Intensification of a Feature – simile and hyperbole

Simile
If metaphors equate two ideas despite their differences, similes allow the
two ideas to remain distinct in spite of their similarities. For instance, if we
want to compare a woman to a rose, a metaphor might read something like,
“She is a rose” and a simile - she is like a rose. A metaphor is actually a
condensed simile, for it omits "as" or "like."
In English a simile is expressed by the words like or as. E.g. He had a posture
like a question mark. He fights like a lion. He swims as fast as a fish. He slithers like
a snake. She walks as gracefully and elegantly as a cat. He was as a lion in the
fight. We heighten our ordinary speech by the continual use of such comparisons as
"fresh as a daisy," "tough as leather," "comfortable as an old shoe," "it fits like the
paper on the wall," "gay as a lark," "happy as the day is long, pretty as a picture."
As you noticed similes have recognizable structure: they use the words "as" or
"like."
One should be careful not to confuse ordinary comparison and simile. Let’s
take an example: My sister is as clever as your teacher. In this sentence, two
objects (sister and teacher) belong to the same (to one) class of things with
the purpose of establishing the degree of sameness. That is why the
example above is an ordinary comparison. Now let us take such an example:
she is like a rose. The two objects belong entirely to different class of things.
And it is not an ordinary comparison but already a simile.
The most commonplace similes offer a window into the stereotypes that
pervade a given language and culture. For example, the following similes
convey a stereotypical view of people, animals and things: as precise as a
surgeon, as regular as a clock, as cunning as a fox, as strong as an ox,as
sour as vinegar, as quiet as a mouse, as cruel as a wolf , as stubborn as a
goat, as drunk as a skunk, as violent as a gorilla, as proud as a peacock.
Similes do not have to be accurate to be meaningful or useful. To be "as
proud as a peacock" is "to be very proud" whether peacocks actually do
exhibit pride or not. What matters is that peacocks are commonly believed to
be exemplary examples of proud behaviour.
Main stylistic function of a simile is the intensification of some feature
of the concept.
Hyperbole is another lexical stylistic device with the function of
intensification. “I have told you thousands of times”; “you scared me to death”.
It is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration, the aim of which is to intensify one
of the features of the object in question to such a degree as to sometimes show its
utter absurdity. It is aimed at exaggerating quantity or quality and it is one of the
common expressive means of our everyday speech e.g. I have told you thousands
of times, “I have never loved anyone in the world but you”.
Due to long and repeated use hyperboles have lost their originality. Thus, like
many stylistic devices, hyperbole may lose its quality of a genuine stylistic device
through frequent repetition. Here there are some examples: e. g. A thousand
pardons, scared to death, immensely obliged.
 Hyperbole is a device which sharpens the reader's ability to make a logical
assessment of the utterance through deliberate exaggeration.
Hyperbole can be expressed by all notional parts of speech.
When it is directed the opposite way, when the features of the object are not
overrated, but intentionally underrated, we deal with understatement . English is
well known for its preference for understatement in everyday speech. “I am rather
annoyed” instead of “I’m infuriated’, “The wind is rather strong” instead of “There’s
a gale blowing outside” are typical of British polite speech, but are less
characteristic of American English. Understatement deliberately expresses an idea
as less important than it actually is, either for ironic emphasis or for politeness and
tact.
Interaction of Logical and Emotive Meanings – epithet; interjections and
exclamatory words; oxymoron
Epithet

Epithet is a lexical stylistic device that relies on the foregrounding of the

emotive meaning. The emotive meaning of the word is foregrounded to suppress
the denotational meaning of the latter. The epithet is based on the interplay of
emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence, used
to characterize an object and pointing out to the reader some of the properties or
features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation
of these features or properties.
The characteristic attached to the object to qualify it is always chosen by the
speaker himself. Epithet gives opportunities of qualifying every object from
subjective viewpoint, which is indispensable in creative prose, publicist style and
everyday speech.
From the point of view of their compositional structure epithets may be divided
into:
1) simple (adjectives, nouns, participles): e.g. He looked at them in animal
panic.
2) compound: e.g. apple - faced man;
3) sentence and phrase epithets: e.g. It is his do - it - yourself attitude.
Like metaphor, metonymy and simile epithets are also based on similarity
between two objects, on nearness of the qualified objects and on their comparison .
Through long and repeated use epithets become fixed . Semantically,
there should be differentiated two main groups. The biggest one is affective
epithets. These epithets serve to convey the emotional evaluation of the
object by the speaker. Most of qualifying words found in the dictionary can
be and are used as affective epithets. The second group – figurative epithets
. The group is formed of metaphors, metonymies and similes and expressed
predominantly by adjectives (e.g. “the smiling sun”, “the frowning cloud”), or
rarely by nouns in exclamatory sentences (e.g. “You, ostrich!”) and
postpositive attributes (e.g. “Richard of the Lion Heart”).
Interjections and Exclamatory Words.
 Interjections are words we use when we express our feelings strongly and
which may be said to exist in language as conventional symbols of human
emotions. Interjection is a word with strong emotive meaning. They can express
different emotions: sadness, despair, joy, regret, fright, reproach, disgust,
disapproval, astonishment, sarcasm, admiration, etc. One and the same interjection
is apt to express different emotions: for example, the interjection “oh”, by itself may
express various feelings such as regret, despair, disappointment, sorrow, surprise
and many others. What are the examples of exclamatory words? Interjections such
as: Heavens! Good gracious! God knows! Bless me! are exclamatory words
generally used as interjections. It must be noted that some adjectives and adverbs
can also take on the function of interjections - such as terrible! awfully! great!
wonderful! splendid! These adjectives acquire strong emotional colouring and are
equal in force to interjections.
Oxymoron
An oxymoron (plural oxymorons or, more rarely, oxymora) is a lexical
stylistic device that combines two normally contradictory terms. Oxymoron is
a Greek word oxy ("sharp" or "pointed") and moros ("dull"). Thus the word
oxymoron is itself an oxymoron. Its syntactic and semantic structures come
to clashes (e.g. cold fire; Deafening silence ; Forward retreat Accidentally on
Purpose; Little Big Man).
The most common form of oxymoron involves an adjective-noun
combination. For example, the following line from Tennyson’s Idylls of the
king contains two oxymorons:
"And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true"

Originality and specificity of oxymoron becomes especially evident in non-

attributive structures which also (not infrequently) are used to express
semantic contradiction as in “the street was damaged by improvements”,
“silence was louder than thunder”.
Oxymorons rarely become trite, for their components, linked forcibly, repulse
each other and oppose repeated use. There are few colloquial oxymorons, all of
them show a high degree of the speaker’s emotional involvement in the situation,
as in “awfully pretty”.

Interaction of Primary and Derivative Logical Meanings

Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic
relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being on the
one hand literal, and on the other, transferred. e. g. Her brooch and her heart both
fell on the floor. The pun (also referred to as paronomasia), is based on the
interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or a phrase. The only reliable
distinguishing feature between zugma and pun is a structural one: zeugma is the
realization of two meanings with the help of a verb which is made to refer to
different subjects or objects ( direct and indirect). The pun is more independent.
Like any stylistic device it must depend on a context. But the context may be of a
more expanded character, sometimes even as large as a whole work of emotive
prose.
Pun and zeugma semantically are united into a small group as they have much
in common both in the mechanism of their formation and in their function. They are
quite popular in the stylistic tradition of the English-speaking countries. Their effect
is humorous. Context leads to simultaneous realization of two meanings.
The formation of pun may vary. One speaker’s utterance may be wrong interpreted
by the other due to the existence of different meaning of the misinterpreted word or
its homonym. For example, “Have you been seeing any spirits?” “Or taking any?”
The first “spirits” refers to supernatural forces, the second one – to strong drinks.
Punning may be also the result of the speaker’s intended violation of the listener’s
expectation.
We deal with zeugma when polysemantic verbs that can be combined with nouns
of most varying semantic groups are deliberately used with two or more
homogeneous members which are not connected semantically , as in such example:
“He took his hat and his leave”. Zeugma is highly characteristic of English prose of
previous centuries. Pun seems to be more varied and resembles zeugma in its
humourous effect only. Pun is based on the effect of deceived expectation, because
unpredictability in it is expressed either in the appearance of the elements of the
text unusual for the reader or in the unexpected reaction of the addressee of the
dialogue.
Pun is one of the most favoured devices of Oscar Wilde. e.g. “Lord Darlington: Ah,
nowadays we are all of us so hard up, that the only pleasant things to pay are
compliments. They are the only things we can pay.

logical and nominative (antonomasia);

Antonomasia
Antonomasia is a lexical stylistic device in which a proper name is used instead
of a common noun or vice versa. In other words, it is a result of interaction between
logical and nominal meaning of a word. Logical meaning serves to denote concepts
and thus to classify individual objects into groups (classes). The nominal meaning of
a proper name is suppressed by its logical meaning and acquires the new – nominal
– component.
1) When the proper name of a person, who is famous for some reasons, is put
for a person having the same feature.
e.g. Her husband is an Othello.
2) A common noun is used instead of a proper name, e. g. I agree with you Mr.
Logic, e.g. My Dear Simplicity.
Nominal meaning has no classifying power for it applies to one single individual
object with the aim not of classifying it constituting a definite group, but, on the
contrary with the aim of singling it out of the group of similar objects, of
individualizing one particular object. The word “Mary” does not indicate if the
denoted object refers to the class of women, girls, boats, cats, etc. But in example:
“He took little satisfaction in telling each Mary, something…” the attribute “each”,
used with the name, turns it into a common noun denoting any woman. Here we
deal with a case of antonomasia of the first type .
 Antonomasia is created mainly by nouns, more seldom by attributive
combinations (as in “Dr.Fresh Air”) or phrases (as in “Mr.What’s-his-name’).
Allusion
An allusion is a figure of speech that makes a reference to, or representation of, a
place, event, literary work, myth , or work of art, either directly or by implication. It
is usually an implicit reference, perhaps to another work of literature or art, to a
person or an event. An allusion may enrich the work by association and give it
depth. M.H. Abrams defined allusion as "a brief reference, explicit or indirect, to a
person, place or event, or to another literary work or passage.’’ Thus, allusion is a
reference to an object or circumstance that has occurred or existed in an external
context. In the most traditional sense, allusion is the use of previous texts,
though the word also has come to include references to or from any source,
including film, art, music or real events. An allusion may be drawn from history,
geography, literature, or religion. Allusions in writing help the reader to visualize
what's happening by evoking a mental picture. But the reader must be aware of the
allusion and must be familiar with what it alludes to. Allusions are commonly made
to the Bible, nursery rhymes, myths, famous fictional or historical characters or
events, writers (for example Shakespeare).

I.Consider your answers to the following:

1.What is a simile? In what way is it different from metaphor? Illustrate your answer
with examples.
2.What type of epithets do you know? Give examples
3.What is the difference between zeugma and pun? Illustrate your answer with
examples.
4.What is oxymoron? Illustrate your answer with examples.
5.Speak about allusion and illustrate your answer with examples.
6.What kind of antonomasia do you know? Illustrate your answer with examples.

II.Underline the word or phrase that is being described by each simile. Put
parantheses around the word or phrase it is being compared to. The first three have
been done for you.
1. Mary frowned and said, “I believe that taking drugs is like (playing with
fire).”
2. Don’t tell Mother that her cookies taste like (lumps of sand).
3. Sam waited impatiently for his older brother to calm down. “Bill, I think
you are acting like a baby,” he said.
4. Karen was offended when I said that she was as flaky as a snowstorm.
5. Be careful when you go out. The sidewalk is as slippery as greased glass.
7. I’m not comfortable about this situation. I feel like a bug sitting under a
magnifying glass.
8. I hoped our play would be a success and last for many performances.
However, I guess it will last as long as a balloon in a roomful of kittens.
III. Analyze various cases of play on words, indicate which type is used, how
it is created, what effect it adds to the utterance:
1. Dorothy, at my statement, had clapped her hand over her mouth to hold
down laughter and chewing gum.
2. In December, 1960, Naval Aviation News, a well-known special publication,
explained why "a ship" is referred to as "she": Because there's always a
bustle around her; because there's usually a gang of men with her; because
she has waist and stays; because it takes a good man to handle her right
3. When I am dead, I hope it may be said: "His sins were scarlet, but his
books were read."
4. Most women up London nowadays seem to furnish their rooms with
nothing but orchids, foreigners and French novels.
5. "Bren, I'm not planning anything. I haven't planned a thing in three
years... I'm - I'm not a planner. I'm a liver."
6. Babbitt respected bigness in anything: in mountains, jewels, muscles,
wealth or words.
7. My mother was wearing her best grey dress and gold brooch and a faint
pink flush under each cheek bone.
8. Hooper laughed and said to Brody, "Do you mind if I give Ellen
something?"

"What do you mean?" Brody said. He thought to himself, give her what? A
kiss? A box of chocolates? A punch in the nose?

"A present. It's nothing, really."

10. "Good morning," said Bilbo, and he meant it. The sun was shining and the grass
was very green.

ერთმანეთში არ უნდა აგვერიოს მხატვრული შედარება (simile) და შედარება

(ordinary comparison). ავიღოთ ამგვარი მაგალითი: My sister is as clever as
your teacher. ამ წინადადებაში ორივე მასწავლებელი და მოსწავლე - ორივე
ერთი და იგივე „ჯგუფს“ მიეკუთვნება - ორივე ადამიანია. ახლა ავიღოთ ამგვარი
მაგალითი: she is like a rose. ამ მაგალითში ადამიანი შედარებულია ვარდთან -
მისგან განსხვავებული ჯგუფის ტიპს - მცენარეს. მცენარისა და ადამიანის
შედარება არის უკვე მხატვრული შედარება და არა უბრალოდ შედარება.
სტრუქტურულად მხატვრული შედარება ინგლისურ ენაში გამოიხატება “like” ან
“as” -ით. He had a posture like a question mark. He fights like a lion. He swims as
fast as a fish. He slithers like a snake. She walks as gracefully and elegantly as a
cat. He was as a lion in the fight. We heighten our ordinary speech by the continual
use of such comparisons as "fresh as a daisy," "tough as leather," "comfortable as
an old shoe," "it fits like the paper on the wall," "gay as a lark," "happy as the day is
long, pretty as a picture."
თუ მეტაფორა აიგივებს ორ ობიექტს მიუხედავად მათი განსხვავებისა,
მხატვრული შედარება არ აიგივებს, არამედ ადარებს.“She is a rose” არის
მეტაფორა, მაგრამ she is like a rose - არის მხატვრული შედარება. მხატვრული
შედარება შეიძლება შეგვხვდეს სტერეოტიპის სახით ამა თუ იმ ენასა და
კულტურაში. as precise as a surgeon, as regular as a clock, as cunning as a
fox, as strong as an ox, as sour as vinegar, as quiet as a mouse, as cruel as a
wolf , as stubborn as a goat, as drunk as a skunk, as violent as a gorilla, as
proud as a peacock. მაგალითად, as drunk as a skunk ანუ სკუნსივით
მთვრალი, არ შეგვხვდება ქართულ ენასა და კულტურაში.
არ არის აუცილებელია მხატვრული შედარება ავლენდეს სიზუსტეს. მაგალითად,
as proud as a peacock"-ის შემთხვევაში ვერ დავაზუსტებთ, რატომ შედარდა
ამაყი, ამპარტავანი ადამიანი მაინცდამაინც ფარშევანგს(ქართველლი ამის
ნაცვლად ალბათ იტყოდა „ინდაურივით გაფხორილი)
როგორც მეტაფორა, მხატვრული შედარებაც შეიძლება იყოს გაცვეთილი.
მხატვრული შედარების ძირითადი ფუნქციაა ინტენსიფიკაცია.
ჰიპერბოლა
ისევე როგორც მხატვრული შედარების, ჰიპერბოლის ძირითადი სტილსიტური ფუნქციაც
ინტენსიფიკაციაა. ეს ლექსკური სტილისტური ხერხი ეფუძნება გაზვიადებას და ხანდახან
ამგვარი გადაჭარბებული, გაზვიადებული განცხადებები აბსურდულობამდეც კი მიდის.
Hyperbole is another lexical stylistic device with the function of intensification. I
have told you thousand a times; you scared me to death.

understatement
ჰიპერბოლას საპირისპირო ლექსიკური სტილისტური ხერხია ე.წ. understatement ,
რომელიც განზრახ დაკნინებას ემსახურება. მაგალითად, როდესაც შექსპირის ცნობილი
ექსპერტი იტყვის: „ცოტა რამ გამეგება შექსპირის შესახებ“
ეპითეტი ლექსიკური სტილისტური ხერხია, რომელიც ეფუძნება სუბიექტური,
ემოციური მნიშვნელობის ხაზგასმას.
სტრუქტურული ხასიათის მიხედვით ეპითეტი შეიძლება იყოს:
1) simple (მარტივი): e.g. He looked at them in animal panic.
2) compound ( რთული, ორი ფუძისაგან შემდგარი): e.g. apple - faced man
3) sentence and phrase epithets: (წინადადების ან ფრაზის ეპითეტი) e.g. It is
his do - it - yourself attitude.
ოქსიმორონი არის ლექსკური სტილისტური ხერხი, რომელიც აერთიანებს ორ
ურთიერთსაწინნაღმდეგო ტერმინს oxy (ნიშნავს „მჭრელს“, „წამახულს“), ხოლო
moros (ნიშნავს „ბლაგვს“). ამდენად, ტერმინის შინაარსის თანახმად, ეს
სტილისტური ხერხი ურთიერთგამომრცხავ ცნებათა დაკავშირებას ნიშნავს. მაგ.
ხმაურიანი სიჩუმე; პატარა დიდი კაცი“
ზევგმა არის ლექსიკური სტილისტური ხერხი, როდესაც სიტყვა გამოიყენება ერთი და
იგივე გრამატიკული, მაგრამ განსხვავებული სემანტიკური მიმართებით - ერთი მხრივ,
პირდაპირი, ხოლო მეორე მხრივ, გადატანითი მნიშვნელობით. მაგ. მისი გული და მისი
საყურე ორივე ერთად დაეცა იატაკზე. (ანუ საყურე შეიძლება პირდაპირი მნიშვნელობით
დაეცეს, მაგრამ გულის იატაკზე დაცემა მეტაფორულია).
Interjections and Exclamatory Words.
ერთმენითასაგან უნდა განასხვავოთ შორისდებულები “ah”, “oh” ‘wow”და აშ.,
exclamatoey words- გან. ორივე მათგანი ჩვენი ემოციების გადმოცემას ემსახურება. ეს
უკანასკნელი არ არის ჩვეულებრივი სრულმნიშვნელოვანი სიტყვა, არამედ იგი ისევე
ასრულებს შორისდებულის როლს, როგორც სხვა ნებისმიერი შორისდებული.
Antonomasia
ანტონომასია ლექსიკური სტილისტური ხერხია, რომელშიც საკუთარი სახელი
გამოიყენება საზოგადოს ნაცვლად, ან პირიქით. მაგ. “ჩემი მეუღლე არის ოტელო”;
“ყველა პეტრე და პავლე მე როგორ მასწავლის ჭკუას”; ან „ქალბატონი ამპარტავნება
მობრძანებულა“
ალუზიის შემთხვევაში მინიშნება ხდება რომელიღაც ლიტერატურული, ბიბლიური,
მითოლოგიური, ისტორიული და ა.შ. მოვლენისა.