Figures of Speech Handbook

By Pierce-Mikal McNamee
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to everyone who contributed to the
creation of this Figures of Speech Handbook.
First, I’m grateful to the writers, educators, and literary scholars whose work shaped
the study of figurative language. Their research and insights laid the groundwork for
this handbook.
A special thanks to the readers and learners who inspire the ongoing use of these
devices in language. Their engagement brings the true power of figures of speech
to life.
I also appreciate the many online platforms and resources that provided examples,
definitions, and context to make these concepts clearer and more accessible.
This handbook is dedicated to anyone passionate about language and storytelling,
and I hope it serves as a helpful guide for students, writers, and readers alike.
 Table Of Contents
• Figures of Comparison 3
• Figures of Sound/ Rhythm 10
• Figures of Contrast 15
• Figures of Emphasis 20
• Figures of Speech for Special Effects 26
• Figures of Thought 30
• Figures of Structure 35
• Figures of Substitution 40
• Figures of Imagination 42
• Figures of Arrangement 45
• References
 3
Figures of Comparison
 4

• Simile
• Definition: A simile is a direct comparison between two unlike things, typically using the words
"like" or "as."
• Purpose: To highlight specific qualities of something by comparing it to something else familiar to
the reader.
• Example:
• "Her smile was as bright as the sun."
• Metaphor
• Definition: A metaphor is an implicit comparison between two unrelated things, stating that one
thing is another.
• Purpose: To convey meaning and understanding through symbolism and deeper layers of
comparison.
• Example:
• "Time is a thief."
 5

• Analogy
• Definition: An analogy is a comparison made between two things to explain or clarify an idea by
showing their similarity.
• Purpose: To make abstract concepts more understandable or relatable by comparing them to
something more familiar.
• Example:
• "Just as a caterpillar transforms into a butterfly, so too can we grow through challenges."
• Allegory
• Definition: An allegory is a narrative in which characters, events, or settings represent abstract
ideas or moral qualities.
• Purpose: To convey complex moral or political messages through a simple, often symbolic story.
• Example:
• George Orwell's Animal Farm is an allegory for the Russian Revolution and the rise of totalitarianism.
 6

• Allusion
• Definition: An allusion is a brief, indirect reference to a person, event, place, or artistic work.
• Purpose: To invoke the authority or the significance of the referenced object to enrich the
meaning or evoke emotion.
• Example:
• "He met his Waterloo in that debate." (Allusion to Napoleon’s final defeat.)
• Personification
• Definition: Personification is the attribution of human qualities or characteristics to non-human
entities or abstract concepts.
• Purpose: To give inanimate objects or ideas human attributes, making them more relatable or
vivid.
• Example:
• "The wind whispered through the trees."
 7

• Anthropomorphism
• Definition: Anthropomorphism is a type of personification, where animals or inanimate objects are
given human qualities or behavior.
• Purpose: To make the character or object seem more human-like and easier to relate to.
• Example:
• "In The Jungle Book, Baloo the bear sings and dances."
• Hyperbole
• Definition: Hyperbole is an exaggerated claim or statement that isn’t meant to be taken literally
but is used for emphasis.
• Purpose: To create strong emotional responses or to emphasize the intensity of a particular
situation.
• Example:
• "I’ve told you a million times to clean your room!"
 8

• Understatement
• Definition: Understatement is intentionally downplaying a situation or condition to make it seem
less important or intense than it really is.
• Purpose: To create irony or humor, or to make the real significance of something stand out more
by contrast.
• Example:
• "It’s just a scratch," he said about the gaping wound.
• Metonymy
• Definition: Metonymy involves substituting the name of one thing with something closely
associated with it.
• Purpose: To evoke a larger or more specific idea with a related term.
• Example:
• "The crown will decide," meaning the monarchy or king.
 9

• Synecdoche
• Definition: Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the
whole, or vice versa.
• Purpose: To create a more vivid or succinct image of the subject.
• Example:
• "All hands on deck," where "hands" represents sailors.
 10
Figures of Sound / Rhythm
 11

• Alliteration
• Definition: Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of adjacent words.
• Purpose: To create rhythm, emphasize a particular idea, or make the phrase more memorable.
• Example:
• "She sells sea shells by the sea shore."
• "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers."
• Assonance
• Definition: Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds within nearby words.
• Purpose: To create a sense of unity or musicality in a phrase.
• Example:
• "The early bird catches the worm."
• "The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain."
 12

• Consonance
• Definition: Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds in close proximity, particularly at the
end or middle of words.
• Purpose: To provide a smooth, cohesive sound and emphasize a certain theme or rhythm.
• Example:
• "Pitter-patter, pitter-patter."
• "He struck a streak of bad luck."
• Onomatopoeia
• Definition: Onomatopoeia refers to words that imitate natural sounds.
• Purpose: To make descriptions more vivid and to engage the reader’s senses.
• Example:
• "The bees buzzed in the garden."
• "The car engine roared to life."
 13

• Euphony
• Definition: Euphony is the use of pleasing, harmonious sounds, often through vowel combinations.
• Purpose: To create a smooth, pleasant auditory experience for the reader.
• Example:
• "The murmuring of the brook soothed her soul."
• "The soft susurration of the wind lulled him to sleep."
• Cacophony
• Definition: Cacophony is the use of harsh, discordant sounds, often with the intent to disrupt the
reader’s experience for effect.
• Purpose: To create an atmosphere of chaos, discomfort, or tension.
• Example:
• "The clash and clang of steel jars the ear."
• "The harsh, grinding noise of the metal scraping against the floor."
 14

• Caesura
• Definition: A caesura is a pause within a line of poetry, typically marked by punctuation or a break
in rhythm.
• Purpose: To create dramatic effect or emphasize a thought.
• Example:
• "To be, || or not to be – that is the question."
• "The clock struck twelve, || and all was silent."
• Enjambment
• Definition: Enjambment is the continuation of a sentence or thought across a line break without a
pause.
• Purpose: To create flow and movement, sometimes heightening suspense.
• Example:
• "The sun rose / and kissed the earth with light."
• "She walked into the room, / her heart racing, her breath slow."
 15
Figures of Contrast
 16

• Paradox
• Definition: A paradox is a statement that appears self-contradictory but reveals a deeper truth
upon closer inspection.
• Purpose: To provoke thought and highlight complexities or contradictions in human experience.
• Example:
• "Less is more."
• "This statement is false."
• Irony
• Definition: Irony is a contrast between what is expected and what actually occurs, or between
appearance and reality.
• Purpose: To emphasize the unexpected and create a sense of surprise or thoughtfulness in the
reader.
• Example:
• "A fire station burned down."
• "A pilot afraid of flying."
 17

• Verbal Irony
• Definition: Verbal irony is when a speaker says something but means the opposite, often sarcastically.
• Purpose: To convey a deeper or contrasting meaning, usually with humor or criticism.
• Example:
• "What a beautiful day!" said during a thunderstorm.
• Dramatic Irony
• Definition: Dramatic irony occurs when the audience knows more about a situation than the characters
involved.
• Purpose: To create suspense, tension, or humor as the audience anticipates the character’s realization
of the truth.
• Example:
• In Romeo and Juliet, the audience knows Juliet is not truly dead, but Romeo does not, leading to his tragic
decision.
 18

• Situational Irony
• Definition: Situational irony is when there is a discrepancy between what is expected to happen and
what actually happens.
• Purpose: To highlight the unpredictability of life and often to underline the absurdity of certain
situations.
• Example:
• A fireman’s house burns down.
 19

• Satire
• Definition: Satire uses humor, irony, or exaggeration to criticize or mock a person, society, or
institution.
• Purpose: To expose flaws, highlight absurdities, and provoke change by criticizing social norms,
politics, or human behavior.
• Example:
• Jonathan Swift's A Modest Proposal, which satirically suggests solving poverty in Ireland by eating babies.
 20
Figures of Emphasis
 21

• Hyperbole
• Definition: Hyperbole is deliberate exaggeration for emphasis or effect.
• Purpose: To draw attention to a particular characteristic, emotion, or action by amplifying its
importance.
• Example:
• "I could sleep for a thousand years."
• "This book is the greatest thing ever written."
• Litotes
• Definition: Litotes is an understatement, often using double negatives, to affirm a point by
negating the opposite.
• Purpose: To underplay a situation in a way that still conveys a strong meaning or avoids direct
praise.
• Example:
• "He’s not bad at singing," implying that he is actually quite good.
• "It’s not the worst idea."
 22

• Climax
• Definition: Climax involves arranging words, phrases, or ideas in order of increasing importance.
• Purpose: To build momentum and create a sense of escalation toward a key point or event.
• Example:
• "He came, he saw, he conquered."
• "The stakes were raised, the action heated up, and in the end, the ultimate truth was revealed."
• Anticlimax
• Definition: Anticlimax is a sudden drop from the expected grand conclusion to something trivial or
disappointing.
• Purpose: To create humor, surprise, or a sense of deflation after tension has been built.
• Example:
• "For God, for country, and for soda."
• "After all the drama and excitement, the meeting ended with a discussion about the coffee machine."
 23

• Repetition
• Definition: Repetition involves repeating words, phrases, or ideas for emphasis or to create a
sense of rhythm.
• Purpose: To reinforce a key message, enhance memorability, or convey an emotional state.
• Example:
• "Never give up. Never, never, never."
• "I will not give in. I will not surrender. I will not fail."
• Epanalepsis
• Definition: Epanalepsis is the repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning and end of a
sentence or clause.
• Purpose: To create a sense of closure, symmetry, or emphasis.
• Example:
• "The king is dead, long live the king."
• "Water, water, everywhere, nor any drop to drink."
 24

• Epiphora / Epistrophe / Antistrophe

• Definition: This involves the repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of successive
clauses or sentences.
• Purpose: To create a powerful rhythmic effect or emphasize an idea.
• Example:
• "I swear to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth."
• "This is the moment to make a change, the moment to act, the moment to succeed."
• Epizeuxis
• Definition: Epizeuxis is the immediate repetition of a word or phrase with no intervening words.
• Purpose: To convey urgency or emotion by focusing on a specific word.
• Example:
• "Row, row, row your boat."
• "Never, never, never give up."
 25

• Anaphora
• Definition: Anaphora is the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses.
• Purpose: To create a rhythmic flow and emphasize a central theme or point.
• Example:
• "We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds."
• "I have a dream that one day... I have a dream that one day..."
• Chiasmus
• Definition: Chiasmus is the reversal of the order of words or phrases in parallel clauses.
• Purpose: To create a mirror effect or highlight the contrast between two ideas.
• Example:
• "Never let a fool kiss you or a kiss fool you."
• "Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country."
Figures of Speech for Special Effects 26
 27

• Pun
• Definition: A pun is a play on words that exploits the different meanings of a term or similar-
sounding words.
• Purpose: To add humor, wordplay, or wit to a conversation or text.
• Example:
• "Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana."
• "I used to be a baker, but I couldn't make enough dough."
• Euphemism
• Definition: A euphemism is a mild or less direct word or phrase used in place of a more direct or
harsh one.
• Purpose: To soften the impact of uncomfortable, awkward, or harsh realities.
• Example:
• "He passed away" instead of "he died."
• "She's between jobs" instead of "she's unemployed."
 28

• Malapropism
• Definition: A malapropism occurs when a word is mistakenly used in place of a similar-sounding
one, often creating humorous or absurd results.
• Purpose: To create humor, often through ignorance or misunderstanding.
• Example:
• "He's the pineapple of politeness" (instead of "pinnacle").
- "We cannot let terrorists and rogue nations hold this nation hostile" (instead of "hostage").
• Tautology
• Definition: Tautology involves unnecessary repetition of the same idea or meaning, often using
different words.
• Purpose: To reinforce an idea, although it can sometimes be redundant.
• Example:
• "Free gift"
• "Close proximity"
 29

• Pleonasm
• Definition: Pleonasm is the use of more words than necessary to express an idea, often making it
redundant.
• Purpose: To emphasize a particular point, although it may be seen as verbose.
• Example:
• "Burning fire"
• "Past history"
 30
Figures of Thought
 31

• Apostrophe
• Definition: Apostrophe is a rhetorical figure where a speaker directly addresses an absent person, an
abstract concept, or a non-human entity, often as if it could respond.
• Purpose: To express strong emotion, add dramatic intensity, or invoke a sense of connection with the
addressed entity.
• Example:
• "O Death, where is thy sting?" – from The Bible (1 Corinthians 15:55)
• "O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou Romeo?" – from Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare
• Solecism
• Definition: Solecism is the use of incorrect grammar or syntax for effect. It can involve errors in
punctuation, sentence structure, or word choice.
• Purpose: Solecisms can be used deliberately to reflect colloquial speech, to create emphasis, or even
to showcase a character’s personality.
• Example:
• "This was the most unkindest cut of all." – from Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare (using a double
superlative "most unkindest")
• "I ain't got no money." (A deliberate nonstandard use of "ain't" and double negative for emphasis or style.)
 32

• Hypophora
• Definition: Hypophora occurs when a speaker asks a question and then immediately answers it.
• Purpose: To engage the audience, introduce a point of discussion, or to create anticipation and
provide a quick resolution to a potential query.
• Example:
• "What’s the key to success? Hard work and perseverance."
• "Why do we fail? Because we don’t try hard enough."
• Rhetorical Question
• Definition: A rhetorical question is a question posed for effect rather than to elicit an answer. The
answer is often implied or self-evident.
• Purpose: To provoke thought, emphasize a point, or persuade the audience through the illusion of
inquiry.
• Example:
• "Is this the legacy we want to leave?"
• "What is the meaning of life?"
 33

• Zeugma
• Definition: Zeugma is a figure of speech in which a single word (usually a verb or an adjective)
governs or modifies two or more words, though these words are usually different in meaning.
• Purpose: To create humor, surprise, or to draw an unexpected connection between ideas or
elements.
• Example:
• "She stole my heart and my wallet."
• "He lost his coat and his temper."
• Syllepsis
• Definition: Syllepsis is a type of zeugma where a single word governs two or more words, but in a
way that the governing word applies differently to each.
• Purpose: To play with language and create a more complex or witty expression.
• Example:
• "He took his hat and his leave."
• "She was a woman of great passion and dignity." (where "passion" and "dignity" are governed by different
senses of "great")
 34

• Procatalepsis / Prolepsis
• Definition: Procatalepsis involves anticipating objections to an argument and addressing them
before they are raised. Prolepsis, on the other hand, refers to anticipating a future event or
response.
• Purpose: To make an argument stronger by preemptively addressing counterarguments or to
create a more persuasive and logical discussion.
• Example:
• "Some may say this is impractical, but I believe the results will speak for themselves."
• "You might argue that we don’t need more funding, but I ask you to consider the benefits in the long
run."
 35
Figures of Structure
 36

• Polysyndeton
• Definition: Polysyndeton is the use of multiple conjunctions (e.g., "and," "or," "but") in close
succession, often without commas, to connect different elements in a sentence.
• Purpose: To slow down the pace, add emphasis, or create a sense of overwhelm or accumulation.
• Example:
• "I laughed and cried and screamed and danced."
• "He bought bread and milk and eggs and cheese."
• Asyndeton
• Definition: Asyndeton is the omission of conjunctions between parts of a sentence.
• Purpose: To speed up the pace, make the sentence more dynamic, or give a sense of urgency or
intensity.
• Example:
• "I came, I saw, I conquered."
• "We need food, water, shelter, love."
 37

• Ellipsis
• Definition: An ellipsis is the omission of one or more words from a sentence, typically indicated by
three dots ("..."), to create an unfinished thought, suggest a pause, or imply meaning.
• Purpose: To leave something to the imagination, create suspense, or avoid redundancy.
• Example:
• "The streets deserted, the shops closed..."
• "She looked at him... and then turned away.“
• Aposiopesis
• Definition: Aposiopesis is when a sentence is deliberately broken off and left unfinished, often to
create a dramatic pause or to suggest an emotional response.
• Purpose: To build suspense, express overwhelming emotion, or leave the meaning to be inferred
by the audience.
• Example:
• "If only I could...!"
• "You don’t know what I’ll do if you leave me...!"
 38

• Anastrophe
• Definition: Anastrophe is the inversion of the usual order of words in a sentence (i.e., subject-
verb-object order) to achieve a particular effect.
• Purpose: To create emphasis, make a statement more striking, or align with a particular rhythm.
• Example:
• "Yoda’s speech, this is."
• "Powerful you have become; the dark side I sense in you." – from Star Wars
• Inversion
• Definition: Inversion involves the reversal of the normal word order in a sentence, often for
emphasis, rhythm, or style.
• Purpose: To create a sense of surprise, urgency, or mystery.
• Example:
• "In the night sky shone the moon."
• "Seldom have I seen such courage."
 39

• Parallelism
• Definition: Parallelism is the use of similar grammatical structures in successive clauses or
sentences.
• Purpose: To create rhythm, make ideas more memorable, or emphasize relationships between
ideas.
• Example:
• "Easy come, easy go."
• "I came, I saw, I conquered."
 40
Figures of Substitution
 41

• Synecdoche
• Definition: Synecdoche is a figure of speech where a part of something is used to represent the whole
or vice versa.
• Purpose: To create a more vivid or relatable image or idea by using a part of something to stand for the
whole.
• Example:
• "All hands on deck" (where "hands" represent sailors)
• "The White House issued a statement" (where "The White House" represents the President or administration)
• Metonymy
• Definition: Metonymy is the substitution of the name of one thing with the name of something closely
associated with it.
• Purpose: To evoke an image or idea by substituting one term with another that is linked to it
contextually.
• Example:
• "The pen is mightier than the sword" (where "pen" represents writing and "sword" represents military force)
• "The crown will find an heir" (where "crown" represents the monarchy)
 42
Figures of Imagination
 43

• Imagery
• Definition: Imagery refers to the use of vivid and descriptive language that appeals to the senses,
helping the reader to create mental pictures of scenes, characters, or events.
• Purpose: To evoke sensory experiences and create a stronger emotional or physical connection
between the reader and the text.
• Example:
• "The golden sun dipped below the horizon, casting a warm orange glow over the rolling hills, and the air was thick
with the scent of blooming jasmine."
• Symbolism
• Definition: Symbolism is the use of an object, person, or event to represent something deeper or
more abstract. Symbols can stand for concepts, ideas, or qualities beyond their literal meaning.
• Purpose: To add layers of meaning and depth to a text, making the reader engage with the story on a
more profound level. It also helps convey complex ideas or themes in a simple and tangible way.
• Example:
• The dove is often a symbol of peace.
 44

• Allegory
• Definition: Allegory is a narrative in which characters, events, or settings symbolize
abstract ideas, moral qualities, or political concepts. It is an extended metaphor
where the entire story or text functions on two levels: the literal and the symbolic.
• Purpose: To convey complex ideas, often moral, philosophical, or political, in a more
accessible or illustrative way. Allegories are often used to critique societal norms or
comment on human nature.
• Example:
• Animal Farm by George Orwell is an allegory of the Russian Revolution and the rise of Stalinism.
The characters (the animals) and their actions represent historical figures and events.
 45
Figures of Arrangement
 46

• Foreshadowing
• Definition: Foreshadowing is a literary device where the author provides subtle hints
or clues about events that will happen later in the story.
• Purpose: To build suspense, prepare the audience for future events, and create a
cohesive narrative where all elements are interconnected.
• Example:
• In Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare uses foreshadowing when Romeo says, "I fear too early, for my
mind misgives / Some consequence yet hanging in the stars," which hints at the tragic ending of
the play.
• In Of Mice and Men, Steinbeck foreshadows the death of the puppy by describing how Lennie, in a
previous incident, accidentally killed small animals by petting them too hard. This prepares the
reader for the tragic consequences that follow.
 47

• Juxtaposition
• Definition: Juxtaposition is the act of placing two or more elements (such as
characters, themes, or ideas) side by side to highlight their differences or contrasts.
• Purpose: To emphasize the disparity between two elements, create tension, or
provoke thought. It can highlight the complexities of a situation or the differences
between characters or ideas.
• Example:
• In A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens uses the juxtaposition of London and Paris, the "best of
times" and the "worst of times," to reflect the contrasts in society during the French Revolution.
Bates, G. (2021). Understanding literary devices and their impact in literature. Oxford University Press.

Gillespie, P. (2018). The art of storytelling: An introduction to figures of speech. Cambridge University
Press.

Harris, M. (2020). Mastering imagery, symbolism, and allegory in literature. Penguin Books.

Robinson, L. (2019). Figures of speech and narrative techniques: A comprehensive guide. HarperCollins.

Smith, A. (2022). Foreshadowing, juxtaposition, and other literary techniques in modern fiction.
Routledge.

48
References