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DATA MODELS IN DBMS
A Data Model is a logical structure of Database. It describes the design of database to reflect entities, attributes,
relationship among data, constrains etc.
Types of Data Models:
Object based logical Models – Describe data at the conceptual and view levels.
1. E-R Model
An entity–relationship model (ER model) is a systematic way of describing and defining a business process. An

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ER model is typically implemented as a database. The main components of E-R model are: entity set and
relationship set.

2. Object oriented Model

An object data model is a data model based on object-oriented programming, associating methods (procedures)
with objects that can benefit from class hierarchies. Thus, “objects” are levels of abstraction that include attributes
and behavior
Record based logical Models – Like Object based model, they also describe data at the conceptual and view levels.
These models specify logical structure of database with records, fields and attributes.
1. Relational Model
In relational model, the data and relationships are represented by collection of inter-related tables. Each table is a
group of column and rows, where column represents attribute of an entity and rows represents records.
Sample relationship Model: Student table with 3 columns and three records.
Stu_Id Stu_Name Stu_Age
111 Ashish 23
123 Saurav 22
169 Lester 24
2. Hierarchical Model
In hierarchical model, data is organized into a tree like structure with each record is having one parent record and
many children. The main drawback of this model is that, it can have only one to many relationships between nodes.
Sample Hierarchical Model Diagram:

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3. Network Model – Network Model is same as hierarchical model except that it has graph-like structure rather
than a tree-based structure. Unlike hierarchical model, this model allows each record to have more than one

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parent record.
Physical Data Models – These models describe data at the lowest level of abstraction.
Three Schema Architecture

The goal of the three schema architecture is to separate the user applications and the physical database. The schemas
can be defined at the following levels:

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1. The internal level – has an internal schema which describes the physical storage structure of the database.
Uses a physical data model and describes the complete details of data storage and access paths for the
database.

2. The conceptual level – has a conceptual schema which describes the structure of the database for users. It
hides the details of the physical storage structures, and concentrates on describing entities, data types,
relationships, user operations and constraints. Usually a representational data model is used to describe the
conceptual schema.

3. The External or View level – includes external schemas or user vies. Each external schema describes the
part of the database that a particular user group is interested in and hides the rest of the database from that
user group. Represented using the representational data model.

The three schema architecture is used to visualize the schema levels in a database. The three schemas are only
descriptions of data, the data only actually exists is at the physical level.

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COMPONENTS OF DBMS
Database Users

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Users are differentiated by the way they expect to interact with the system
• Application programmers
• Sophisticated users
• Naïve users
• Database Administrator
• Specialized users etc,.

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Application programmers:
Professionals who write application programs and using these application programs they interact with
the database system
Sophisticated users :
These user interact with the database system without writing programs, But they submit queries to
retrieve the information
Specialized users:
Who write specialized database applications to interact with the database system.
Naïve users:
Interacts with the database system by invoking some application programs that have been written
previously by application programmers
Eg : people accessing database over the web
Database Administrator:
Coordinates all the activities of the database system; the database administrator has a good understanding of
the enterprise’s information resources and needs.
 Schema definition
 Access method definition
 Schema and physical organization modification
 Granting user authority to access the database
 Monitoring performance
Storage Manager
The Storage Manager include these following components/modules
 Authorization Manager
 Transaction Manager
 File Manager
 Buffer Manager
 Storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the low-level data stored in the
database and the application programs and queries submitted to the system.
 The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks:
 interaction with the file manager
 efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data
Authorization Manager
 Checks whether the user is an authorized person or not
 Test the satisfaction of integrity constraints
Transaction Manager
Responsible for concurrent transaction execution It ensures that the database remains in a consistent state
despite of the system failure

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EVOLUTION OF RDBMS

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Before the acceptance of Codd’s Relational Model, database management systems was just an ad hoc collection of
data designed to solve a particular type of problem, later extended to solve more basic purposes. This led to complex
systems, which were difficult to understand, install, maintain and use. These database systems were plagued with the
following problems:
• They required large budgets and staffs of people with special skills that were in short supply.
• Database administrators’ staff and application developers required prior preparation to access these database

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systems.
• End-user access to the data was rarely provided.
• These database systems did not support the implementation of business logic as a DBMS responsibility.

Hence, the objective of developing a relational model was to address each and every one of the shortcomings that
plagued those systems that existed at the end of the 1960s decade, and make DBMS products more widely appealing
to all kinds of users.

The existing relational database management systems offer powerful, yet simple solutions for a wide variety of
commercial and scientific application problems. Almost every industry uses relational systems to store, update and
retrieve data for operational, transaction, as well as decision support systems.
RELATIONAL DATABASE
A relational database is a database system in which the database is organized and accessed according to the
relationships between data items without the need for any consideration of physical orientation and relationship.
Relationships between data items are expressed by means of tables.
It is a tool, which can help you store, manage and disseminate information of various kinds. It is a collection of
objects, tables, queries, forms, reports, and macros, all stored in a computer program all of which are inter-related.
It is a method of structuring data in the form of records, so that relations between different entities and attributes can
be used for data access and transformation.
RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
A Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) is a system, which allows us to perceive data as tables (and
nothing but tables), and operators necessary to manipulate that data are at the user’s disposal.
Features of an RDBMS
The features of a relational database are as follows:
 The ability to create multiple relations (tables) and enter data into them
 An interactive query language
 Retrieval of information stored in more than one table
 Provides a Catalog or Dictionary, which itself consists of tables ( called system tables )

Basic Relational Database Terminology

Catalog:
A catalog consists of all the information of the various schemas (external, conceptual and internal) and also all of the
corresponding mappings (external/conceptual, conceptual/internal).
It contains detailed information regarding the various objects that are of interest to the system itself; e.g., tables,
views, indexes, users, integrity rules, security rules, etc.
In a relational database, the entities of the ERD are represented as tables and their attributes as the columns of their
respective tables in a database schema.
It includes some important terms, such as:
• Table: Tables are the basic storage structures of a database where data about something in the real world is

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• Row: Rows represent collection of data required for a particular entity. In order to identify each row as
unique there should be a unique identifier called the primary key, which allows no duplicate rows. For
example in a library every member is unique and hence is given a membership number, which uniquely
identifies each member. A row is also called a record or a tuple.
• Column: Columns represent characteristics or attributes of an entity. Each attribute maps onto a column of a
table. Hence, a column is also known as an attribute.
• Relationship: Relationships represent a logical link between two tables. A relationship is depicted by a
foreign key column.
• Degree: number of attributes
• Cardinality: number of tuples
• An attribute of an entity has a particular value. The set of possible values That a given attribute can
have is called its domain.
KEYS AND THEIR USE

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Key: An attribute or set of attributes whose values uniquely identify each entity in an entity set is called a key for that
entity set.
Super Key: If we add additional attributes to a key, the resulting combination would still uniquely identify an
instance of the entity set. Such augmented keys are called super keys.
Primary Key: It is a minimum super key.
It is a unique identifier for the table (a column or a column combination with the property that at any given time no two

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rows of the table contain the same value in that column or column combination).
Foreign Key: A foreign key is a field (or collection of fields) in one table that uniquely identifies a row of another table.
In simpler words, the foreign key is defined in a second table, but it refers to the primary key in the first table.
Candidate Key: There may be two or more attributes or combinations of attributes that uniquely identify an
instance of an entity set. These attributes or combinations of attributes are called candidate keys.
Secondary Key: A secondary key is an attribute or combination of attributes that may not be a candidate key, but that
classifies the entity set on a particular characteristic. Any key consisting of a single attribute is called a simple key,
while that consisting of a combination of attributes is called a composite key.
Referential Integrity
Referential Integrity can be defined as an integrity constraint that specifies that the value (or existence) of an attribute in
one relation depend on the value (or existence) of an attribute in the same or another relation. Referential integrity in
a relational database is consistency between coupled tables. It is usually enforced by the combination of a primary
key and a foreign key. For referential integrity to hold, any field in a table that is declared a foreign key can contain
only values from a parent table's primary key field. For instance, deleting a record that contains a value referred to
by a foreign key in another table would break referential integrity.
Relational Model
Relational data model is the primary data model, which is used widely around the world for data storage and
processing. This model is simple and it has all the properties and capabilities required to process data with storage
efficiency.
Concepts
Tables − In relational data model, relations are saved in the format of Tables. This format stores the relation among entities.
A table has rows and columns, where rows represents records and columns represent the attributes.
Tuple − A single row of a table, which contains a single record for that relation is called a tuple.
Relation instance − A finite set of tuples in the relational database system represents relation instance. Relation instances
do not have duplicate tuples.
Relation schema − A relation schema describes the relation name (table name), attributes, and their names. Relation
key − Each row has one or more attributes, known as relation key, which can identify the row in the relation
(table) uniquely.
Attribute domain − Every attribute has some pre-defined value scope, known as attribute domain.
Constraints
Every relation has some conditions that must hold for it to be a valid relation. These conditions are
called Relational Integrity Constraints. There are three main integrity constraints −
 Key constraints
 Domain constraints
 Referential integrity constraints
Key Constraints
There must be at least one minimal subset of attributes in the relation, which can identify a tuple uniquely. This
minimal subset of attributes is called keyfor that relation. If there are more than one such minimal subsets, these are
called candidate keys.
Key constraints force that −

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 a key attribute can not have NULL values.
Key constraints are also referred to as Entity Constraints.
Domain Constraints
Attributes have specific values in real-world scenario. For example, age can only be a positive integer. The same
constraints have been tried to employ on the attributes of a relation. Every attribute is bound to have a specific
range of values. For example, age cannot be less than zero and telephone numbers cannot contain a digit outside 0-
Referential integrity Constraints
Referential integrity constraints work on the concept of Foreign Keys. A foreign key is a key attribute of a relation
that can be referred in other relation.
Referential integrity constraint states that if a relation refers to a key attribute of a different or same relation, then
that key element must exist.
Relational database systems are expected to be equipped with a query language that can assist its users to query the
database instances. There are two kinds of query languages − relational algebra and relational calculus.

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Relational Algebra
Relational algebra is a procedural query language, which takes instances of relations as input and yields instances
of relations as output. It uses operators to perform queries. An operator can be either unary or binary. They accept
relations as their input and yield relations as their output. Relational algebra is performed recursively on a relation
and intermediate results are also considered relations.
The fundamental operations of relational algebra are as follows −

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 Select
 Project
 Union
 Set different
 Cartesian product
 Rename
We will discuss all these operations in the following sections.
Select Operation (σ)
It selects tuples that satisfy the given predicate from a relation.
Notation − σp(r)
Where σ stands for selection predicate and r stands for relation. p is prepositional logic formula which may use
connectors like and, or, and not. These terms may use relational operators like − =, ≠, ≥, < , >, ≤.
For example −
σsubject = "database"(Books)
Output − Selects tuples from books where subject is 'database'.
σsubject = "database" and price = "450"(Books)
Output − Selects tuples from books where subject is 'database' and 'price' is 450.
σsubject = "database" and price = "450" or year > "2010"(Books)
Output − Selects tuples from books where subject is 'database' and 'price' is 450 or those books published after
2010.
Project Operation (∏)
It projects column(s) that satisfy a given predicate.
Notation − ∏A1, A2, An (r)
Where A1, A2 , An are attribute names of relation r.
Duplicate rows are automatically eliminated, as relation is a set.
For example −
∏subject, author (Books)
Selects and projects columns named as subject and author from the relation Books.
Union Operation (∪)
It performs binary union between two given relations and is defined as −
r ∪ s = { t | t ∈ r or t ∈ s}
Notation − r U s
Where r and s are either database relations or relation result set (temporary relation).
For a union operation to be valid, the following conditions must hold −
 r, and s must have the same number of attributes.
 Attribute domains must be compatible.

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∏ author (Books) ∪ ∏ author (Articles)
Output − Projects the names of the authors who have either written a book or an article or both.
Set Difference (−)
The result of set difference operation is tuples, which are present in one relation but are not in the second relation.
Notation − r − s
Finds all the tuples that are present in r but not in s.
∏ author (Books) − ∏ author (Articles)
Output − Provides the name of authors who have written books but not articles.
Cartesian Product (Χ)
Combines information of two different relations into one.
Notation − r Χ s

s = { q t | q ∈ r and t ∈ s}
Where r and s are relations and their output will be defined as − r Χ

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σauthor = 'tutorialspoint'(Books Χ Articles)
Output − Yields a relation, which shows all the books and articles written by tutorialspoint.
Rename Operation (ρ)
The results of relational algebra are also relations but without any name. The rename operation allows us to rename the

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output relation. 'rename' operation is denoted with small Greek letter rho ρ.
Notation − ρ x (E)
Where the result of expression E is saved with name of x.
Additional operations are −
 Set intersection
 Assignment
 Natural join
SQL FUNDAMENTALS:
SQL is a standard computer language for accessing and manipulating databases.

What is SQL?
 SQL stands for Structured Query Language
 SQL allows you to access a database
 SQL is an ANSI standard computer language
 SQL can execute queries against a database
 SQL can retrieve data from a database
 SQL can insert new records in a database
 SQL can delete records from a database
 SQL can update records in a database
 SQL is easy to learn

SQL is a Standard - BUT....

SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard computer language for accessing and
manipulating database systems. SQL statements are used to retrieve and update data in a database. SQL works with
database programs like MS Access, DB2, Informix, MS SQL Server, Oracle, Sybase, etc.Unfortunately, there are
many different versions of the SQL language, but to be in compliance with the ANSI standard, they must support the
same major keywords in a similar manner (such as SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT, WHERE, and others).
Note: Most of the SQL database programs also have their own proprietary extensions in addition to the SQL
standard!
SQL Database Tables
A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a name (e.g. "Customers" or
"Orders"). Tables contain records (rows) with data.Below is an example of a table called "Persons":
LastName FirstName Address City
Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
The table above contains three records (one for each person) and four columns (LastName, FirstName, Address, and
City).

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With SQL, we can query a database and have a result set returned.
A query like this:
SELECT LastName FROM Persons
Gives a result set like this:
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
Note: Some database systems require a semicolon at the end of the SQL statement. We don't use the semicolon in
our tutorials.

SQL Data Manipulation Language (DML)

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SQL (Structured Query Language) is a syntax for executing queries. But the SQL language also includes a syntax to
update, insert, and delete records.
These query and update commands together form the Data Manipulation Language (DML) part of SQL:
 SELECT - extracts data from a database table
 UPDATE - updates data in a database table
 DELETE - deletes data from a database table

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 INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database table

SQL Data Definition Language (DDL)

The Data Definition Language (DDL) part of SQL permits database tables to be created or deleted. We can also
define indexes (keys), specify links between tables, and impose constraints between database tables.
The most important DDL statements in SQL are:
 CREATE TABLE - creates a new database table
 ALTER TABLE - alters (changes) a database table
 DROP TABLE - deletes a database table
 CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key)
 DROP INDEX - deletes an index
The SQL SELECT Statement
The SELECT statement is used to select data from a table. The tabular result is stored in a result table (called the
result-set).
Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
Note: SQL statements are not case sensitive. SELECT is the same as select.

SQL SELECT Example

To select the content of columns named "LastName" and "FirstName", from the database table called "Persons", use
a SELECT statement like this:
SELECT LastName,FirstName FROM Persons
The database table "Persons":
LastName FirstName Address City
Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
The result
LastName FirstName
Hansen Ola
Svendson Tove
Pettersen Kari

Select All Columns

To select all columns from the "Persons" table, use a * symbol instead of column names, like this:

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SELECT * FROM Persons & IT 2019
Result
LastName FirstName Address City
Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

The Result Set

The result from a SQL query is stored in a result-set. Most database software systems allow navigation of the result
set with programming functions, like: Move-To-First-Record, Get-Record-Content, Move-To-Next-Record, etc.
Programming functions like these are not a part of this tutorial. To learn about accessing data with function calls,

Semicolon after SQL Statements?

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Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL statement in database systems that allow more than one SQL
statement to be executed in the same call to the server.
Some SQL tutorials end each SQL statement with a semicolon. Is this necessary? We are using MS Access and SQL
Server 2000 and we do not have to put a semicolon after each SQL statement, but some database programs force you
to use it.

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The SELECT DISTINCT Statement
The DISTINCT keyword is used to return only distinct (different) values.
The SELECT statement returns information from table columns. But what if we only want to select distinct
elements?
With SQL, all we need to do is to add a DISTINCT keyword to the SELECT statement:
Syntax
SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)
FROM table_name

Using the DISTINCT keyword

To select ALL values from the column named "Company" we use a SELECT statement like this:
SELECT Company FROM Orders

"Orders" table
Company OrderNumber
Sega 3412
W3Schools 2312
Trio 4678
W3Schools 6798
Result
Company
Sega
W3Schools
Trio
W3Schools
Note that "W3Schools" is listed twice in the result-set.
To select only DIFFERENT values from the column named "Company" we use a SELECT DISTINCT statement
like this:
SELECT DISTINCT Company FROM Orders
Result:
Company
Sega
W3Schools
Trio
Now "W3Schools" is listed only once in the result-set.

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The WHERE Clause
To conditionally select data from a table, a WHERE clause can be added to the SELECT statement.
Syntax
SELECT column FROM table
WHERE column operator value
With the WHERE clause, the following operators can be used:
Operator Description
= Equal
<> Not equal
> Greater than

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< Less than
>= Greater than or equal
<= Less than or equal
BETWEEN Between an inclusive range
LIKE Search for a pattern

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Note: In some versions of SQL the <> operator may be written as !=

Using the WHERE Clause

To select only the persons living in the city "Sandnes", we add a WHERE clause to the SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons
WHERE City='Sandnes'
"Persons" table
LastName FirstName Address City Year
Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes 1951
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes 1978
Svendson Stale Kaivn 18 Sandnes 1980
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger 1960
Result
LastName FirstName Address City Year
Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes 1951
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes 1978
Svendson Stale Kaivn 18 Sandnes 1980

Using Quotes
Note that we have used single quotes around the conditional values in the examples.
SQL uses single quotes around text values (most database systems will also accept double quotes). Numeric values
should not be enclosed in quotes.
For text values:
This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName='Tove'
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName=Tove
For numeric values:
This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year>1965
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year>'1965'

The LIKE Condition

The LIKE condition is used to specify a search for a pattern in a column.
Syntax

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SELECT column FROM table & IT 2019
WHERE column LIKE pattern
A "%" sign can be used to define wildcards (missing letters in the pattern) both before and after the pattern.

Using LIKE
The following SQL statement will return persons with first names that start with an 'O':
SELECT * FROM Persons
WHERE FirstName LIKE 'O%'
The following SQL statement will return persons with first names that end with an 'a':
SELECT * FROM Persons
WHERE FirstName LIKE '%a'
The following SQL statement will return persons with first names that contain the pattern 'la':
SELECT * FROM Persons

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WHERE FirstName LIKE '%la%'
The INSERT INTO Statement
The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new rows into a table.
Syntax
INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2,. . .)

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You can also specify the columns for which you want to insert data:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2,...)
VALUES (value1, value2,. . .)

Insert a New Row

This "Persons" table:
LastName FirstName Address City
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
And this SQL statement:
INSERT INTO Persons
VALUES ('Hetland', 'Camilla', 'Hagabakka 24', 'Sandnes')
Will give this result:
LastName FirstName Address City
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
Hetland Camilla Hagabakka 24 Sandnes

Insert Data in Specified Columns

This "Persons" table:
LastName FirstName Address City
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
Hetland Camilla Hagabakka 24 Sandnes
And This SQL statement:
INSERT INTO Persons (LastName, Address)
VALUES ('Rasmussen', 'Storgt 67')
Will give this result:
LastName FirstName Address City
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
Hetland Camilla Hagabakka 24 Sandnes
Rasmussen Storgt 67
Null (no value …not space not empty)
The UPDATE statement is used to modify the data in a table.
Syntax

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SET column_name = new_value
WHERE column_name = some_value
Person:
LastName FirstName Address City
Nilsen Fred Kirkegt 56 Stavanger
Rasmussen Storgt 67

Update one Column in a Row

We want to add a first name to the person with a last name of “Rasmussen”:
UPDATE Person SET FirstName = ‘Nina’
WHERE LastName = ‘Rasmussen’

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Result:
LastName FirstName Address City
Nilsen Fred Kirkegt 56 Stavanger
Rasmussen Nina Storgt 67

Update several Columns in a Row

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We want to change the address and add the name of the city:
UPDATE Person
SET Address = 'Stien 12', City = 'Stavanger'
WHERE LastName = 'Rasmussen'
Result:
LastName FirstName Address City
Nilsen Fred Kirkegt 56 Stavanger
Rasmussen Nina Stien 12 Stavanger
The DELETE Statement
The DELETE statement is used to delete rows in a table.
Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE column_name = some_value

Person:
LastName FirstName Address City
Nilsen Fred Kirkegt 56 Stavanger
Rasmussen Nina Stien 12 Stavanger
Delete
Drop

Delete a Row
"Nina Rasmussen" is going to be deleted:
DELETE FROM Person WHERE LastName = 'Rasmussen'
Result
LastName FirstName Address City
Nilsen Fred Kirkegt 56 Stavanger

Delete All Rows

It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that the table structure, attributes,
and indexes will be intact:
DELETE FROM table_name
or
DELETE * FROM table_name
The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result.

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The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the rows.
Orders:
Company OrderNumber
Sega 3412
ABC Shop 5678
W3Schools 2312
W3Schools 6798
Example
To display the company names in alphabetical order:
SELECT Company, OrderNumber FROM Orders

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ORDER BY Company ASC (asending)
Result:
Company OrderNumber
ABC Shop 5678
Sega 3412

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W3Schools 6798
W3Schools 2312
Example
To display the company names in alphabetical order AND the OrderNumber in numerical order:
SELECT Company, OrderNumber FROM Orders
ORDER BY Company, OrderNumber
Result:
Company OrderNumber
ABC Shop 5678
Sega 3412
W3Schools 2312
W3Schools 6798
Aggregate functions
Aggregate functions operate against a collection of values, but return a single value.
Note: If used among many other expressions in the item list of a SELECT statement, the SELECT must have a
GROUP BY clause!!
"Persons" table (used in most examples)
Name Age
Hansen, Ola 34
Svendson, Tove 45
Pettersen, Kari 19
Aggregate functions in MS Access
Function Description
AVG(column) Returns the average value of a column
COUNT(column) Returns the number of rows (without a NULL value) of a column
COUNT(*) Returns the number of selected rows
FIRST(column) Returns the value of the first record in a specified field
LAST(column) Returns the value of the last record in a specified field
MAX(column) Returns the highest value of a column
MIN(column) Returns the lowest value of a column
STDEV(column)
STDEVP(column)
SUM(column) Returns the total sum of a column
VAR(column)

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APP VARP(column)
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Aggregate functions in SQL Server
Function Description
AVG(column) Returns the average value of a column
BINARY_CHECKSUM
CHECKSUM
CHECKSUM_AGG
COUNT(column) Returns the number of rows (without a NULL value) of a column
COUNT(*) Returns the number of selected rows
COUNT(DISTINCT column) Returns the number of distinct results
FIRST(column) Returns the value of the first record in a specified field (not supported in
SQLServer2K)

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LAST(column) Returns the value of the last record in a specified field (not supported in
SQLServer2K)
MAX(column) Returns the highest value of a column
MIN(column) Returns the lowest value of a column
STDEV(column)
STDEVP(column)

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SUM(column) Returns the total sum of a column
VAR(column)
VARP(column)

Scalar functions
Scalar functions operate against a single value, and return a single value based on the input value.
Useful Scalar Functions in MS Access
Function Description
UCASE(c) Converts a field to upper case
LCASE(c) Converts a field to lower case
MID(c,start[,end]) Extract characters from a text field
LEN(c) Returns the length of a text field
INSTR(c,char) Returns the numeric position of a named character within a text field
LEFT(c,number_of_char) Return the left part of a text field requested
RIGHT(c,number_of_char) Return the right part of a text field requested
ROUND(c,decimals) Rounds a numeric field to the number of decimals specified
MOD(x,y) Returns the remainder of a division operation

Aggregate functions (like SUM) often need an added GROUP BY functionality.

GROUP BY
GROUP BY... was added to SQL because aggregate functions (like SUM) return the aggregate of all column values
every time they are called, and without the GROUP BY function it was impossible to find the sum for each
individual group of column values.
The syntax for the GROUP BY function is:
SELECT column,SUM(column) FROM table GROUP BY column

GROUP BY Example
This "Sales" Table:
Company Amount
W3Schools 5500
IBM 4500
W3Schools 7100
And This SQL:

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APP
Systems
SELECT Company, SUM(Amount) FROM Sales & IT 2019
Returns this result:
Company SUM(Amount)
W3Schools 17100
IBM 17100
W3Schools 17100
The above code is invalid because the column returned is not part of an aggregate. A GROUP BY clause will solve
this problem:
SELECT Company,SUM(Amount) FROM Sales
GROUP BY Company

Company
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Returns this result:

W3Schools
IBM
SUM(Amount)
12600
4500

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HAVING…
HAVING... was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be used against aggregate functions (like
SUM), and without HAVING... it would be impossible to test for result conditions.
The syntax for the HAVING function is:
SELECT column,SUM(column) FROM table
GROUP BY column
HAVING SUM(column) condition value
This "Sales" Table:
Company Amount
W3Schools 5500
IBM 4500
W3Schools 7100
This SQL:
SELECT Company,SUM(Amount) FROM Sales
GROUP BY Company
HAVING SUM(Amount)>10000
Returns this result
Company SUM(Amount)
W3Schools 12600

EMBEDDED SQL
Embedded SQL is a method of inserting inline SQL statements or queries into the code of a programming language,
which is known as a host language. Because the host language cannot parse SQL, the inserted SQL is parsed by an
embedded SQL preprocessor.
Embedded SQL is a robust and convenient method of combining the computing power of a programming language
with SQL's specialized data management and manipulation capabilities.
Structure of embedded SQL
Structure of embedded SQL defines step by step process of establishing a connection with DB and executing the
code in the DB within the high level language.
Connection to DB
This is the first step while writing a query in high level languages. First connection to the DB that we are accessing
needs to be established. This can be done using the keyword CONNECT. But it has to precede with ‘EXEC SQL’ to

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APP indicate that it is a SQL statement.
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EXEC SQL CONNECT db_name;
EXEC SQL CONNECT HR_USER; //connects to DB HR_USER
Once connection is established with DB, we can perform DB transactions. Since these DB transactions are
dependent on the values and variables of the host language. Depending on their values, query will be written and
executed. Similarly, results of DB query will be returned to the host language which will be captured by the
variables of host language. Hence we need to declare the variables to pass the value to the query and get the values
from query. There are two types of variables used in the host language.
 Host variable : These are the variables of host language used to pass the value to the query as well as to
capture the values returned by the query. Since SQL is dependent on host language we have to use
variables of host language and such variables are known as host variable. But these host variables should
be declared within the SQL area or within SQL code. That means compiler should be able to differentiate

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it from normal C variables. Hence we have to declare host variables within BEGIN DECLARE and END
DECLARE section. Again, these declare block should be enclosed within EXEC SQL and ‘;’.
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;
int STD_ID;
char STD_NAME [15];

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char ADDRESS[20];
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;
We can note here that variables are written inside begin and end block of the SQL, but they are declared using C
code. It does not use SQL code to declare the variables. Why? This is because they are host variables – variables of
C language. Hence we cannot use SQL syntax to declare them. Host language supports almost all the datatypes from
int, char, long, float, double, pointer, array, string, structures etc.
When host variables are used in a SQL query, it should be preceded by colon – ‘:’ to indicate that it is a host
variable. Hence when pre-compiler compiles SQL code, it substitutes the value of host variable and compiles.
EXEC SQL SELECT * FROM STUDENT WHERE STUDENT_ID =:STD_ID;
The following code is a simple embedded SQL program, written in C. The program illustrates many, but
not all, of the embedded SQL techniques. The program prompts the user for an order number, retrieves the
customer number, salesperson, and status of the order, and displays the retrieved information on the screen.
int main() {
EXEC SQL INCLUDE SQLCA;
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;
int OrderID; /* Employee ID (from user) */
int CustID; /* Retrieved customer ID */
char SalesPerson[10] /* Retrieved salesperson name */
char Status[6] /* Retrieved order status */
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;

/* Set up error processing */

EXEC SQL WHENEVER SQLERROR GOTO query_error;
EXEC SQL WHENEVER NOT FOUND GOTO bad_number;

/* Prompt the user for order number */

printf ("Enter order number: ");
scanf_s("%d", &OrderID);

/* Execute the SQL query */

EXEC SQL SELECT CustID, SalesPerson, Status
FROM Orders
WHERE OrderID = :OrderID
INTO :CustID, :SalesPerson, :Status;

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APP
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/* Display the results */
printf ("Customer number: %d\n", CustID);
printf ("Salesperson: %s\n", SalesPerson);
printf ("Status: %s\n", Status);
exit();

query_error:
printf ("SQL error: %ld\n", sqlca->sqlcode);
exit();

bad_number:

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printf ("Invalid order number.\n");
exit();
}
DYNAMIC SQL
The main disadvantage of embedded SQL is that it supports only static SQLs. If we need to build up queries at
run time, then we can use dynamic sql. That means if query changes according to user input, then it always better to

APP
use dynamic SQL. Like we said above, the query when user enters student name alone and when user enters both
student name and address, is different. If we use embedded SQL, one cannot implement this requirement in the code.
In such case dynamic SQL helps the user to develop query depending on the values entered by him, without making
him know which query is being executed. It can also be used when we do not know which SQL statements like
Insert, Delete update or select needs to be used, when number of host variables is unknown, or when datatypes of
host variables are unknown or when there is direct reference to DB objects like tables, views, indexes are required.
However this will make user requirement simple and easy but it may make query lengthier and complex. That
means depending upon user inputs, the query may grow or shrink making the code flexible enough to handle all the
possibilities. In embedded SQL, compiler knows the query in advance and pre-compiler compiles the SQL code
much before C compiles the code for execution. Hence embedded SQLs will be faster in execution. But in the case
of dynamic SQL, queries are created, compiled and executed only at the run time. This makes the dynamic SQL
little complex, and time consuming.
Since query needs to be prepared at run time, in addition to the structures discussed in embedded SQL, we have
three more clauses in dynamic SQL. These are mainly used to build the query and execute them at run time.
PREPARE
Since dynamic SQL builds a query at run time, as a first step we need to capture all the inputs from the user. It will
be stored in a string variable. Depending on the inputs received from the user, string variable is appended with inputs
and SQL keywords. These SQL like string statements are then converted into SQL query. This is done by using
PREPARE statement.
For example, below is the small snippet from dynamic SQL. Here sql_stmt is a character variable, which holds
inputs from the users along with SQL commands. But is cannot be considered as SQL query as it is still a sting
value. It needs to be converted into a proper SQL query which is done at the last line using PREPARE statement.
Here sql_query is also a string variable, but it holds the string as a SQL query.
EXECUTE
This statement is used to compile and execute the SQL statements prepared in DB.
EXEC SQL EXECUTE sql_query;
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE
This statement is used to prepare SQL statement as well as execute the SQL statements in DB. It performs the task
of PREPARE and EXECUTE in a single line.
EXEC SQL EXECUTE IMMEDIATE :sql_stmt;
Dynamic SQL will not have any SELECT queries and host variables. But it can be any other SQL statements like
insert, delete, update, grant etc. But when we use insert/ delete/ updates in this type, we cannot use host variables.
All the input values will be hardcoded. Hence the SQL statements can be directly executed using EXECUTE
IMMEDIATE rather than using PREPARE and then EXECUTE.

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APP EXEC SQL EXECUTE IMMEDIATE ‘GRANT SELECT ON STUDENT TO Faculty’;
Systems & IT 2019
EXEC SQL EXECUTE IMMEDIATE ‘DELETE FROM STUDENT WHERE STD_ID = 100’;
EXEC SQL EXECUTE IMMEDIATE ‘UPDATE STUDENT SET ADDRESS = ‘Troy’ WHERE STD_ID =100’;

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APP

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