industry-specific competency,
• ‘Use the principles of Physics to solve complex engineering problems related to all the branches
of engineering. (As stated in the Course Structure)
a) Select relevant instruments with right specifications (Psychomotor Domain LO).
b) Practice good housekeeping (Affective Domain LO).
c) Take right decisions based on the interpretation of results (Cognitive Domain LO).

III. Related CO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

CO 2 - Interpret the behaviour of semiconductor devices in various engineering applications.

IV. Practical Outcome (PrO) (As stated in Course Structure):

PrO5 - Evaluate the performance of the given type of semiconductor device.

V. Related ADO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

a) Follow safe practices.
b) Practice ethics.

VI. Minimum Underpinning Theory

A diode is a two-terminal electrical component which conducts current in one–direction. An ideal diode
will have zero resistance in one direction, and infinite resistance in the reverse direction. It can be
thought to be like that of an electrical switch. Normal p-n junction diodes begin conducting electricity
only if a certain threshold voltage is present in the forward direction (the “low resistance” direction).
The diode is said to be “forward biased” when conducting current in this direction. When connected
within a circuit in the reverse direction (the “high resistance” direction), the diode is said to be “reverse
biased”.

Figure 5.1. V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

(Image courtesy: https://lastminuteengineers.com/the-zener-diode/)

Page 22 of 72
Zener diode is a special kind of diode – designed in a way that it works like a normal diode in forward
bias. But in reverse bias, unlike a normal diode, the diode provides a conductive path for current flow
if the applied reverse voltage across the diode is more than ‘Zener voltage’. The Zener voltage (Vz)
could be calculated by plotting a graph between voltage and current, which is known as the
characteristic curve of the Zener diode as shown in Figure 5.1. The V-I curve in the reverse biased
condition is used to determine the Vz value. The linear portion of the curve is extrapolated and the
point of its intersection is located on the x-axis. That point on the x-axis (Voltage axis) gives the value
of Vz.

VII. Practical Setup

Figure 5.2. Schematic of the Experimental Setup (Zener Diode connected in Forward Bias)
(Image Courtesy: https://ithomeprogrammingcare.blogspot.com/2016/11/characteristics-of-zener-diode-lab-02.html)

Figure 5.3. Anode and Cathode parts of a Zener Diode

(Image Courtesy: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/zener-diode/)

VIII. Resources Required

S. No. Name of Resource Broad Specification Quantity

1 Breadboard Size: (175X67X8) mm, 128 group of 5 connected 01
terminals, 8 bus of 25 connected terminals.
2 Zener Diode Zener Voltage: 9 V 01
3 Resistor 1KΩ 01
4 Power Supply Digital 0-30V, 1 A, Single channel output (DC) 01
5 Ammeter Digital DC (0-200) mA 01
6 Voltmeter Digital DC (0-20) V As required

IX. Precautions
a. Avoid loose connections.
b. Do not touch wire with wet/bare hands.

X. Self-Instructional Procedure
1. Identify the cathode and anode parts of the zener diode according to Figure 5.3.
2. Connect the Zener Diode on a breadboard as shown in Figure 5.2, with the Zener diode in
forward bias by connecting anode of the diode to the positive terminal of the variable dc power
source and the cathode to the negative terminal.

Page 23 of 72
 3. Connect the resistor in series as shown in Figure 5.2.
4. Connect the voltmeter in parallel to the Zener diode (Refer Figure 5.2).
5. Connect the ammeter in series to the Zener diode (Refer Figure 5.2).
6. Switch on the power supply.
7. Set the current reading in the power source to maximum so that the current in the circuit is
not limited by it.
8. Vary the Source Voltage (Vs) in small steps till 2V, or when the ammeter shows a zero current
reading increase the source voltage in steps of 0.5V.
9. Increase the source voltage so that the current reading increases by 1mA each.
10. Record the corresponding values of current (Iz) and voltage (Vz) across the Zener diode till Vs is
10V.
11. Reverse the polarity of the diode to connect it in reverse bias; anode of the diode is connected
to the negative terminal of the variable dc power source and the cathode to the positive
terminal.
12. Repeat step 8-10.
13. Record the corresponding values of current (Iz) and voltage (Vz) across the Zener diode till Vs is
20V.
14. Switch off the power supply.
15. Keep all the instruments in their respective places

XI. Observations and Recordings (student can use blank page on left if space is not sufficient)

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

S. No.
Vs (V) VZ (V) IZ (mA) Vs (V) VZ (V) IZ (mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

a) Plot the graph between Vz (x-axis) and Iz (y-axis) in forward and reverse bias condition (Refer
Figure 5.1).
b) Determine the Zener Voltage (Vz) as mentioned in Section VI as shown in Figure 5.1.
c) Verify all the observations, results and graphs by the faculty member.

XII. Results (To be provided by students)

1. The Zener Voltage (Vz) determined from the graph is = ………………………….

XIII. Interpretation of Results (Students to provide meaning to above results)

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XIV. Conclusions (Actions/decisions to be taken based on the interpretation of results).

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XV. Sample Practical Related Questions (Change the 2 questions for every group)
a. State the phenomena that drives the Zener Voltage to such a value compared to a normal pn-
junction diode in the reverse bias condition.

Page 24 of 72
 b. Interpret the reason behind employing Zener Diode in a voltage regulator.

XVI. References/Suggestions for Further Reading

M.N. Avadhanulu, P.G. Kshirsagar, A Textbook of Engineering Physics, A Textbook of Engineering
Physics, S. Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., 978-9352833993

XVII. Suggested Assessment Scheme (The performance indicators and their weightages will differ from practicum-
to-practicum)
The performance indicators given serves as a guideline for assessment regarding the ‘process-related
skills’ (marks to be awarded in real-time in the laboratory by the faculty member, as these cannot be
measured after practicum is over) and ‘product-related skills’ (or LOs).

Performance indicators Weightage Marks Obtained

Process related: Marks - 50%
1. Handling instruments correctly 20 %
2. Following lab safety protocol 05 %
3. Recorded observations correctly 15 %
4. Working as team member amicably 10 %
Product related: Marks - 50%
5. Calculation and Result 15 %
6. Interpret results correctly 10 %
7. Draw the relevant conclusions 10 %
8. Answered Practical related questions correctly 10 %
9. Submit the Record Book on time 05%
Total 100 %
Names of Student Team Members
1. …………………………
2. …………………………
3. …………………………
4. …………………………….

Marks Obtained Dated signature of Teacher

Process Product Total
Related (5) Related (5) (10)

*********

Page 25 of 72
Practicum No. 6 Date:……….
Bridge Rectifier

I. Practical Significance
Bridge rectifiers are used in power supplies, Battery Chargers, Audio Amplifiers, Lighting Systems etc.
This practicum provides students with a hands-on approach to construct a simple Bridge Rectifier and
investigate its AC to DC conversion efficiency and ripple factor. It strengthens the understanding of
rectification and semiconductor devices.

II. Competency and Practical Skills

This practicum is expected to develop the following skills/outcomes towards the development of the
industry-specific competency,
• ‘Use the principles of Physics to solve complex engineering problems related to all the branches
of engineering’. (As stated in the Course Structure)
a) Calibrate the relevant measuring equipment periodically for accuracy
(Psychomotor Domain LO).
b) Perform as an effective team leader (Affective Domain LO).
c) Take right decisions based on the interpretation of results (Cognitive Domain LO).

III. Related CO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

CO 2 - Interpret the behaviour of semiconductor devices in various engineering applications.

IV. Practical Outcome (PrO) (As stated in Course Structure):

PrO6 - Evaluate the performance of the given bridge rectifier.

V. Related ADO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

a) Follow safe practices.
b) Practice ethics.

VI. Minimum Underpinning Theory

A bridge rectifier is an electronic circuit designed to convert alternating current (AC) into direct current
(DC). It employs four diodes arranged in a bridge configuration. During each half-cycle of the AC input,
two diodes conduct while the other two remain reverse-biased, allowing current to pass through the
load in the same direction in both half-cycles. This results in full-wave rectification, where both positive
and negative halves of the AC signal contribute to the output. The output is a pulsating DC voltage,
which can be further smoothed using filter components like capacitors.

Figure 6.1. Input and Output waveform for Bridge Figure 6.2. Input and Output waveform for Bridge
Rectifier without filter Rectifier with filter

(Image Courtesy: https://www.electroduino.com/full-wave-bridge-rectifier-circuit-diagram-and-

working-principle/)
Page 26 of 72
The input waveform from an AC signal and the rectified output through bridge rectifier is illustrated in
Figure 6.1 (Voltage vs frequency), which is a pulsating DC. The output waveform after connecting the
capacitive filter is shown in Figure 6.2, where the ripples are reduced and a comparatively smooth DC
signal is obtained. Vp is the peak voltage in Figure 6.2.

VII. Practical Setup

Figure 6.3. Circuit Diagram for Bridge Rectifier

(Image Courtesy: https://www.electroduino.com/full-wave-bridge-rectifier-circuit-diagram-and-working-principle/)

The circuit diagram for bridge rectifier with filter is shown in Figures 6.3. The ripple factor is defined as
the ratio of the RMS value of the AC component to the average value of the DC component. A lower
ripple factor indicates a smoother DC output with less ripple. It is mathematically given as,

𝑉
𝛾 = 𝑉𝑎𝑐 …………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………Eq. 6.1
𝑑𝑐

2 − 𝑉 2 ) ……………………………………………………………….………………………………………………Eq. 6.2
𝑉𝑎𝑐 = √(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑑𝑐

𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ……………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………….Eq. 6.3
√2

2𝑉
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝑚 ……………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………….Eq. 6.4
𝜋
Where,
‘𝛾’ – is the ripple factor.
‘𝑉𝑎𝑐 ′ – is the AC input voltage.
‘𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ’ – is the RMS component of AC voltage.
‘𝑉𝑑𝑐 ’ – is the DC Voltage across the load resistance.
‘𝑉𝑚 ’ – is the maximum AC voltage.

VIII. Resources Required

S. No. Name of Resource Broad Specification Quantity

1 Step Down Transformer 9-0-9 V or 12-0-12 V 1 No.
2 Breadboard Size: (175X67X8) mm, 128 group of 5 connected 1 No.
terminals, 8 bus of 25 connected terminals.
2 Diode 1N4007 4 Nos.
3 Load resistor 1 KΩ 1 No.
4 Capacitor 1000 μF 1 No.
5 Cathode Ray Bandwidth of 20MHz to 30MHz, a sensitivity of 1No.
Oscilloscope (CRO) 5mV/div to 20V/div, and a sweep rate ranging
from 0.1µs/div to 0.2s/div, multiple trigger and
sweep modes (Auto, Trig, Lock, Single)

IX. Precautions
a. Avoid loose connections.

Page 27 of 72
 b. Ensure the power supply is off before making or changing any connections.

X. Self-Instructional Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 6.3.
2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to AC mains and the secondary side to rectifier input
as shown in Figure 6.3.
3. Switch on the power supply.
4. Connect the CRO probe across the input side that is secondary of transformer and note down
the amplitude of the sine wave.
5. Observe the input AC waveform on the CRO (Same as shown in the input signal of Figure 6.1).
6. Trace the input AC waveform with the help of a trace paper.
7. Connect the CRO probe across the load resistor to measure the voltage Vm at the output of the
rectifier.
8. Observe the output waveform on the CRO (Same as shown in the input signal of Figure 6.1).
9. Trace the output waveform with the help of a trace paper.
10. Use output voltage Vm to calculate the ripple factor without capacitive filter with the help of
equation 6.1.
11. Connect the CRO probe across the capacitor to measure the voltage Vm and Vr(p-p) at the output
of the rectifier.
12. Use output voltage Vm and Vr(p-p) to calculate the ripple factor with filter using equation 6.1.
13. Observe the output waveform on the CRO (Same as shown in the input signal of Figure 6.2).
14. Trace the output waveform with the help of a trace paper.
15. Switch off the power supply.
16. Keep all the instruments in their respective places.

XI. Observations and Recordings (student can use blank page on left if space is not sufficient)

Input AC Voltage, Output DC Voltage, Ripple factor,

Vac (Volts) Vdc (Volts) 𝑽𝒂𝒄
𝜸=
𝑽𝒅𝒄
Without Capacitive Filter
With Capacitive Filter

a) Tabulate all the findings in the observation table.

b) Verify all the observations and results by the faculty member.

XII. Results (To be provided by students)

1. The ripple factor without capacitive filter is determined as = …………………………
2. The ripple factor with capacitive filter is determined as = …………………………

XIII. Interpretation of Results (Students to provide meaning to above results)

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XIV. Conclusions (Actions/decisions to be taken based on the interpretation of results).

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XV. Sample Practical Related Questions (Change the 2 questions for every group)
a. Interpret the effect of connecting the capacitor in series rather than parallel.
b. Interpret the situation if another capacitor is included in the circuit as a filter.
XVI. References/Suggestions for Further Reading

Page 28 of 72
M.N. Avadhanulu, P.G. Kshirsagar, A Textbook of Engineering Physics, A Textbook of Engineering
Physics, Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., 978-9352833993

XVII. Suggested Assessment Scheme (The performance indicators and their weightages will differ from practicum-
to-practicum)
The performance indicators given serves as a guideline for assessment regarding the ‘process-related
skills’ (marks to be awarded in real-time in the laboratory by the faculty member, as these cannot be
measured after practicum is over) and ‘product-related skills’ (or LOs).

Performance indicators Weightage Marks Obtained

Process related: Marks - 50%
1. Handling instruments correctly 10 %
2. Calibrate instruments 10 %
3. Following lab safety protocol 05 %
4. Recorded observations correctly 15 %
5. Working as team member amicably 10 %
Product related: Marks - 50%
6. Calculation and Result 15 %
7. Interpret results correctly 10 %
8. Draw the relevant conclusions 10 %
9. Answered Practical related questions correctly 10 %
10. Submit the Record Book on time 05%
Total 100 %
Names of Student Team Members
1. …………………………
2. …………………………
3. …………………………
4. …………………………….

Marks Obtained Dated signature of Teacher

Process Product Total
Related (5) Related (5) (10)

*********

Page 29 of 72
Practicum No. 7 Date:……….
Dielectric Constant

I. Practical Significance
The practicum helps in understanding how materials interact with electric fields and is crucial for the
development and design of electronic components. The student can identify the material according to
its dielectric constant value, which is best suited to be inserted between the two parallel plates to
enhance the capacitance. It is critical in electronics and energy storage systems.

II. Competency and Practical Skills

This practicum is expected to develop the following skills/outcomes towards the development of the
industry-specific competency,
• ‘Use the principles of Physics to solve complex engineering problems related to all the branches
of engineering. (As stated in the Course Structure)
a) Use the relevant instruments correctly and safely (Psychomotor Domain LO).
b) Work as a team member co-operatively (Affective Domain LO).
c) Interpret the results of any phenomena correctly (Cognitive Domain LO).

III. Related CO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

CO 3 - Use the principles of dielectrics and magnetism for various engineering applications.

IV. Practical Outcome (PrO) (As stated in Course Structure):

PrO7 - Determine the dielectric constant of the given material.

V. Related ADO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

a) Follow safe practices.
b) Practice ethics.

VI. Minimum Underpinning Theory

A capacitor is an electrical device that can store charge. A capacitor can be charged by connecting it to
a voltage source through a resistor. A charged capacitor can be discharged by connecting it directly to
a resistor. Voltage across a capacitor of capacitance C while charging through a resistor of resistance
R with a power source of voltage V0 for a given time t is given by,
𝑡
𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉0 (1 − 𝑒 𝜏 ) ………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………Eq. 7.1
Voltage across a capacitor of capacitance C while discharging through a resistor of resistance R is
given by,
−𝑡
𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉0 (𝑒 𝜏 ) ………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………….Eq. 7.2

Where,
‘V(t)’ – Voltage across the capacitor at time ‘t’.
‘V0’ – Voltage across the capacitor at time ‘t=0’.
‘t’ –is the instantaneous time.
‘τ – is the time-period of the capacitor.
Where,
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 …………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………….………..Eq. 7.3

If the voltage vs time graph is plotted for both charging and discharging, the graphs will overlap at
one point in time (Tp) given by,
𝜏
𝑇𝑝 = 1.44 = 𝑅𝐶/1.44…………………..………………………………………………………………………………………….Eq. 7.4

Therefore,

Page 30 of 72
𝐶 = 1.44𝑇𝑝 /𝑅 …………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………..Eq. 7.5

The capacitance of a capacitor can also be calculated as,

𝐾𝜖 𝐴
𝐶 = 𝑑0 …………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………Eq. 7.6
Equating, equations 7.5 and 7.6,
1.44𝑇𝑝 𝑑
𝐾= ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….Eq. 7.7
𝜖0 𝐴𝑅
Where,
‘K’ – Dielectric Constant.
‘є0’ – permittivity of free space = 8.85× 10−12 Fm−1.
‘A’ –is the area of the plate.
‘τ’ – is the time-period of the capacitor.
‘d’ – is the distance between the parallel plates of the capacitor or thickness of the dielectric
material.
TP is time at which the voltage across the capacitor is the same during charging and discharging.

Due to the etching process in the manufacturing of the capacitor, the effective area of the capacitor
plate is different from that of the calculated area. So, the above equation is modified to incorporate
the effective area (Aeff),
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐴 × 106 ,,,..……..………………………………………………………………………………………………………….Eq. 7.8

Therefore,
1.44𝑇𝑝 𝑑
𝐾=𝜖 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Eq. 7.9
0 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑅

The value of ‘d’ in equation 7.9 could be substituted from Table 7.1. below: ‘Aeff’ in equation (7.9)
could be calculated using the length and breadth values from Table 7.1.

Table 7.1. Required specification of the capacitors

Capacitor C1 C2 C3
Length (mm) 47 114 183
Breadth (mm) 5 5 6
Separation, d (mm) 0.075 0.075 0.075

𝐴 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ …………………………………………………………………………………….…………….Eq. 7.10

VII. Practical Setup

Figure 7.1: Circuit Diagram of the Figure 7.2. Graph between Time and
Experimental Setup Voltage

(Image Courtesy: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/rc/rc_2.html)

Page 31 of 72
VIII. Resources Required

S. No. Name of Resource Broad Specification Quantity

1 Dielectric Constant Inbuilt 3 capacitors, 3 resistors, Digital 1 No.
Setup Voltmeter, Toggle Switch and timer

IX. Precautions
a. Avoid loose connections.
b. Don’t touch wire with wet/bare hands.

X. Self-Instructional Procedure
1. Connect the wires according to the circuit diagram in Figure 7.1.
2. Use the capacitor C1 and Resistance 100KΩ.
3. Switch-on the power supply.
4. Set the voltage across the capacitor to 0V by touching the terminals of the capacitor using
two ends of the wire.
5. Use the toggle switch to charge the capacitor.
6. Start the timer.
7. Record the time after every 5 seconds and the corresponding voltage across the capacitor in
the observation table for 100 seconds.
8. Halt the timer.
9. Reset the timer to 0.
10. Use the toggle switch to discharge the capacitor.
11. Start the timer.
12. Record the time after every 5 seconds and the corresponding voltage across the capacitor in
the observation table for 100 seconds.
13. Remove the wires connecting capacitor C1 and connect it to C2.
14. Repeat the steps (4-12).
15. Remove the wires connecting capacitor C2 and connect it to C3.
16. Repeat the steps (4-12).
17. Switch-off the power supply.
18. Remove the connections.
19. Keep all the instruments in their respective places

XI. Observations and Recordings (student can use blank page on left if space is not sufficient)

Voltage across capacitor C1 Voltage across capacitor C2 Voltage across capacitor C3

Time(sec) (volts) (volts) (volts)
Charging Discharging Charging Discharging Charging Discharging
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50

Page 32 of 72
 a) Plot the graph between time and voltage in the charging and discharging mode as shown in
Figure 7.2 for capacitors C1, C2 and C3 separately.
b) Locate the coordinates where the charging and discharging graphs are intersecting.
c) Drop a perpendicular from that coordinate point to the x-axis (Time).
d) Determine the point where the perpendicular coincides with the x-axis.
e) Mark that point as ‘Tp’.
f) Calculate ‘Aeff’ for capacitors C1 using equations 7.8 and 7.10 and substituting the values of
length and breadth from Table 7.1.
g) Calculate dielectric constant ‘K1’ for C1 using equation 7.9.
h) Repeat steps b to g to calculate ‘K2’ and ‘K3’ for C2 and C3.
i) Verify all the observations, results and graphs by the faculty member.

XII. Results (To be provided by students)

1. Dielectric Constant of material in capacitor C1 is, K1= …………………………
2. Dielectric Constant of material in capacitor C2 is, K2= …………………………
3. Dielectric Constant of material in capacitor C3 is, K3= …………………………..

XIII. Interpretation of Results (Students to provide meaning to above results)

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XIV. Conclusions (Actions/decisions to be taken based on the interpretation of results).

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XV. Sample Practical Related Questions (Change the 2 questions for every group)
a. Interpret the effect on ‘C’ value if ‘K’ is increased.
b. Interpret the effect on ‘K’ value if ‘d’ is doubled.

XVI. References/Suggestions for Further Reading

M.N. Avadhanulu, P.G. Kshirsagar, A Textbook of Engineering Physics, A Textbook of Engineering
Physics, S. Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., 978-9352833993

XVII. Suggested Assessment Scheme (The performance indicators and their weightages will differ from practicum-
to-practicum)
The performance indicators given serves as a guideline for assessment regarding the ‘process-related
skills’ (marks to be awarded in real-time in the laboratory by the faculty member, as these cannot be
measured after practicum is over) and ‘product-related skills’ (or LOs).

Performance indicators Weightage Marks Obtained

Process related: Marks - 50%
1. Handling instruments correctly 20 %
2. Following lab safety protocol 05 %
3. Recorded observations correctly 15 %
4. Working as team member amicably 10 %
Product related: Marks - 50%
5. Calculation and Result 15 %
6. Interpret results correctly 10 %
7. Draw the relevant conclusions 10 %
8. Answered Practical related questions correctly 10 %
9. Submit the Record Book on time 05%
Total 100 %

Page 33 of 72
Names of Student Team Members
1. …………………………
2. …………………………
3. …………………………
4. …………………………….

Marks Obtained Dated signature of Teacher

Process Product Total
Related (5) Related (5) (10)

*********

Page 34 of 72
Practicum No. 8 Date:……….
Deflection Magnetometer

I. Practical Significance
This experiment forms a basis for understanding and calibrating magnetic compasses and sensors. It
reinforces key concepts of magnetostatics in a measurable, visible manner. It serves as a foundation
for advanced studies in geomagnetism, navigation, and magnetic materials. The deflection
magnetometer experiment demonstrates the interaction between magnetic fields. It helps in
determining the magnetic moment of a bar magnet using the Earth’s magnetic field as a reference.

II. Competency and Practical Skills

This practicum is expected to develop the following skills/outcomes towards the development of the
industry-specific competency,
• ‘Use the principles of Physics to solve complex engineering problems related to all the branches
of engineering’. (As stated in the Course Structure)
a) Use the relevant instruments correctly and safely (Psychomotor Domain LO).
b) Practice good housekeeping (Affective Domain LO).
c) Interpret the results of any phenomena correctly (Cognitive Domain LO).

III. Related CO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

CO 3 - Use the principles of dielectrics and magnetism for various engineering applications.

IV. Practical Outcome (PrO) (As stated in Course Structure):

PrO8 - Determine the dipole moment of the given bar magnet.

V. Related ADO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

a) Follow safe practices.
b) Practice ethics.

VI. Minimum Underpinning Theory

The experiment is based on the Tangent Law, which states that when two mutually perpendicular
magnetic fields act simultaneously on a magnetic needle, it comes to rest at an angle θ such that:
𝐵
tan 𝜃 = ………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………….…….Eq. 8.1
𝐵𝐻
Where,
‘𝜃’ – the deflection angle.
‘𝐵’ – the magnetic field due to bar magnet.
‘𝐵𝐻 ’ – the horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field.

Also, magnetic field produced by a bar magnet in axial (end-on) position is:
𝜇 2𝑀
𝐵 = 4𝜋0 ( 𝑑3 ) ………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………….…..Eq. 8.2

Let the deflection due to Magnet A be θ1 and due to Magnet B be θ2, both placed at the same distance
‘d’ from the centre of the needle. Then,
𝑀1 tan 𝜃
𝑀2
= tan 𝜃1 ………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………….……..Eq. 8.3
2

Where,
′𝜇0 ′– the absolute magnetic permeability.
′𝑀′– the magnetic moment.
′𝑀1′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ′𝑀2′ – the magnetic moment of magnet A and B respectively.

Page 35 of 72
VII. Practical Setup

Figure 8.1. Experimental Setup

(Image Courtesy: https://www.brainkart.com/article/End-on-(or)-Tan-A-position--Deflection-magnetometer_3211/)

VIII. Resources Required

S. No. Name of Resource Broad Specification Quantity

1 Deflection Length: 40 cm, Width: 12.5 mm 1 No.
Magnetometer
2 Compass 100 mm diameter, Mirror for reduced 1 No.
parallax error, Graduation: 1°
3 Bar magnet pair AlNiCo 50 mm length and 12 mm width 1 No.

IX. Precautions
a. Keep all ferromagnetic materials away from the setup. Ensure that the grating is aligned
parallel to the screen for accurate measurements.
b. Ensure magnets are placed at the same distance and orientation.
c. Wait for the needle to stabilize before recording deflection.
d. Perform the experiment away from electric currents and magnetic fields.

X. Self-Instructional Procedure
1. Place the deflection magnetometer on a levelled, vibration-free table aligned along the magnetic
meridian (North-South) as shown in Figure 8.1.
2. Ensure that with no magnet present, the needle aligns at 0°–180° (i.e., along Earth's magnetic
field).
3. Place Magnet A along the axis of the magnetometer (end-on position) at a fixed distance (e.g.,
10 cm) from the centre of the compass box.
4. Ensure the north pole faces geographic north.
5. Record the angle of deflection θ1, once the needle stabilizes.
6. Remove Magnet A and allow the needle to return to zero.
7. Place Magnet B at the same distance and in the same orientation as Magnet A.
8. Record the angle of deflection θ2 produced by Magnet B.
9. Repeat steps 3 to 8 by varying the distance.
10. Keep all the instruments in their respective places

XI. Observations and Recordings (student can use blank page on left if space is not sufficient)

S. No. Distance, Deflection tan θ1 Deflection tan θ2 𝑴𝟏 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽𝟏

=
d (cm) by magnet by magnet 𝑴𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽𝟐
A, θ1 B, θ2
1
2
3
4
5

a) Tabulate the readings.

Page 36 of 72
 b) Calculate the ratio of magnetic moment using equation 8.3.
c) Verify all the observations, results and graphs by the faculty member.
d)
XII. Results (To be provided by students)
1. The average value M1/M2 is determined as = ………………………….

XIII. Interpretation of Results (Students to provide meaning to above results)

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XIV. Conclusions (Actions/decisions to be taken based on the interpretation of results).

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XV. Sample Practical Related Questions (Change the 2 questions for every group)
a. State the phenomena if the magnets are placed at different distances from the needle.
b. Interpret the situation if the readings are taken only on one side.

XVI. References/Suggestions for Further Reading

M.N. Avadhanulu, P.G. Kshirsagar, A Textbook of Engineering Physics, A Textbook of Engineering
Physics, Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., 978-9352833993

XVII. Suggested Assessment Scheme (The performance indicators and their weightages will differ from practicum-
to-practicum)
The performance indicators given serves as a guideline for assessment regarding the ‘process-related
skills’ (marks to be awarded in real-time in the laboratory by the faculty member, as these cannot be
measured after practicum is over) and ‘product-related skills’ (or LOs).

Performance indicators Weightage Marks Obtained

Process related: Marks - 50%
1. Handling instruments correctly 20 %
2. Following lab safety protocol 05 %
3. Recorded observations correctly 15 %
4. Working as team member amicably 10 %
Product related: Marks - 50%
5. Calculation and Result 15 %
6. Interpret results correctly 10 %
7. Draw the relevant conclusions 10 %
8. Answered Practical related questions correctly 10 %
9. Submit the Record Book on time 05%
Total 100 %
Names of Student Team Members
1. …………………………
2. …………………………
3. …………………………
4. …………………………….

Marks Obtained Dated signature of Teacher

Process Product Total
Related (5) Related (5) (10)

*********

Page 37 of 72
Practicum No. 9 Date:……….
B-H Curve

I. Practical Significance
This experiment demonstrates the magnetic "memory" of ferromagnetic materials and their energy
loss during magnetization cycles. It visually represents the relationship between magnetic flux density
and the magnetizing field as the material is taken through a complete magnetization cycle, showing
that magnetization lags the applied field. It is vital in choosing materials for magnetic cores,
transformers, and memory storage.

II. Competency and Practical Skills

This practicum is expected to develop the following skills/outcomes towards the development of the
industry-specific competency,
• ‘Use the principles of Physics to solve complex engineering problems related to all the branches
of engineering’. (As stated in the Course Structure)
a) Calibrate the relevant measuring equipment periodically for accuracy
(Psychomotor Domain LO).
b) Work as a team member co-operatively (Affective Domain LO).
c) Prepare various types of reports and documents required for various purposes
(Cognitive Domain LO).

III. Related CO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

CO 3 - Use the principles of dielectrics and magnetism for various engineering applications.

IV. Practical Outcome (PrO) (As stated in Course Structure):

PrO9 - Interpret the relation between magnetic flux and magnetic field strength of the given
magnetic material.

V. Related ADO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

a) Follow safe practices.
b) Practice ethics.

VI. Minimum Underpinning Theory

The B-H curve represents the relationship between the magnetic flux density ‘B’ and the magnetic field
strength ‘H’ in a ferromagnetic material.

Magnetic Field Strength (H) is proportional to the magnetizing current in the primary coil,
𝑁 𝐼
𝐻 = 𝑙𝑃 ………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………….……………Eq. 9.1
Where,
‘𝑁𝑝 ’ – the number of turns in the primary winding of the ferrite core transformer = 400.
‘𝑙’ – the magnetic path length or length of one round winding = 2𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑣 = 57.49 × 10−3 𝑚.
′𝐼 ′ – Primary Current

Magnetic Flux Density (B) is proportional to the induced voltage in the secondary coil:
𝐵 ∝ ∫ 𝑉𝑠 𝑑𝑡………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………….……….Eq. 9.2
Where,
‘𝑉𝑠 ’ – induced voltage in the secondary coil.
‘𝑑𝑡’ – small time-period during which the voltage is measured.

When a magnetic material is subjected to a cyclic magnetizing field, it exhibits a hysteresis loop,
showing lagging behaviour of B behind H. The hysteresis is shown below in Figure 9.1.

Magnetic Flux Density or Magnetic Intensity (B) is given by,

Page 38 of 72
 𝑅𝐶
𝐵=( ) 𝑉𝐶 ………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………….…Eq. 9.3
𝑁𝑠 𝐴𝑐

Where,
‘𝑅’ – the resistance
‘𝐶’ – the capacitance
′𝑁𝑠 ′ – the number of turns in the secondary winding of the ferrite core transformer = 400.
′𝐴𝑐 ′ – the area of the core = 7 × 10−4 𝑚2
′𝑉𝐶 ′ – the voltage across the capacitor.

The parameters “Retentivity” which is the property of the magnetic material to retain magnetism even
in the absence of the magnetizing field and “Coercivity” which is the magnetizing field needed to
demagnetize the magnetic material could be calculated through Figure 9.1. The hysteresis loss could
be determined through the area of the curve.

Figure 9.1. Hysteresis Loop

(Image Courtesy: https://www.holmarc.com/B-H_curve_experiment.php)

VII. Practical Setup

Figure 9.2: Experimental Setup

(Image Courtesy:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273697836_An_approach_to_modeling_the_hysteresis_in_ferromagnetic_by_adaptation_
of_Preisach_model/figures)

Page 39 of 72
VIII. Resources Required

S. No. Resource Broad Specification Quantity

1 Magneti Coil: Ferrite core copper coils with 1:1 primary & 1 No.
Hysterisis Setup secondary windings, Power supply: Built in AC source
with voltage selection from 2 V to 12 V AC, Heating:
Oven heating up to 200 °C, Temperature indicator:
Digital thermometer, Rated Input: 220 V/50 Hz or 110
V/60 Hz
2 Digital Storage Make: GW Instek / HTC / Owon / Hantek / HTC, 1 No.
Oscilloscope Bandwidth: 100 MHz, Channels: 2, Sampling rate: 250
(DSO) million samples/sec, Display: 5.7" / 7 " TFT colour, USB
PC interface

IX. Precautions
a. Keep function generator output within rated limits of transformer.
b. Avoid magnetic saturation by keeping input voltage moderate.
X. Self-Instructional Procedure
1. Switch on the power supply.
2. Make the connections as per Figure 9.2.
3. Connect the voltmeter across 1Ω resistor.
4. Vary the source voltage.
5. Record the voltage across 1Ω resistor.
6. Connect the voltmeter across the integrator output.
7. Vary the source voltage.
8. Record the secondary voltage in the circuit.
9. Connect the input to the Y channel of the DSO.
10. Connect the integrator output to the X channel of the DSO.
11. Select the input source voltage to 10 V.
12. Press the auto set button in DSO.
13. Select from menu option XY mode (time-independent mode).
14. Observe the saturated BH curve at 10 V position.
15. Use the horizontal and vertical position knob and bring the curve to the centre of the graph.
16. Trace the graph on a trace paper.
17. Switch off the power supply.
18. Keep all the instruments in their respective places

XI. Observations and Recordings (student can use blank page on left if space is not sufficient)

S. Position Primary Current Magnetic field Voltage across Magnetic

No. RMS, mA strength, H (A/m) capacitor, Vc (RMS, Flux, B (Tesla
V) X 10-3)
1 0
2 2
3 4
4 6
5 8
6 10
7 12
a) Tabulate the readings.
b) Calculate the values of H and B through equation 9.1 and 9.2.
c) Plot a graph between H and B.
d) Verify all the observations, results and graphs by the faculty member.

Page 40 of 72
 e) Take a print of the hysteresis loop obtained from the DSO.
f) Correlate the voltage of the primary and secondary to magnetic flux (B) and magnetic field
intensity respectively.
g) Calculate the unit voltage corresponding to magnetic field strength, H (x-axis) and magnetic
flux, B (y-axis).
h) Locate x and y intercepts which corresponds to Coercivity and Retentivity respectively.
i) Calculate the area of curve to obtain the hysteresis loss.
j) Verify all the observations, results and graphs by the faculty member.

XII. Results (To be provided by students)

1. The Retentivity is determined as = …………………………. Tesla
2. The Coercivity is determined as = ………………………….A/m
3. The hysteresis loss is determined as = ………………………….

XIII. Interpretation of Results (Students to provide meaning to above results)

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
XIV. Conclusions (Actions/decisions to be taken based on the interpretation of results).
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XV. Sample Practical Related Questions (Change the 2 questions for every group)
a. State the reason behind using two coils in the setup.
b. State the significance of the slope of B-H curve in the linear region.

XVI. References/Suggestions for Further Reading

M.N. Avadhanulu, P.G. Kshirsagar, A Textbook of Engineering Physics, A Textbook of Engineering
Physics, Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., 978-9352833993

XIX. Suggested Assessment Scheme Scheme (The performance indicators and their weightages will differ from
practicum-to-practicum)
The performance indicators given serves as a guideline for assessment regarding the ‘process-related
skills’ (marks to be awarded in real-time in the laboratory by the faculty member, as these cannot be
measured after practicum is over) and ‘product-related skills’ (or LOs).

Performance indicators Weightage Marks Obtained

Process related: Marks - 50%
1. Handling instruments correctly 10 %
2. Calibrate instruments 10 %
3. Following lab safety protocol 05 %
4. Recorded observations correctly 10 %
5. Report Preparation 05 %
6. Working as team member amicably 10 %
Result related: Marks - 50%
7. Calculation and Result 15 %
8. Interpret results correctly 10 %
9. Draw the relevant conclusions 10 %
10. Answered Practical related questions correctly 10 %
11. Submit the Record Book on time 05%
Total 100 %
Names of Student Team Members
1. …………………………
2. …………………………

Page 41 of 72
3. …………………………
4. …………………………….

Marks Obtained Dated signature of Teacher

Process Product Total
Related (5) Related (5) (10)

*********

Page 42 of 72
Practicum No. 10 Date:……….
Magnetic Field

I. Practical Significance
This practicum demonstrates the spatial distribution of magnetic fields generated by currents and
helps in understanding magnetic field mapping, which is important for designing devices like
electromagnets, inductors, and magnetic sensors.

II. Competency and Practical Skills

This practicum is expected to develop the following skills/outcomes towards the development of the
industry-specific competency,
• ‘Use the principles of Physics to solve complex engineering problems related to all the branches
of engineering’. (As stated in the Course Structure)
a) Use the relevant instruments correctly and safely (Psychomotor Domain LO).
b) Practice good housekeeping (Affective Domain LO).
c) Interpret the results of any phenomena correctly (Cognitive Domain LO).

III. Related CO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

CO 3 - Use the principles of dielectrics and magnetism for various engineering applications.

IV. Practical Outcome (PrO) (As stated in Course Structure):

PrO10 - Interpret the variation of magnetic field with respect to distance from the center of
the given current carrying coil.

V. Related ADO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

a) Follow safe practices.
b) Practice ethics.

VI. Minimum Underpinning Theory

A moving electric charge produces magnetic field around it. When an electric current flows through a
circular coil, it produces a magnetic field around it. Along the axis of the coil, the magnetic field is
symmetric, and its strength varies with distance from the centre. According to Biot–Savart law, the
magnetic field ‘B’ at a point on the axis of a coil is given by:
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼 𝑎2
𝐵= 2 (𝑎 +𝑥 2 )3/2
2 ………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………Eq. 10.1
Where,
‘μ0’ – the permeability of free space.
‘N’ – the number of turns in the coil.
‘I’ – the current through the coil.
‘a’ – Radius of the coil.
‘x’- Distance measured from the centre of the coil, along the axis.

VII. Practical Setup

Figure 10.1. Stewart gee type (Tangent Galvanometer, TG) Experimental Setup
(Image Courtesy: https://dkpandey.weebly.com/uploads/1/3/5/3/13534845/circular_coil.pdf)

Page 43 of 72
 Figure 10.2. Circuit Diagram
Figure 10.3: Circuit Diagram
(Image Courtesy: https://dkpandey.weebly.com/uploads/1/3/5/3/13534845/circular_coil.pdf)
(Image Courtesy: https://dkpandey.weebly.com/uploads/1/3/5/3/13534845/circular_coil.pdf)

VIII. Resources Required

S. No. Name of Resource Broad Specification Quantity

1 Stewart and Gee’s (Tangent Coil on board arrangement, Coil turns: 140, 1 No.
Galvanometer) Compass: 4 inches with mirror under needle
to reduce
2 Regulated battery eliminator 2- 12V/2A 1 No.
3 Digital ammeter 0-2A 1 No.
4 DC Rheostat 100/2.3A 1 No.

IX. Precautions
a. Avoid loose connections.
b. Don’t touch wire with wet/bare hands.

X. Self-Instructional Procedure
1. Align the Tangent galvanometer (as shown in Figure 10.1) in such a way that the arms of the
magnetometer lie roughly east and west and the magnetic needle lies at the centre of the
vertical coil.
2. Place the eye a little above the coil and rotate the instrument in the horizontal plane till the
coil and the magnet lie in same vertical plane.
3. Rotate the compass box so that the pointer lies on the 0-0 line.
4. Connect all the components as shown in circuit diagram (Figure 10.2).
5. Switch on the power supply.
6. Fix the value of the source voltage at maximum and note the current reading.
7. Record the magnetometer reading for the maximum deflection (θ0).
8. Slide the magnetometer along the +axis of coil with an increment of 2cm.
9. Record the deflection of needle in magnetometer (both ends of needle position) for the coil
till 20 cm.
10. Repeat steps 8 and 9 for the magnetometer position along –axis of coil.
11. Keep all the instruments in their respective places

XI. Observations and Recordings (student can use blank page on left if space is not sufficient)
a. Least count of the magnetometer = …………
b. Current, I = …………
c. Deflection in the needle at x=0, θ0 =…………
d. tan θ0 =…………

Deflection in magnetometer along +axis of coil

S. No. Distance from center of the Deflection (Degree) Mean θ tan θ
coil x (cm) θ1 θ2 (Degree)
1. 2
2. 4

Page 44 of 72
 S. No. Distance from center of the Deflection (Degree) Mean θ tan θ
coil x (cm) θ1 θ2 (Degree)
3. 6
4. 8
5. 10
6. 12
7. 14
8. 16

Deflection in magnetometer along -axis of coil

S. No. Distance from center of the Deflection (Degree) Mean θ (Degree) tan θ
coil x (cm) θ1 θ2
1. 2
2. 4
3. 6
4. 8
5. 10
6. 12
7. 14
8. 16

a) Plot a graph between distance from the centre of the coil (+ and – x axis) and tan θ (Refer
Figure 10.3).
b) Locate the point on both side of the graph where curve becomes convex to concave (i.e. the
curve changes its nature) called the point of inflection.
c) Drop a perpendicular from these points to the x-axis.
d) Determine the points where the perpendicular coincides with the x-axis. The distance
between the two points of inflexion is equal to the radius of the circular coil (a).
e) Calculate the value of ‘B’ by Substituting the values of μ0, N, I, a and x=0 (centre of the coil)
in equation 10.1.
f) Verify all the observations, results and graphs by the faculty member.

XII. Results (To be provided by students)

1. The radius of coil = distance between points of inflection = …………………………
2. Magnetic field of the coil, B = ………………………… Tesla

XIII. Interpretation of Results (Students to provide meaning to above results)

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XIV. Conclusions (Actions/decisions to be taken based on the interpretation of results).

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XV. Sample Practical Related Questions (Change the 2 questions for every group)
a. Explain what happens to the magnetic field if the current is increased.
b. Explain what happens to the magnetic field if the number of turns is doubled.

XVI. References/Suggestions for Further Reading

M.N. Avadhanulu, P.G. Kshirsagar, A Textbook of Engineering Physics, A Textbook of Engineering
Physics, Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., 978-9352833993

Page 45 of 72
XVII. Suggested Assessment Scheme (The performance indicators and their weightages will differ from practicum-
to-practicum)
The performance indicators given serves as a guideline for assessment regarding the ‘process-related
skills’ (marks to be awarded in real-time in the laboratory by the faculty member, as these cannot be
measured after practicum is over) and ‘product-related skills’ (or LOs).

Performance indicators Weightage Marks Obtained

Process related: Marks - 50%
1. Handling instruments correctly 20 %
2. Following lab safety protocol 05 %
3. Recorded observations correctly 15 %
4. Working as team member amicably 10 %
Product related: Marks - 50%
5. Calculation and Result 15 %
6. Interpret results correctly 10 %
7. Draw the relevant conclusions 10 %
8. Answered Practical related questions correctly 10 %
9. Submit the Record Book on time 05%
Total 100 %
Names of Student Team Members
1. …………………………
2. …………………………
3. …………………………
4. …………………………….

Marks Obtained Dated signature of Teacher

Process Product Total
Related (5) Related (5) (10)

*********

Page 46 of 72
Practicum No. 11 Date:……….
Wavelength of LASER

I. Practical Significance
In industries such as photonics, telecommunications, and laser technology, diffraction gratings play a
vital role in tuning and filtering laser systems, optical communications, and fabricating bandpass filters.
By selecting specific wavelengths or separating and combining multiple wavelengths, diffraction
gratings enable precise control of light. This practicum offers students hands-on experience with
diffraction grating systems, allowing them to accurately determine the wavelength of a laser, a key
skill for applications in optical and communication technologies.

II. Competency and Practical Skills

This practicum is expected to develop the following skills/outcomes towards the development of the
industry-specific competency,
• ‘Use the principles of Physics to solve complex engineering problems related to all the branches
of engineering’. (As stated in the Course Structure)
a) Use the relevant instruments correctly and safely (Psychomotor Domain LO).
b) Follow safety protocols (Affective Domain LO).
c) Interpret the results of any phenomena correctly (Cognitive Domain LO).

III. Related CO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

CO 3 - Evaluate the choice of Optical Fibers and LASERs in different applications.

IV. Practical Outcome (PrO) (As stated in Course Structure):

PrO11 - Find the wavelength of the given laser beam.

V. Related ADO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

a) Follow safe practices.
b) Practice ethics.

VI. Minimum Underpinning Theory

The bending of light after encountering an obstacle is known as diffraction. A fundamental diffraction
grating is an optical component consisting of a flat surface transparent material on which parallel
equidistant scratches are made. Such an arrangement acts like a parallel slit source, where the slits are
transparent region separated by opaque spaces (see Figure 11.1). Light is transmitted through the slits
and is obstructed by the opaque portions. Light from the slits interfere on the screen, creating an
interference pattern consisting of alternate bright and dark bands (see Figure 11.2). A brightest spot
obtained at the centre is known as the central maxima. The spots lying to the left and right of the
central maxima exhibits lower intensity as compared to the central maxima. The bright spots are
named as first, second, third order…. and so on (nth) based on their position from the central maxima.
The distance between the nth order and the central maxima is measured for the bright spots lying on
either side (left and right) of the central maxima and their average is taken. The corresponding
wavelength (λ) for nth order bright spot is calculated by the formula given below:
𝑥𝑛
𝜆= ………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………….Eq. 11.1
2 +𝐷2
𝑛𝑁√𝑥𝑛

Where,
‘𝑥𝑛 ’ – the distance of the nth order from the central maximum on the screen.
‘𝑛’ – the order of the diffraction.
‘𝑁’ – the number of lines per meter.
‘𝐷′ = the distance between the grating and screen.

The distance between the grating and screen is 95 cm.

The average of the wavelength for different orders is determined, which is the wavelength of the given
laser.

Page 47 of 72
 VII. Practical Setup

Figure 11.1. Diffraction Phenomena

(Image Courtesy: https://theonlinephysicstutor.com/downloads/Edexcel_8_Diff_Star_QP.pdf)

Figure 11.2. Diffraction Pattern

(Image Courtesy: https://opg.optica.org/oe/viewmedia.cfm?uri=oe-14-22-10558&seq=0)

VIII. Resources Required

S. No. Name of Resource Broad Specification Quantity

1 Laser Source Semiconductor Diode Laser, 𝜆 =625 1 No.
nm, 3mW
2 Screen and grating Metal white screen and grating holder 1 No.
holder suitable for any standard grating
3 Grating 500 LPI (lines per inch) 1 No.
4 DC Rheostat 100 cm 1 No.

IX. Precautions
a. Avoid touching or rubbing the grating with your hands to prevent contamination or damage.
b. Ensure that the grating is aligned parallel to the screen for accurate measurements.

X. Self-Instructional Procedure
1. Place the laser source, grating stand, and screen on a flat table as shown in Figure 11.1.
2. Mount the diffraction grating on the grating stand and position it in front of the laser source.
3. Position the screen at a distance of 95 cm (D) from the grating stand.
4. Switch on the laser source, and the diffraction pattern will be projected onto the screen.
5. Observe that the pattern consists of a central maximum and subsequent order maxima (1st, 2nd,
3rd, 4th, 5th). The central maximum is the brightest, and the brightness decreases as the order
increases (Resembling Figure 11.2).
6. Measure the distance between the central maximum and the 1st order maximum on both sides.
7. Measure the distances between the central maximum and the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th order
maxima on both sides.
8. Switch off the LASER power supply.
9. Keep all the instruments in their respective places

Page 48 of 72
XI. Observations and Recordings (student can use blank page on left if space is not sufficient)

Distance Order of the Distance from central Average(xn) Wavelength (λ)

(cm) fringe ‘n’ maximum cm (nm)
Right (cm) Left (cm)
95 cm 1
2
3
4
5

a) Tabulate the readings.

b) Calculate the wavelength using the Equation 11.1.
c) Verify all the observations, results and graphs by the faculty member.

XII. Results (To be provided by students)

1. The wavelength of the laser using grating is determined as = …………………………nm.

XIII. Interpretation of Results (Students to provide meaning to above results)

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XIV. Conclusions (Actions/decisions to be taken based on the interpretation of results).

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XV. Sample Practical Related Questions (Change the 2 questions for every group)
a. Interpret the effect of varying the angle of incidence on the diffraction pattern observed.
b. State how the characteristics of a semiconductor diode laser influence the diffraction results.

XVI. References/Suggestions for Further Reading

M.N. Avadhanulu, P.G. Kshirsagar, A Textbook of Engineering Physics, A Textbook of Engineering
Physics, Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., 978-9352833993

XVII. Suggested Assessment Scheme (The performance indicators and their weightages will differ from practicum-
to-practicum)
The performance indicators given serves as a guideline for assessment regarding the ‘process-related
skills’ (marks to be awarded in real-time in the laboratory by the faculty member, as these cannot be
measured after practicum is over) and ‘product-related skills’ (or LOs).

Performance indicators Weightage Marks Obtained

Process related: Marks - 50%
1. Handling instruments correctly 20 %
2. Following lab safety protocol 05 %
3. Recorded observations correctly 15 %
4. Working as team member amicably 10 %
Product related: Marks - 50%
5. Calculation and Result 15 %
6. Interpret results correctly 10 %
7. Draw the relevant conclusions 10 %
8. Answered Practical related questions correctly 10 %
9. Submit the Record Book on time 05%
Total 100 %

Page 49 of 72
Names of Student Team Members
1. …………………………
2. …………………………
3. …………………………
4. …………………………….

Marks Obtained Dated signature of Teacher

Process Product Total
Related (5) Related (5) (10)

*********

Page 50 of 72
Practicum No. 12 Date:……….
Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture

I. Practical Significance
The Practicum helps in selecting suitable fibers for specific applications like medical imaging or internet
transmission. As acceptance angle and numerical aperture are the two crucial parameters that governs
the performance of an optical fiber. It enables to optimize the coupling between light sources and
fibers. The knowledge of these parameters is important for improving data transmission rates.

II. Competency and Practical Skills

This practicum is expected to develop the following skills/outcomes towards the development of the
industry-specific competency,
• ‘Use the principles of Physics to solve complex engineering problems related to all the branches
of engineering’. (As stated in the Course Structure)
a) Maintain the proper functioning of the various equipment and related processes
(Psychomotor Domain LO).
b) Practice good housekeeping (Affective Domain LO).
c) Prepare various types of reports and documents required for various purposes
(Cognitive Domain LO).

III. Related CO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

CO 3 - Evaluate the choice of Optical Fibers and LASERs in different applications.

IV. Practical Outcome (PrO) (As stated in Course Structure):

PrO12 - Determine the acceptance angle and numerical aperture of the given optical fiber.

V. Related ADO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

a) Follow safe practices.
b) Practice ethics.

VI. Minimum Underpinning Theory

The acceptance angle is the maximum angle at which light can enter the core of an optical fiber from
the outside medium (usually air) and still be guided through the fiber by total internal reflection while
numerical aperture is the light gathering capacity of the fiber. It basically defines the range of angles
over which the fiber can accept incoming light and guide it through the core. Mathematically, the Sine
of the acceptance angle of an optical fiber is known as the numerical aperture of the fiber. By
measuring the diameter of the light spot on a screen and by knowing the distance from the fiber end
to the screen, the acceptance angle and there by the numerical aperture of the fiber could be
determined through the formulas given below,
For Acceptance angle (θ0),
𝐷
𝜃0 = tan−1 (2𝐿) ………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………Eq. 12.1
Where,
‘𝐷’ – the diameter of the bright circle (spot from the LASER beam) formed on screen.
‘𝐿’ – The distance between the optical fiber end and screen.
Numerical Aperture (NA),
𝑁𝐴 = sin 𝜃0 ………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………….…Eq. 12.2

Page 51 of 72
VII. Practical Setup

Figure 12.1. Experimental Setup

(Image Courtesy: https://www.studocu.com/in/document/adichunchanagiri-university/electronics-and-communication/sln-edu-tech-
lab-manual-for-new-expts/42894363)

VIII. Resources Required

S. No. Name of Resource Broad Specification Quantity

1 Laser Source Semiconductor Diode Laser, 𝜆 =625 nm, 3mW 1 No.
2 Optical Fiber Length 1.5 m and core diameter 0.5 mm 1 No.
3 X-Y Bed Bed length = 220 mm, Screen = 35 mm diameter, 1 No.
Graduations on screen = 2 mm, Movement is Course
and fine using screw movement

IX. Precautions
a. Ensure proper alignment of the light source with the fiber to get accurate measurements.
Ensure that the grating is aligned parallel to the screen for accurate measurements.
b. Handle the optical fiber carefully to avoid bends or damage that can affect light transmission.

X. Self-Instructional Procedure
1. Place the laser source, optical fiber and screen on a flat table as shown in Figure 12.1.
2. Switch on the LASER source.
3. Adjust the diameter of the spot through the screw movement.
4. Measure the diameter of the spot by counting the graduations on the screen, covering the spot.
5. Record the corresponding length from the fiber end to the screen for the measured spot
diameter.
6. Repeat the steps 3 to 5 for different spot diameters.
7. Switch off the LASER source.
8. Keep all the instruments in their respective places.
XI. Observations and Recordings (student can use blank page on left if space is not sufficient)

S. Diameter of the spot Length from the fiber end Acceptance Numerical
No. D (mm) to the screen, L (cm) Angle, θ0 (Degree) Aperture NA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

a) Tabulate the readings.

b) Determine the acceptance angle and numerical aperture for the different set of spot diameter
and length from equations 12.1 and 12.2 respectively.
c) Average the values of acceptance angle and numerical aperture.
d) Verify all the observations, results and graphs by the faculty member.
Average Acceptance Angle, θ0 = …………….

Page 52 of 72
 Average Numerical Aperture, NA = …………….

XII. Results (To be provided by students)

1. The acceptance angle of the optical fiber is determined as = ………………………….
2. The numerical aperture of the optical fiber is determined as = ……………………..

XIII. Interpretation of Results (Students to provide meaning to above results)

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XIV. Conclusions (Actions/decisions to be taken based on the interpretation of results).

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
XV. Sample Practical Related Questions (Change the 2 questions for every group)
a. Interpret the effect of varying the core diameter of the optical fiber on acceptance angle and
Numerical Aperture values.
b. Interpret the effect of increasing or decreasing the optical fiber length on acceptance angle
and Numerical Aperture values.

XVI. References/Suggestions for Further Reading

M.N. Avadhanulu, P.G. Kshirsagar, A Textbook of Engineering Physics, A Textbook of Engineering
Physics, S. Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2018, 978-9352833993

XVII. Suggested Assessment Scheme (The performance indicators and their weightages will differ from practicum-
to-practicum)
The performance indicators given serves as a guideline for assessment regarding the ‘process-related
skills’ (marks to be awarded in real-time in the laboratory by the faculty member, as these cannot be
measured after practicum is over) and ‘product-related skills’ (or LOs).

Performance indicators Weightage Marks Obtained

Process related: Marks - 50%
1. Handling instruments correctly 15 %
2. Maintain Proper Functioning 05 %
3. Following lab safety protocol 05 %
4. Recorded observations correctly 10 %
5. Prepare report 05 %
6. Working as team member amicably 10 %
Product related: Marks - 50%
7. Calculation and Result 15 %
8. Interpret results correctly 10 %
9. Draw the relevant conclusions 10 %
10. Answered Practical related questions correctly 10 %
11. Submit the Record Book on time 05%
Total 100 %

Names of Student Team Members

1. …………………………
2. …………………………
3. …………………………
4. ………………………….

Page 53 of 72
 Marks Obtained Dated signature of Teacher
Process Product Total
Related (5) Related (5) (10)

*********

Page 54 of 72
Practicum No. 13 Date:……….
Attenuation and Bandwidth

I. Practical Significance
The practicum is crucial for understanding the performance of optical communication systems. It
highlights the trade-off between fiber length and transmission quality, guiding the optimal design of
fiber-optic communication systems. It aids in identifying limitations due to dispersion effects, which
can broaden signal pulses and reduce clarity over long distances. Understanding these parameters is
essential for ensuring low-loss and high-speed data transmission, making it critical in designing
efficient modern communication networks.

II. Competency and Practical Skills

This practicum is expected to develop the following skills/outcomes towards the development of the
industry-specific competency,
• ‘Use the principles of Physics to solve complex engineering problems related to all the branches
of engineering’. (As stated in the Course Structure)
a) Maintain the proper functioning of the various equipment and related processes
(Psychomotor Domain LO).
b) Practice good housekeeping (Affective Domain LO).
c) Interpret the results of any phenomena correctly (Cognitive Domain LO).

III. Related CO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

CO 3 - Evaluate the choice of Optical Fibers and LASERs in different applications.

IV. Practical Outcome (PrO) (As stated in Course Structure):

PrO13 - Determine the attenuation and bandwidth of the given optical fiber.

V. Related ADO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

a) Follow safe practices.
b) Practice ethics.

VI. Minimum Underpinning Theory

Attenuation refers to the loss of signal power as it travels through the optical fiber. It is caused by
various mechanisms such as absorption, scattering, and bending losses. Attenuation is usually
expressed in decibels per kilometer (dB/km) and can be calculated using the formula:
𝑃
𝐴 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑃𝑥 ………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………….Eq. 13.1
𝑦

The attenuation coefficient (α) can be calculated as:

𝐴
𝛼 = 𝐿 dB/Km ………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………..Eq. 13.2
Where,
‘𝑃𝑥 ’ – the Input power to the fiber.
‘𝑃𝑦 ’ – the output power from the fiber.
‘𝐴’ – the attenuation.
‘𝐿’ – The distance between the optical fiber end and screen.
Bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which the optical fiber can transmit data effectively without
significant loss or distortion. It is typically expressed in MHz·km and determines how much data can
be transmitted per second over a given distance. The following Figure 13.1 shows the expected graph
for Laser Power Versus Frequency graph:

Page 55 of 72
 Figure 13.1. Laser Power Vs Frequency graph for bandwidth calculation

VII. Practical Setup

Figure 13.2. Experimental Setup for Attenuation Measurement

Figure 13.3. Experimental Setup for bandwidth Measurement

VIII. Resources Required

S. No. Name of Resource Broad Specification Quantity

1 Laser Source Semiconductor diode Laser (LAS-301), 𝜆 =625 nm, 1 No.
3mW
2 Optical Fiber Length 1.5 and 3 m and core diameter 0.5 mm 1 No.
3. Relative light intensity Optical detector: Input from OFC, Rated Input: 220 1 No.
metre V/50 Hz or 110 V/60 Hz, Mains cord: 3 pin
4. Signal generator Max frequency: 10 MHz 1 No.

IX. Precautions
a. Handle the optical fiber carefully to avoid bends, twists, or physical damage that can introduce
additional loss. Handle the optical fiber carefully to avoid bends or damage that can affect light
transmission.
b. Ensure proper alignment of the light source and the optical fiber.
c. Avoid exposure of eyes to laser light from the fiber ends or source
d. Secure the fiber and connections properly to avoid signal fluctuation during measurement.

X. Self-Instructional Procedure
1. Setup the laser source, optical fiber (1.5 m) and laser power on a flat table as shown in Figure
13.2.
2. Switch on the laser source.
3. Switch on the power meter.
4. Wait for the laser power meter to be stabilized.
5. Record the laser power for the 1.5 m optical fiber cable.
6. Replace the 1.5 m optical fiber cable with 3 m cable.
7. Record the laser power for the 1.5 m optical fiber cable.
8. Replace the DC power source of the laser with signal generator (Figure 13.3).
9. Use the adapter provided to connect the signal generator to the laser.
10. Set the amplitude to maximum in the signal generator.

Page 56 of 72
 11. Set the waveform to square wave.
12. Start the experiment from 50 Hz frequency, since lower frequencies may give slightly unstable
laser power output.
13. Vary the frequency from the signal generator.
14. Record the laser power for the corresponding frequencies.
15. Repeat steps 12 to 14 for the optical fiber of length 3 m.
16. Switch off the laser source.
17. Switch off the power meter.
18. Switch off the signal generator.
19. Keep all the instruments in their respective places.

XI. Observations and Recordings (student can use blank page on left if space is not sufficient)

Table 13.1: Attenuation Coefficient Measurement

Laser Power for 1.5 m Optical Fiber Cable, Px (mW)

Laser Power for 1.5 m Optical Fiber Cable, Py (mW)
Attenuation, A
Attenuation Coefficient, α (dB/Km)

a) Calculate attenuation using the formula in equation 13.1.

b) Calculate the attenuation coefficient using the formula in equation 13.2.

Table 13.2: Bandwidth Measurement

S. No. Frequency (KHz) Laser Power (mW) Frequency (KHz) Laser Power (mW)
Optical Fiber 1.5 m Optical Fiber 3 m
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

a) Tabulate the readings.

b) Plot the graph between frequency and laser power (Refer Figure 13.1).
c) Locate the maximum power (Pmax) from the graph.
d) Calculate RMS value of power, 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 /√2.
e) Locate the 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 /√2 value from the y-axis of the graph.
f) Draw a line parallel to the x-axis from that value intersecting the graph at two different points
(As shown in Figure 13.1).
g) Draw a perpendicular from these two points to the x-axis intersecting at two frequency values
(f1 and f2) on the x-axis.
h) Subtract f1 from f2.
i) Record the bandwidth as (f2- f1).
j) Repeat steps (a) to (i) for optical fiber of 3 m.
k) Verify all the observations, results and graphs by the faculty member.

XII. Results (To be provided by students)

Page 57 of 72
 1. The attenuation coefficient of the optical fiber is determined as = ………………………….dB/Km
2. The bandwidth of the optical fiber for 1.5 m OFC is determined as = ……………………...
3. The bandwidth of the optical fiber for 3 m OFC is determined as = ……………………...

XIII. Interpretation of Results (Students to provide meaning to above results)

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XIV. Conclusions (Actions/decisions to be taken based on the interpretation of results).

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XV. Sample Practical Related Questions (Change the 2 questions for every group)
a) Interpret the effect on attenuation value if the length of optical fiber is further increased.
b) Interpret the case if a LED is used as a source instead of LASER in this practicum.

XVI. References/Suggestions for Further Reading

M.N. Avadhanulu, P.G. Kshirsagar, A Textbook of Engineering Physics, A Textbook of Engineering
Physics, Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., 978-9352833993

XVII. Suggested Assessment Scheme (The performance indicators and their weightages will differ from practicum-
to-practicum)
The performance indicators given serves as a guideline for assessment regarding the ‘process-related
skills’ (marks to be awarded in real-time in the laboratory by the faculty member, as these cannot be
measured after practicum is over) and ‘product-related skills’ (or LOs).

Performance indicators Weightage Marks Obtained

Process related: Marks - 50%
1. Handling instruments correctly 15 %
2. Maintain proper functioning 05 %
3. Following lab safety protocol 05 %
4. Recorded observations correctly 15 %
5. Working as team member amicably 10 %
Product related: Marks - 50%
6. Calculation and Result 15 %
7. Interpret results correctly 10 %
8. Draw the relevant conclusions 10 %
9. Answered Practical related questions correctly 10 %
10. Submit the Record Book on time 05%
Total 100 %

Names of Student Team Members

1. …………………………
2. …………………………
3. …………………………
4. …………………………….

Page 58 of 72
 Marks Obtained Dated signature of Teacher
Process Product Total
Related (5) Related (5) (10)

*********

Page 59 of 72
Practicum No. 14 Date:……….
Air Wedge

I. Practical Significance
In industries such as semiconductor manufacturing, optical instrumentation, and sensor technology,
the Air Wedge method is widely used for measuring the thickness of thin films and optical coatings
with high precision. It also plays a key role in ensuring accurate air gap measurements in various optical
devices and calibration systems, which is critical for their optimal performance. This practicum offers
students hands-on experience in using the air wedge setup to determine the thickness of thin materials
through interference fringe analysis, a fundamental skill for professionals working in microfabrication,
optics, and quality assurance domains.

II. Competency and Practical Skills

This practicum is expected to develop the following skills/outcomes towards the development of the
industry-specific competency,
• ‘Use the principles of Physics to solve complex engineering problems related to all the branches
of engineering’. (As stated in the Course Structure)
a) Maintain the proper functioning of the various equipment and related processes
(Psychomotor Domain LO).
b) Practice good housekeeping (Affective Domain LO).
c) Interpret the results of any phenomena correctly (Cognitive Domain LO).

III. Related CO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

CO5. Evaluate the choice of different types of Optics and X-Rays in various engineering
applications.

IV. Practical Outcome (PrO) (As stated in Course Structure):

PrO14 - Determine the slit spacing of the given two-dimensional diffraction grating.

V. Related ADO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

a) Follow safe practices.
b) Practice ethics.

VI. Minimum Underpinning Theory

The underlying principle behind this experiment is based on interference of light waves. If two flat
parallel glass plates are kept on each other, in which one is slightly tilted by inserting a thin wire, an air
gap will be created between the two (see Figure 14.1). The air gap is a kind of air film enclosed between
two glass plates and have a wedge shape. If light is made to incident between the air gap, the light
wave will reflect from the two surfaces involved. Based on the path difference between the two
reflected waves, they will be either interfering constructively or destructively leading to the formation
of bright and dark fringes respectively (see Figure 14.2). The path difference will depend on the
thickness of the air gap and varies as we move across the plates. The thickness of the thin material
inserted between the glass plates is calculated through the formula:

𝜆𝑙
𝑡 = 2𝛽 ………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………….………….Eq. 14.1

Where,
‘𝑡’ – the thickness of the given wire.
‘λ’ – the wavelength of the sodium lamp.
‘𝑙′ – the distance of the wire from the edge of contact.
‘β’– the fringe width.

Page 60 of 72
VII. Practical Setup

Figure 14.1. Schematic of Air Wedge Setup

(Image Courtesy: https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/air-wedge-interference-131549160/131549160)

Figure 14.2. Linear Fringes

(Image Courtesy: https://mech.poriyaan.in/topic/theory-of-air-wedge-30063/)

VIII. Resources Required

S. No. Name of Resource Broad Specification Quantity

1 Sodium Vapour Lamp Source Wavelength: 589.3 nm 1 No.
2 Travelling Microscope 10X Objective lens with x-y movement 1 No.
3 Glass slides Flat 2 Nos.
4 A hair strand or a piece of paper Thickness in micrometres range 1 No.
(for thickness measurement)

IX. Precautions
a. Align the glass plates parallel to each other.
b. Ensure the entire setup is stable and vibration free to avoid distortion in the interference
fringes.
c. Place the entire setup on a level surface.
d. Clean the glass surfaces thoroughly to remove dust particles and fingerprints.

X. Self-Instructional Procedure
1. Switch on the sodium vapour lamp and wait until it stabilizes and emits a bright yellow light.
2. Focus the light rays from the sodium lamp through the microscope.

Page 61 of 72
 3. Place a white sheet with a pattern on top of the glass plate to assist in focusing, if necessary.
4. Incline the glass plate to approximately 45° to achieve maximum brightness through the
eyepiece (As illustrated in Figure 14.1).
5. Place two optically plane glass plates one over the other and tape them together at one end.
6. Insert the given thin material at the other end to form an air wedge between the plates.
7. Place this setup on the horizontal platform of the travelling microscope.
8. Adjust the microscope to clearly view the interference pattern consisting of alternate bright and
dark bands (As illustrated in Figure 14.2).
9. Align the vertical cross wire of the microscope with a dark fringe, considering it as the nth fringe.
10. Switch off the sodium vapour lamp.
11. Keep all the instruments in their respective places.

XI. Observations and Recordings (student can use blank page on left if space is not sufficient)

𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

Least Count of the travelling microscope = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
= ____________cm

Order of the Microscope readings Width of 3 fringes Fringe width, β

fringes MSR (cm) CSD (div) TR (cm) (cm) (cm)
n
n+3
n+6
n+9
n+12
n+15
n+18
n+21
n+24
n+27
n+30

a) Record the reading from the horizontal scale of the travelling microscope.
b) Verify all the observations, results and graphs by the faculty member.
c) Calculate the mean fringe width (β) from the recorded values.
d) Determine the thickness of the given material using Equation 14.1.

XII. Results (To be provided by students)

1. The thickness of the given material = …………………………μm.

XIII. Interpretation of Results (Students to provide meaning to above results)

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XIV. Conclusions (Actions/decisions to be taken based on the interpretation of results).

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XV. Sample Practical Related Questions (Change the 2 questions for every group)
a. Evaluate how different factors influence the fringe spacing in an air wedge experiment.
b. Interpret the effect of varying the angle of incidence on the diffraction pattern observed.

XVI. References/Suggestions for Further Reading

Page 62 of 72
M.N. Avadhanulu, P.G. Kshirsagar, A Textbook of Engineering Physics, A Textbook of Engineering
Physics, Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., 978-9352833993

XVII. Suggested Assessment Scheme (The performance indicators and their weightages will differ from practicum-
to-practicum)
The performance indicators given serves as a guideline for assessment regarding the ‘process-related
skills’ (marks to be awarded in real-time in the laboratory by the faculty member, as these cannot be
measured after practicum is over) and ‘product-related skills’ (or LOs).

Performance indicators Weightage Marks Obtained

Process related: Marks - 50%
1. Handling instruments correctly 15 %
2. Maintain proper functioning 05 %
3. Following lab safety protocol 05 %
4. Recorded observations correctly 15 %
5. Working as team member amicably 10 %
Product related: Marks - 50%
6. Calculation and Result 15 %
7. Interpret results correctly 10 %
8. Draw the relevant conclusions 10 %
9. Answered Practical related questions correctly 10 %
10. Submit the Record Book on time 05%
Total 100 %
Names of Student Team Members
1. …………………………
2. …………………………
3. …………………………
4. …………………………….

Marks Obtained Dated signature of Teacher

Process Product Total
Related (5) Related (5) (10)

*********

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Practicum No. 15 Date:……….
2D Grating

I. Practical Significance
A 2D grating mimics the periodic atomic structure of crystalline solids. The diffraction pattern reflects
the lattice symmetry and spacing, helping visualize a crystal. The observed diffraction obeys Braggs
Law, which helps in understanding how waves scatter off periodic structures — foundational in X-ray
crystallography. This practicum helps to understand surface diffraction patterns in 2D materials (like
graphene, MoS₂) and determining surface lattice constants and structural symmetry.

II. Competency and Practical Skills

This practicum is expected to develop the following skills/outcomes towards the development of the
industry-specific competency,
• ‘Use the principles of Physics to solve complex engineering problems related to all the branches
of engineering’. (As stated in the Course Structure)
a) Use the relevant instruments correctly and safely (Psychomotor Domain LO).
b) Practice good housekeeping (Affective Domain LO).
c) Interpret the results of any phenomena correctly (Cognitive Domain LO).

III. Related CO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

CO5. Evaluate the choice of different types of Optics and X-Rays in various engineering
applications.

IV. Practical Outcome (PrO) (As stated in Course Structure):

PrO15 - Determine the lattice parameter of the given lattice by laser diffraction.

V. Related ADO(s) (As stated in Course Structure):

a) Follow safe practices.
b) Practice ethics.

VI. Minimum Underpinning Theory

A two-dimensional (2D) square lattice is an arrangement of lattice points in a plane such that each
point has the same environment and the pattern repeats itself periodically in two directions as shown
in the Figure 15.1 below:

Figure 15.1. 2D Square Lattice

(Image Courtesy: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2d_lattice.svg)

The lattice can be generated by two basis vectors ax and by, which are perpendicular and of equal
length, where ‘a’ is the lattice constant. Such structures in crystallography could be investigated by X-
Ray Diffraction method using Braggs Law. It helps in calculating the lattice parameters. The same
concept could be applied to find the lattice constant ‘a’ of this 2D square lattice.

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If two diffraction gratings are superimposed perpendicularly, they form a two-dimensional periodic
array of apertures. A LASER source could be diffracted by this 2D grating arrangement, whose
diffraction pattern is a two-dimensional array of bright spots separated by dark region (Figure 15.2)
which can replicate a 2D square lattice pattern.

Figure 15.2. Diffraction Pattern for a 2D grating

Two diffraction gratings of known grating constant could be superimposed perpendicularly and the
diffraction pattern obtained using LASER beam could be used to verify the given value of grating
constant with the experimentally obtained value using the formula given as,
2 +𝐿2
𝑛𝜆√𝑥𝑚
𝑎= 𝑥𝑚
………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………….Eq. 15.1

2 +𝐿2
𝑛𝜆√𝑦𝑚
𝑏= 𝑦𝑚
………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………….Eq. 15.2
Where,
‘𝑎′ = the distance between the consecutive bright spot in x-direction.
‘𝑥𝑚 ’ – the distance of the mth order from the central maximum on the screen in the x-
direction.
‘𝑦𝑚 ’ – the distance of the mth order from the central maximum on the screen in the y-
direction.
‘𝑛’ – the order of the diffraction.
‘𝑁’ – the number of lines per meter.
‘𝐿′ = the distance between the grating and screen.
‘𝜆′ = the wavelength of the LASER source.

VII. Practical Setup

Figure 15.3. Schematic of Experimental Setup

(Image Courtesy: chrome-
extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.physics.purdue.edu/irnanodev/docs/outreach/Diffraction%20grating%2
0experiments.pdf)

Page 65 of 72
VIII. Resources Required

S. No. Name of Resource Broad Specification Quantity

1 Laser Semiconductor diode Laser (LAS-301), 1 No.
𝜆 =625 nm, 3mW
2 Grating 500 LPI 2 Nos.
3 Screen and grating holder Metal white screen and grating holder 2 Nos.
suitable for any standard grating

IX. Precautions
a. Never look directly into the laser beam.
b. Ensure the laser source is firmly fixed to avoid any vibration or misalignment
c. The 2D grating should be perpendicular to the laser beam to get symmetric diffraction
patterns.
d. Use a Dark Room or Reduce Ambient Light

X. Self-Instructional Procedure
1. Place the laser source, 2D Grating and screen on a levelled surface (Figure 15.3).
2. Mount the 2D diffraction grating on the grating stand and position it in front of the laser source.
3. Position the screen at a distance of 95 cm (D) from the grating stand.
4. Switch on the laser source, and the diffraction pattern will be projected onto the screen.
5. Observe that the pattern consists of a central maximum and subsequent order maxima (1st, 2nd,
3rd and 4th) in x and y direction. The central maximum is the brightest, and the brightness
decreases as the order increases (Resembling Figure 15.2).
6. Measure the distance between the central maximum and the 1st order maximum on both sides,
in x and y direction.
7. Measure the distances between the central maximum and the 2nd, 3rd and 4th order maxima
on both sides, in x and y direction.
8. Switch off the laser source.
9. Keep all the instruments in their respective place.

XI. Observations and Recordings (student can use blank page on left if space is not sufficient)

In x-direction:
S. No. Order of Distance from central maxima xm 𝒏𝝀√𝒙𝟐𝒎 + 𝑳𝟐
Diffraction 𝒂=
x-left x-right 𝒙𝒎
1
2
3
4

In y-direction:
S. No. Order of Distance from central maxima ym 𝒏𝝀√𝒚𝟐𝒎 + 𝑳𝟐
Diffraction 𝒃=
y-up x-down 𝒚𝒎
1
2
3
4

a) Tabulate the readings.

b) Calculate the lattice parameters ‘a’ and ‘b’ using the equations 15.1 and 15.2 respectively.
c) Verify it with the given grating constant value.

Page 66 of 72
 d) Verify all the observations, results and graphs by the faculty member.

XII. Results (To be provided by students)

1. The average value of ‘a’ = …………………………m.
2. The average value of ‘b’ = …………………………m.

XIII. Interpretation of Results (Students to provide meaning to above results)

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XIV. Conclusions (Actions/decisions to be taken based on the interpretation of results).

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

XV. Sample Practical Related Questions (Change the 2 questions for every group)
a. Interpret the condition if the laser beam is not normal to the grating.
b. Interpret how can this experiment be related to crystal structure analysis.

XVI. References/Suggestions for Further Reading

M.N. Avadhanulu, P.G. Kshirsagar, A Textbook of Engineering Physics, A Textbook of Engineering
Physics, Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., 978-9352833993

XVII. Suggested Assessment Scheme (The performance indicators and their weightages will differ from practicum-
to-practicum)
The performance indicators given serves as a guideline for assessment regarding the ‘process-related
skills’ (marks to be awarded in real-time in the laboratory by the faculty member, as these cannot be
measured after practicum is over) and ‘product-related skills’ (or LOs).

Performance indicators Weightage Marks Obtained

Process related: Marks - 50%
1. Handling instruments correctly 20 %
2. Following lab safety protocol 05 %
3. Recorded observations correctly 15 %
4. Working as team member amicably 10 %
Product related: Marks - 50%
5. Calculation and Result 15 %
6. Interpret results correctly 10 %
7. Draw the relevant conclusions 10 %
8. Answered Practical related questions correctly 10 %
9. Submit the Record Book on time 05%
Total 100 %
Names of Student Team Members
1. …………………………
2. …………………………
3. …………………………

Marks Obtained Dated signature of Teacher

Process Product Total
Related (5) Related (5) (10)

*********

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Rough Work

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Rough Work

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Rough Work

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Rough Work

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