Routledge Revivals

School Design

Educators often overlook the positive impact of changing the environment of the school itself when considering how
to improve the quality of education.
First published in 1994, School Design shows how to create more effective schools through a design process that
involves teachers, students, parents, administrators, and architects. It reveals how to create school environments that
develop the whole child, instil enthusiasm for learning, and encourage positive social relationships.
Readers discover how to integrate design research, design participation, and design development to optimize school
settings. Using a number of case studies, detailed practical methods show how to:

 Link behavioural objectives to spatial needs

 Achieve spatial efficacy without compromising education
 Match children’s developmental needs to facility requirements
 Promote greater variety in physical facilities to accommodate various teaching and learning styles
 Gain more valuable feedback from teachers, parents, students, and local citizens on building performance.

In response to tight school budgets, Henry Sanoff discusses how relatively minor design modifications can have a
major positive effect on school performance. This path-breaking volume will provide architects, teachers, and school
administrators with a wide array of insights into creating spaces that promote better learning.
School Design

Henry Sanoff
First published in 1994
by Van Nostrand Reinhold
This edition first published in 2017 by Routledge
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© 1994 Van Nostrand Reinhold

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Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

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The publisher has made every effort to trace copyright holders and welcomes correspondence from those they have been unable to contact.

A Library of Congress record exists under LC control number: 93007904

ISBN 13: 978-1-138-06427-0 (hbk)

ISBN 13: 978-1-315-16041-2 (ebk)
School Design

HENRY SANOFF
To Joan

Copyright © 1994 by Van Nostrand Reinhold

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 93-7904

ISBN 0-442-01096-6

All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright

hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Sanoff, Henry.
School design / by Henry Sanoff.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN 0-442-01096-6
1. School buildings — United States — Design and construction.
2. School facilities — United States — Design and construction.
I. Title.
LB3218.A1S33 1992
371.6'2'0973 — dc20 93-7904
CIP
Contents

Preface vii
Introduction 1

1
CHILD CARE CENTERS 5
Child Development 7
Jonesboro Child Development Center 10
Reggio Emilia 15
The Stanford Arboretum Children's Center 20
SUNY Stony Brook Child Care Center 24
Wake Community College Child Development Center 30

2
RESPONSIVE ELEMENTARY, MIDDLE, AND HIGH SCHOOLS 39
Responsive School Environments 41
Assessing Schools for Adolescents 46
Coyote Canyon Elementary School 53
Davidson Elementary School 57
First Ward Elementary School 65
East Orange Middle School 71
Ligon Middle School 75
Nantucket Elementary School 80
Needham Broughton High School Addition 83
Toussaint Louverture Elementary School 90

V
vi Contents

3
ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLS 95
Alternative Schools 97
The Hartsbrook Waldorf School 100
Hokio Beach School 107
Mowbray College 114
New Futures School 119
Saturn School 123
Seven Hills School 127
Wallace O'Neal School 131

4
HIGHER EDUCATION ENVIRONMENTS 139
Higher Education Environments 141
Florida A&M University School of Architecture 143
Kellog Community College, Science Laboratories 148
Lawrence University, Wriston Art Center 153
Michigan State University, Laboratory Classroom 159
University of Oregon, Willamette Hall 163
Pembroke State University, Native American Center 169

5
PARTICIPATORY THEORIES AND METHODS 175
Participatory Design Principles 177
Planning for Participation 184
Participatory Techniques 188
References 207
Index 213
Preface

Shaping the learning environment to support educa- sistance of many people. The following architects and
tional objectives is one of the central themes of this educators were kind enough to respond to my ques-
collection of unusual school building projects. In many tions through a microcassette tape recorder where
ways the projects exemplify the participatory design they described the design process: Graham Adams,
process, where it is recognized that the student, the Leila Gandini, Joe Murguido, Craig Rafferty, Jeff
teacher, the parent, the administrator, and the archi- Riley, and Maryann Thompson and Charles Rose.
tect are all vital ingredients in the process of edu- Others contributed by writing their comments and rec-
cational change. Equally important is user feedback ollections: Eileen Driscoll, Gaylaird Christopher,
related to the successful achievement of the educa- Donald McDonald, Earl Flansburg, and Alan Patter-
tional objectives. son. In addition, a note of appreciation is due to the
An attempt was made to include a wide range of many teachers, staff, and students who willingly re-
school types, from children's centers to university sponded to my evaluation survey. Thanks also to my
settings, public and private, wherever formal learning graduate assistant, Robert Chase, who was supported
occurs. A variety of sources was used to identify ap- by a grant from the School of Design, for his technical
propriate case studies, including a literature search and editorial help.
and numerous telephone calls to informed educators. Finally, appreciation is acknowledged for the dedi-
Many of the case studies in this collection were built cation and commitment of my Community Develop-
or in construction, while others not built were included ment Group design team members — Graham Adams,
for their innovative techniques of user involvement. Terry Alford, Greg Centeno, Tun Sing Chen, Andy
Since there was little published material available Hensley, Rob Overly, Theresa Rosenberg, James
about the design process for each building project, the Utley, and Cheryl Walker — who helped develop and
development of the case studies for this book could test many participatory techniques during the past two
not have been done without the cooperation and as- decades.

Vll
Introduction

In recent years a consensus has emerged that many The business of schools is not to ensure academic
school buildings do not properly serve the functions performance alone. Given the considerable amount of
for which they were designed. School buildings are time that students and teachers spend in classrooms,
said to be made for people, yet ironically those who it is not unreasonable to expect these places to be
actually occupy or otherwise use school buildings are hospitable. Even in the current "back-to-basics" at-
seldom able to influence the way in which they are mosphere, teachers and school administrators still
designed. In fact, nearly all the important decisions think in terms of developing the whole child, instilling
are based on factors that have very little to do with in her enthusiasm for learning and encouraging posi-
the way people use school buildings or the way school tive social relationships.
buildings affect their users. Those decisions are made Considerable research evidence supports the con-
by administrators, public officials, builders, architects, tention of many educators that these goals are more
and others, who, in most instances, do not occupy the compatible with comfortable, attractive, and interest-
buildings ultimately constructed. This lack of user- ing school environments. On the other hand, there is
participation has been cited as a major reason for also considerable evidence that the classroom envi-
dissatisfaction. Yet these same users can serve as ronment can affect many attitudes and behaviors.
valuable sources of information in the building devel- High levels of density have resulted in dissatisfaction,
opment process. decreased social interaction, and increased aggression.
There is an apparent need for greater variety in "Soft" classrooms have been associated with better
physical facilities to accommodate various teaching attendance, greater participation, and more positive
and learning styles. Many instructional programs can attitudes toward the class, the instructor, and class-
be enumerated, such as independent study, teacher mates. Relatively minor design modifications intro-
centered study, and individualized self-paced study duced into existing classrooms have been shown to
that require different physical settings. The technolog- produce changes in students' spatial behavior, in-
ical and material changes occurring in education also creased interaction with materials, decreased interrup-
require new approaches for achieving spatial efficacy tions, and more substantive questioning. These find-
without compromising educational purposes. The ings are important because it is possible that more
social and learning problems experienced in middle positive attitudes and behaviors may eventually result
schools and high schools, combined with the varia- in improved achievement.
tions in learning and teaching styles, provide over-
whelming evidence for the need to alter present ap-
IMAGES OF SCHOOLS
proaches to school building design.
It is no longer practical either to disassociate build- Metaphors shape the way school problems are defined
ing plans from overall education plans or to use out- and are influential in shaping behavior — metaphorical
moded decision-making processes for modifying ex- images of schools figure significantly in the debate
isting school sites or for building tomorrow's schools. about the quality of schools and school reform. In an
1
2 Introduction

article about school images Philip Schlechty and Ann skeptics, and a more general body of professionals
Joslin (1988) describe the most commonly held school who regard this as a passing fad. As a result, there
images as: are numerous arguments against participation, some
of which are valid while others are simply false as-
• The school as a factory sumptions. The most persistent argument against par-
• The school as a hospital ticipation is the proposition that teams cannot design;
• The school as a log that design is an individual activity.
• The school as a family The camel is facetiously cited as a horse designed
• The school as a war zone by a team or committee. The emphasis, however, on
The school as a factory is a deeply embedded image individual genius has been over-romanticized by de-
in educational theory and practice. The factory met- signers who report the creative act in terms of inex-
aphor suggests mass production, assembly-line tech- plicable insight, neglecting the daily routine that has
niques, and quality control. It supports the argument given the insight an underpinning. Decision making by
that principals should be viewed as managers, teachers consensus has been the subject of considerable re-
as workers, and students as products to be shaped search and the evidence strongly suggests that a con-
and manipulated. The school-as-a-hospital metaphor sensus approach yields more creative decisions and
views the need to distinguish management and profes- more effective implementation than does individual
sional decisions. Hospital models, such as diagnostic- decision making (Schein 1969).
prescriptive teaching, individualized instruction, and Overemphasis on the group as an ultimate creative
batteries of tests, approach the more clinical aspects context can be equally detrimental whether the group
of schooling. The school as a log refers to a classic is called a team, a task force, or a committee. Quite
form of education where the basics are emphasized, often, groups without a disciplined approach degen-
teachers are given high honor and status, and are erate toward the level of the safest or the most obvious
carefully selected and supported with materials and solution. The thinking underlying most naive group
resources. The school as a family recognizes that chil- activity holds that the capabilities of the participants
dren should be treated as unique individuals; the are additive; that three moderately creative individuals
whole child should be taught; and children should not are equal to one highly creative individual. Another
be pushed to perform until they are ready. This model mistaken belief is that if one member does not think
assumes that the relationship between the teacher and of a solution, another may. If no one arrives at a
the child is the most important relationship in the solution, then the blame is equally spread throughout
school. School as a war zone conveys an image of the group.
conflict and hostility, and that aggressive action is an Many of these problems can be resolved practically
expected part of school and classroom life. Winning if every member of the group is personally committed
and losing become more important than cooperation to solving the problem in the best possible way so that
and accommodation. participants can shift their emphasis from personal
The notion of the school as a place of work is clearly capabilities to collective capabilities. The key ingre-
the most widely held image, an image reinforced by dient for group success is a willingness to openly rec-
talk of homework, classwork, and busy work. The con- ognize better solutions. Similarly, effective groups
temporary workplace, however, has shifted from the would need to shape the collective expertise of each
factory to the knowledge-based industry, suggesting a of the members. Psychologist William J. J. Gordon,
synthesizing metaphor — the school as a knowledge author of Synectics (1961), describes a process aimed
work organization. Drucker's (1969) prediction of the at the development of creative capacity, and substan-
dominant occupation of the future will be "knowledge tiates the idea that the individual process in the crea-
work." Therefore, the student of the future will be the tive act mirrors a direct analogy in the group process.
"knowledge worker." Since groups attempt to expand the expertise of the
Achieving more effective educational facilities relies individual, then it is necessary to consider the limita-
upon an approach rooted in the recognition of the tions of the experts, whether they represent the
differences in needs, values, and preferences of the school-user population, the client, the government, or
building's users. Generally speaking, there are many other designers.
social benefits that can be gained from a user-oriented Quite frequently complaints result from experiences
approach to school building design, resulting in greater with user groups or committees: people's wants are
accommodation of social needs, as well as an increas- rooted in their experience; many groups' aspirations
ingly more effective utilization of resources at the are commonplace and mundane; and the designer's
disposal of a particular community. responsibility is to expand the horizons of the group.
Since the ideas associated with the participation Since these observations are certainly valid, it may be
model are new to the design field, there are detractors, useful to clarify these issues.
 Introduction 3

Expertise consists of access to special knowledge A participatory process developed by Halprin and
of a subject, an access that supposedly raises the in- Burns and described in their book, Taking Part: a
dividual's awareness above that which is obvious. In Workshop Approach to Collective Creativity (1974),
reality, the expert is the least able to create a new was the focus of the design of a Catholic secondary
idea, since the problem is often described in the tech- school in Berkeley, California. Their process entails
nical terms of the expert's language, which makes it involving the people who will use the project in a
impossible to view the problem in a new way. Yet series of participatory workshops at the very outset
the knowledge of the expert is necessary to state the of conceptual planning. For ten years the students,
obvious or the commonplace in order to expand the faculty, parents, administrators, and neighbors of St.
narrowness of vision often found in highly trained Mary's College High School have been working to-
people. Sometimes an attack on convention is viewed gether to determine changes in the environment of the
as an attack on the people themselves, resulting in 12-acre campus. The results that have emerged include
experts who function not as individuals but as images a brothers' residence, a student center, a central plaza,
of themselves. Communication is necessary at the per- and site planning.
sonal as well as the professional level if there is any At the initial workshop in 1974, students, teachers,
expectation for group activity to achieve more than administrators, parents, and people in the community
the obvious. began their planning process by exploring the physical
Another issue frequently cited refers to the mobility and nonphysical qualities of St. Mary's. First, they
of both staff and students. Since the time span for the were asked to prepare "real-life" plans for the campus
renovation or construction of a new building through on scaled base maps. With the help of a professional
occupancy may take several years, opponents of par- team, people prepared their plans to demonstrate their
ticipation have argued that the original participants recommendations for the campus. The plans were then
may leave, or will soon leave, thus invalidating their presented for discussion and commented on, with the
involvement in the design process. For many years workshop conductors offering a summary of the agree-
this recurring myth has plagued designers: the design ments and differences that emerged. The workshop
tailored to the departing individual — whether student, had taken one full Saturday and more than 80 people
teacher, or administrator — will have to be redone. A participated. When the campus plan was developed,
similar misconception about school projects suggests workshop representatives reviewed it to insure that it
that since there are individual differences among peo- reflected the agreements that were previously reached.
ple, the best way to cope with this situation is to ignore Soon after, actual work began on several projects. The
individual differences and design for no one in partic- new brothers' residence was itself the subject of a
ular. smaller workshop for residents.
Quite often building programs do not include an In 1981, Marquis Associates and Burns (1983) re-
accurate assessment of existing facilities in terms of turned to St. Mary's to involve people in updating and
both students' and teachers' uses, preferences, or changing the campus plan according to newly stated
complaints. Lacking such information, the program needs. The professional team re-involved people in
usually relies on an idealized stereotype of the build- the wide range of campus planning issues — changing
ing's occupants. Institutional clients rely on building previous decisions and making new decisions with the
committees to advocate the user's point of view. Such aid of a take-apart scale model of the campus. Com-
committees are often far removed from the needs of menting on user participation as an aid to professional
those who actively use the building. Since students programming, Marquis' associate partner, Jim Cald-
and teachers have such different needs, attempts to well, states that "workshops quickly gave us infor-
create a single standardized "ideal" environment mation for which we otherwise would have worked
works to everyone's disadvantage. However, simply for weeks, and some of it we would never never dis-
creating physical variety does not solve the problem. covered, buried as it was in people's personal feelings"
The school user should participate in the design pro- (1983).
cess as an agent to assure variety. Architects Lewis and Gindroz (1974) describe their
Consequently, designers can create places that en- participatory experiences in the design of a human
courage individual choice in spite of situations that resource center in Pontiac, Michigan, as one that
involve high-occupancy turnover. People's desire for deeply influenced their mode of subsequent practice
personal territory, privacy, flexibility, and appropri- (1974). In the course of a complex and open process
ateness are all design concerns that are often difficult involving a great many people, sometimes in bitter
to measure directly in relation to the institutional bal- confrontation, sometimes in quiet working sessions, a
ance sheet, but unfortunately it is often the user and building form emerged that included learning areas for
his or her community who pay the psychic and social children and adults, a health center, theaters and a
consequences of ill-fitting environments. library, a community field house, a food co-op, work-
4 Introduction

shops and studios, food service for the elderly, and a design of Willamette Hall, Buzz Yudell (1991) notes
public restaurant and lounge. What Lewis and Gindroz that "They (workshops) unleashed the enormous cre-
learned there, and have since seen repeated in a num- ativity of individuals who were enfranchised as crea-
ber of situations, is that when consumers and citizens tive participants in the making of their workplace and
are openly enfranchised early in the design process community, rather than relegated to the sidelines as
and invited to assume creative and responsible roles, observers or critics. They built a sense of participation
planners and architects suddenly find available to them that translated into energy and advocacy along the
undreamed of resources of local perceptions and wis- often difficult path to realizing a project."
dom, and the reinforcement of the community. In the
 1
Child Care Centers

5
Child Development

This section describes the way in which research find- relies on a rating scale. The Early Childhood Environ-
ings can be integrated into design decision processes. mental Rating Scale, referred to as ECERS, developed
There is the need for a new approach that can engage by Harms and Clifford (1980), examine seven dimen-
the architect and the client-user group in a process sions of quality:
that links children's developmental needs to facility
requirements. Strategies are described that engage 1. Personal care
parents, teachers, and administrators in collaboration 2. Creative activities
with the architect during the initial stages of design. 3. Language/reasoning activities
This process has produced teachers with new capa- 4. Furnishings/display
bilities in playroom planning and organization, as well 5. Fine/gross motor activities
as with an understanding of the way in which archi- 6. Social development
tects make decisions. Integral to the process, is the 7. Adult facilities, opportunities
concept of the nonpaying client. For programming
purposes, people who use the building are the clients Adding the scores across the seven factors provides
of the architect, whether or not they pay for services. an overall quality rating. The results of such assess-
Reference to the user as the nonpaying client, then, ments have shown that children in higher quality cen-
attaches greater significance to the importance of user ters showed more advanced communication skills and
contributions, and to a nontraditional relationship be- verbal intelligence, and more positive social behavior
tween the paying and nonpaying client. and task orientation (Phillips, Scarr, and McCartney
It is widely accepted that a developmentally appro- 1989). It is apparent from the literature related to qual-
priate environment — one with well-trained and con- ity, that classroom quality, child-care setting, and con-
sistent staff in sufficient numbers, moderately sized textual features are measures of social interaction and
groupings of children, and proper equipment and ac- not measures of the physical features of the environ-
tivities, will lead to good child care (Whitebrook, ment. Consequently, there is a general lack of under-
Howes, and Phillips 1989). In all types of environ- standing, in the early learning field, of the role of the
ments, working conditions affect services provided. physical environment in contributing to quality child
Measures of quality child care have been discussed in care.
several ways. Researchers have attempted to examine In recent years there has been a surge in the con-
the structural aspects of child care, such as group struction of child care facilities. Each project is ap-
composition and staff qualifications, dynamic aspects proached in a unique way with very little program-
of child care that pertain to children's daily experi- matic knowledge transferred or recorded. From the
ences, and the contextual aspects of child care, which limited research related to children's environments, it
are concerned with the type of setting and staff sta- is becoming evident that new facilities are meeting
bility. One approach for obtaining a quality assessment health and safety standards, but not providing the
7
8 Child Care Centers

Major components of the collaborative design process.

physical conditions for the developmental needs of dictor of program quality. In centers serving over 60
young children (Moore 1987). children, major emphasis tended to be placed on rules
This section represents a synthesis of numerous and routine guidance. Conversely, teacher emphasis
consulting efforts with a variety of client groups who on these concerns was found to be significantly lower
are planning to construct a child care facility. The in smaller centers. Prescott et al. (1975) also found
results of these experiences consist of a process and that large centers rarely offered children the experi-
techniques that can be used by architects and teachers ence of participating in wide age-range groups. These
to facilitate a constructive dialogue concerning facility findings were also supported by Gump (1978). Mixing
needs. The diagram shown above describes the inte- of ages in smaller centers offered opportunities for
gration of three major components of the collaborative older children to serve as models and to enrich overall
design process: design research, design participation, play possibilities (Moore et al. 1989).
and design development. These components precede The age groups generally served by most centers
production, construction, and evaluation. In this are infants (six weeks to 12 months), toddlers (12
model programming represents the synthesis between months to two years), and preschoolers (three to five
design research and design participation. This collab- years). In order to achieve the needed critical number
orative design process is a departure from traditional in each age group, a target number of 60 to 75 children
programming approaches since the client, the nonpay- is recommended (Moore et al. 1989) as a basic plan-
ing client, and the architect are directly involved in all ning module. As the institutional needs increase, the
decision-making stages. Furthermore, the stages de- number of children should then be increased in mul-
scribed as design research and design participation tiples of 60 to 75 administratively independent units,
subsume what is normally referred to as facility pro- to keep the scale of the facility within the child's grasp.
gramming. This distinction enables the identification In addition to the number of children in a center,
of discrete activities for each stage as well as clarifying an adequate amount of space for children's activities
the difference between information received from sec- is necessary to insure a quality program that is devel-
ondary sources, such as surveys and data bases, and opmentally oriented. In a commission study for the
information received from primary sources, such as federal government, based on a review of cases of
direct, face-to-face involvement. density and behavior in child care settings, Prescott
and David (1976) recommended a minimum of 42
square feet of usable floor space per child. Cohen,
Research Findings
Moore, and McGinty (1978), in conducting interviews
Since needs-assessment studies often yield conclu- as part of their national research, suggested that 42
sions far in excess of what is practical or feasible, the square feet per child permits a much more flexible
most important planning decision for the child care program, allowing simultaneous options in active and
center is the number of children to be served. The quiet pursuits without children disturbing each other,
research studies of Kritchevsky, Prescott, and Walling in contrast to the average minimum requirement of 35
(1969) have shown that the developmental quality of square feet stipulated in most states. A study by Rohe
child care services drops sharply with increases in the and Nuffer (1977) showed that while increasing spatial
number of children served in one building. Prescott density by reducing space tended to increase aggres-
et al. (1975) found that center size was a reliable pre- sive behavior, sheltering activity areas by inserting
 Child Development 9

partitions increased cooperative behavior. Both den- A process by which the architect and teaching staff
sity and partitioning affected children's activity link behavioral objectives to spatial requirements cor-
choices (Rohe and Nuffer 1977). In a review of studies, rects an inadequacy in the traditional practice of ar-
Moore et al. (1989) concluded that the most desirable chitecture in that it recognizes the behavioral require-
social environment occurs at a density of 42 to 50 ments of the children in making design decisions.
square feet of usable activity space per child. These Decisions about classroom organization are usually
research findings provide the basis for facility size and delegated to the teachers, who attempt to create learn-
classroom organization criteria. ing or activity centers, but who are often hampered
During this stage of the process, background re- by the lack of knowledge of how to shape the centers
search findings are integrated into the activity analy- physically. Consequently, running and chasing activi-
sis. Accompanying the area requirement for usable ties are common in classrooms where boundaries are
activity space for each child is the need for well- not well defined (Smith and Connolly 1980). Well-
defined areas limited to one learning activity, with defined activity centers, conversely, separated by
clear boundaries from circulation space and from other clear boundaries from circulation space and from other
activity areas (Moore 1986). Well-defined activity activity areas, and also with some visual or acoustic
areas or centers may be created with surrounding par- separation, decrease classroom interruptions and con-
titions, storage cabinets, changes in floor levels and tribute to longer attention spans (Moore et al. 1989).
surface materials, or other visual elements that suggest This implies that activity centers within the classroom
boundaries. Spatially well-defined areas support social require a high degree of spatial definition. The design
interaction, cooperative behavior, and exploratory be- task, then, requires the development of a building
havior (Moore 1986; Smith and Connolly 1980). Well- program that can spatially respond to the develop-
defined areas also prevent ongoing play from being mental goals of the teachers of young children as well
disrupted by intruders (Field 1980). as to the literature on child development and behavior.
Jonesboro Child Development Center
Attitude Survey
Charette Process |
Community Meetings |v
Design-In |
Focused Interviews |
Fishbowl Planning \v
Game Simulation | S
Group Dynamics
Public Forum |
Task Force |
Training I
Workshop S

SUMMARY
age. The Center accepts children from families of all
A collaborative approach to the design of a child care incomes, using a sliding scale to accommodate chil-
center helped to increase the client-user's awareness dren from poor families. The facilities used to accom-
of how the physical environment could support their modate the children's activities include three class-
children's activities. This collaboration resulted in a rooms, a kitchen, a fellowship hall shared with the
design solution that was not only sensitive to the chil- church, and additional office space. Due to the spatial
dren's needs, but one in which the designer and client limitations of the basement, the center has not been
collaborated to achieve success. The process required able to expand its program in order to satisfy the
a sharing of knowledge and expertise through the form increasing requests for additional care. As a result,
of community workshops where participants discov- the church donated a portion of its land to allow for
ered and valued the designer's contribution, and the construction of a new building.
where designers learned from the expertise of the
community members. Participants taking part in this
PROJECT
process organized by a design team from North Car-
olina State University included sponsoring church of- The purpose of this project was to design a child care
ficials, parents, and teachers of the Jonesboro Child center that would directly involve the parents, the
Development Center, who were planning to move staff, and the church community members in the de-
from their overcrowded facilities into a new building. sign decision-making process. This view was based on
Three workshops were developed during the course the client's belief that quality care can be achieved
of this project. Beginning with the definition of the best through the involvement of all community mem-
center's objectives, identification of appropriate chil- bers. In summarizing this process, the client stated
dren's activities, and finally the selection of a design that "only when the staff is accountable to the parents
solution acceptable to all participants. Each of the and community members that it serves, only when the
workshops was scheduled to allow sufficient time be- parents, the staff, and the members of the community
tween sessions so that the result of each could be fed are together, will the project be a meaningful experi-
into successive sessions. ence — and only then will its effects be positive and
far reaching."
Community participation in the design of the chil-
CLIENT
dren's center was divided into three Saturday sessions
Jonesboro Child Development Center is currently lo- held at the fellowship hall of the Jonesboro Methodist
cated in the basement of the Jonesboro Methodist Church. The first of the three workshops was aimed
Church in Sanford, North Carolina. The center has at informing the designers about the objectives of the
been in operation for over ten years, serving an av- Center and the Jonesboro community. A second work-
erage of 36 children from two to five years of shop was held to discuss the way in which these ob-

10
 Jonesboro Child Development Center 11

jectives influenced the children's activities and the The initial community meeting concentrated on the
spatial arrangement of the Center. The third workshop identification of the Center's objectives through a fan-
integrated the results of previous sessions by provid- tasy-oriented, goal-setting process using a "wish
ing alternative building design concepts for partici- poem" as a catalyst. The purpose of the wish poem
pants to discuss. To supplement the workshops' dis- was to have participants express their aspirations
cussions, a program was developed through the use about the Center by having them complete the phrase
of staff and child care consultant interviews. / wish my center would . . . in a free verse form. After
completing the exercise, each participant read his or
her poem to the group. This activity stimulated a lively
PROCESS discussion and set an optimistic stage for the next
Faced with the need for expansion of their over- event. The statements listed in the wish poem were
crowded conditions, the Jonesboro community ex- an important beginning to a series of exercises aimed
plored several different options for providing child at expanding the participants' awareness of many is-
care to the residents of Sanford and Lee County. They sues surrounding the development of a children's cen-
initially explored child care from the private-for-profit ter. The setting of objectives, such as the wish poem,
corporations, but found they cater to families with was used as a means of identifying the purposes of
predominantly higher incomes, and offer a standard- the Center. While the wish poem relied upon the spon-
ized program. They also perceived that the profit cen- taneity of the participants, the objective-setting pro-
ters do not usually respond to the unique character- cess relied upon selections from a prepared list culled
istics of the community. Similarly, they discovered from educational literature. The intent of this stage in
that the children's centers are often standardized the process was to introduce research findings from
buildings unrelated to the settings in which they are the child development literature into the participants'
placed. Since the Jonesboro community had many discussions.
residents that could not afford the fees of a private Teachers, parents, and church members divided
center, and since they were strong advocates of com- into small working groups in which they made indi-
munity involvement, they sought assistance from the vidual choices, defended their decisions, and yet
Community Development Group (CDG) at North Car- reached a consensus to a mutually agreeable set of
olina State University's School of Design to develop children's developmental objectives. The aggregated
a design proposal suitable for fund raising by the results from all groups were as follows (Figure 1-1):
Jonesboro community. CDG is a design group provid-
ing technical assistance to communities who do not • Develop motivation for learning through imagina-
have sufficient start-up funds. tion, curiosity, and creativity

FIGURE 1-1. Goals-activity matrix.

12 Child Care Centers

• Develop communication and other cognitive skills created to explore activity adjacencies as they might
• Develop motor skills appear in a floor plan. The first step in the process
• Develop self-actualization, leading to a positive self- was the objective-activity comparisons (see Figure 1-
image and self-confidence 1), in which the objectives previously selected were
• Encourage group interaction matched with appropriate activities. The activity list
• Develop social interaction involving both children was generated from a questionnaire distributed to the
and parents so that they all may develop a tolerance teachers prior to the workshop. Each participant com-
of differences pleted the comparison chart by identifying two activ-
ities for each objective. This step provided an impor-
While the initial community meeting stressed the tant link in the process of moving from objectives to
identification of objectives, the second session was achieving a desirable and responsive plan for the Cen-
designed to have participants match appropriate learn- ter (Sanoff 1988).
ing activities to those objectives. The final session was The activity planning process (Figure 1-2) consisted

FIGURE 1-2. Parent-teacher workshop on spatial arrangement illustrating (1) the activity rela-
tionships matrix, (2) spatial layout grid, (3) activity symbols, and (4) noisy-quiet activity analysis.
 Jonesboro Child Development Center 13

FIGURE 1-3. Spatial alternatives based on energy concepts.

of a large board with a printed grid. The sequence of agreement. When this phase was completed, partici-
steps began with the identification of activities with pants fastened all symbols to the board for a general
compatible adjacencies. Compatibility between activ- discussion and comparison between work groups.
ities was based on privacy requirements, traffic flow, Several different ideas emerged from this exercise,
and shared use of equipment or materials. Step one including:
consisted of a matrix where each participant placed
• Separation of administrative areas from the class-
an "x" in the grid cell between compatible activities.
room
Groups compared the results of the work and sought
similarities in patterns of decisions. This information • Close proximity between the teachers' lounge and
provided the basis for organizing the primary spatial the infant playrooms
relationships. • Places for parents to observe their children without
The second step in the Activity Planning Process interfering with the children's activities
was the Spatial Layout, in which participants were The final workshop was organized so that the design
given symbols corresponding to each of the activities team used information from previous workshops to
and strips of paper corresponding to corridors. The generate alternative design solutions. The design so-
work groups then developed their plans based on con- lutions were required to integrate programmatic re-
siderations of noisy and quiet activities, and traffic quirements with appropriate daylight and passive
flow between activities. Participants worked together, heating, concerns that had surfaced earlier in the pro-
continuously modifying their ideas, until they reached cess (Figure 1-3). Participants discussed the merits of
14 Child Care Centers

FIGURE 1-4. Proposed plan of children's center (Drawing: Tun Sing Chen).

each plan and recorded their comments on large sheets clearly visible interest areas and allowed teachers to
of newsprint paper. After comparing and contrasting, furnish these areas with appropriate materials and
the design solution most preferred was 3C (Figure 1- equipment. Adjacent to each playroom was a south-
4); however, work groups discussed the types of mod- facing greenhouse to provide a continuous source of
ifications that would improve the solution. The final daylight as well as to act as a collector and storehouse
step in this workshop was to locate the building on of heat to warm each classroom.
the site. In this exercise it was necessary to involve This solution was unanimously approved by the
the church council and members of the church in the Jonesboro child care community as well as by the
discussion of present and future uses that would ac- church officials. The final approval, however, was
commodate church growth. clearly a formality, since the teachers, parents, and
church officials were part of the design process from
its inception. As a result, the design solution repre-
sented a partnership between the client-user and the
IMPLEMENTATION
design team, one in which the Jonesboro community
The final program considered standards set forth by had as much ownership in the solution as the design
the Federal Interagency Day Care Requirements as team.
well as North Carolina operating and licensing stan-
dards. The design team developed modifications to
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
scheme 3C to include an infant and toddler area, and
four playrooms for combinations of two-, three-, and The design team consisted of Tun Sing Chen and Rob
four-year-old children. Each playroom provided Overly.
Reggio Emilia
Attitude Survey I
Charette Process |
Community Meetings Iv
Design-In I
Focused Interviews v
Fishbowl Planning
Game Simulation |
Group Dynamics
Public Forum v
Task Force |
Training |
Workshop

SUMMARY CLIENT
Reggio Emilia, a city in northern Italy, is widely rec- The commune of Reggio Emilia, a town of 130,000
ognized for its high quality schools for young children. people, is located in the Po Valley of northern Italy.
Their infant centers serve children under three years Reggio Emilia is widely recognized throughout Europe
of age, while the pre-primary schools are for children for its innovative and high quality public child care
between three and six years. Combined, the schools program. There, unlike the United States, day care is
serve almost one half of the young children in the city. an integral part of the education program. In Reggio
Infant centers alone serve 37 percent of the city's Emilia, there is a preschool program that was initiated
children. Reggio educators see the development of by parents at the end of the Second World War. The
young children as a part of a community responsibility, town council established the first public preschools for
and require children's centers to be integrally located all three- to six-year-old Italian children prior to the
in the city to focus the interaction of all people con- establishment of the national law in 1968. These
nected with the school. schools are referred to as pre-primary schools. The
The particularly unique aspect of the school system city currently operates 22 schools for children between
is the belief that the quality of the children's interper- three and six years of age, and 13 centers, for infants
sonal and physical environment supports their devel- to three-year-old children. In Reggio Emilia, all pre-
opment and learning. The educator's goal is to trans- school-aged children attend some form of school, and
form a physical plant into a human environment, almost half of infants and toddlers are in centers, the
accomplished by personalizing rooms and hallways to majority of whom are in the municipal centers.
reflect the lives of the children and adults who spend This community of adults believes in a cooperative
many active hours in that environment. relationship of continuous dialogue between parents
Named after a cinema located on the site, the Diana and teachers. They believe that no one group should
school serves children age three to six years, and, in decide what is best for children. Parent involvement
1970, was the first school to be built according to the includes decision making at the school and community
Reggio Emilia philosophy. The Diana school's central levels. Each school has a Parent-Teacher Board or
location in the town reflects a mutual commitment to Advisory Council made up of elected representatives
interaction between the local community and the that include staff, parents, and citizens. The Board
school community. Its design was the result of collab- deals with problems related to the school. The Parent-
oration among the architect G. Millo; furniture de- Teacher Boards also have representation, along with
signer Ninio Sguarza; the founder of the program in the town council, and local Department of Education
Reggio Emilia, Loris Malaguzzi; and the teachers and and influence local government policy.
parents of the schoolchildren. The municipal pre-primary school and infant/toddler

15
16 Child Care Centers

center challenge notions of adverse effects of out-of- the space has to be a sort of aquarium which mirrors
home care for young children and illuminate the po- the ideas, values, attitudes, and cultures of the people
tential for early childhood programs that are truly re- who live within it." Lillian Katz (1990), Professor of
sponsive to young children's interests and capabilities. Early Childhood Education and visitor to Reggio
Citizens of Reggio Emilia do not see day care as an Emilia, indicates that the physical environment of a
issue of maternal substitution, a view that is prevalent preschool center is considered a "teacher" in and of
in the United States. Teachers acknowledge the criti- itself. The walls of the preprimary schools communi-
cal role of parents, emphasizing that the child is also cate the educational approach, and is the children's
capable of developing other quality relationships. contribution to shaping the spaces within their school.
Teachers and parents also believe in the need for con- Displays of children's work, descriptions of their
tinuous collaboration in the development of the chil- work, teachers' remarks, and photographs that de-
dren. They achieve this end by grouping children and scribe the educational process are exhibited through-
teachers together for a three-year period, so that chil- out the school. In addition to contributing to the gen-
dren who begin as infants remain together until they eral character of the school, the displays communicate
are three years old, at which time they move to a to teachers, parents, and visitors what goes on in the
preschool classroom where they will remain for an- school.
other three years. This three-year grouping establishes Leila Gandini, liaison for the Reggio Emilia pro-
a stable and secure environment for children, and, as gram, states in her chapter, Educational and Caring
a result of this continuity, enables more effective re- Spaces (Edwards, Gandini, and Forman 1992), 'The
lationships between parents and teachers. environment is seen here as educating the child; in
fact it is considered the third educator along with the
team of two teachers."
PROJECT
In Reggio Emilia, because social development is
Each of the schools of Reggio Emilia has a unique linked to cognitive development, buildings are planned
history; in particular, the school called la Villetta, with spaces to facilitate interactions and social ex-
which dates back to 1970, where a group of women in change among children, as well as among teachers,
a working-class neighborhood in a suburb of Reggio parents, and children. Malaguzzi believes that only
Emilia were driven to action. Since many of their through participation with parents and teachers can
requests to obtain a school for their children were the architect understand the organization of people,
ignored, they found an elegant but abandoned old space, and the school schedule. In the Diana school,
house and forcefully occupied the building as a school which was planned in 1968, there is a central space
for their children. In the days that followed, the similar to the "piazza," or city square, reflecting a key
women cleared away the overgrown garden, cleaned element in Italian cities and towns (Figure 1-5).
and repaired the dusty rooms, and looked for a All other spaces open into the piazza. While many
teacher. Several years after the school was taken over Italian schools have large open spaces, their use is
by the parents, the city government assumed the op-
eration and funding of the school, and began other
neighborhood schools that were similar in character.
The philosophy underlying this preschool program
has evolved through 25 years of collaboration, discus-
sion, and work with children. Part of the growth has
come from a partnership among teachers, parents,
and educational advisors. This collaboration has gen-
erated many important ideas, one of which is the ed-
ucational significance of the physical environment,
and the impact of thoughtfully designed spaces. Loris
Malaguzzi (1984), the founder of the education pro-
gram for young children in Italy, describes the impor-
tance of the physical environment in this way: "We
value space because of its power to organize, promote
pleasant relationships between people of different
ages, create a handsome environment, provide
changes, promote choices and activity, and its poten-
tial for sparking all kinds of social, effective, and cog-
nitive learning. All of this contributes to a sense of
FIGURE 1-5. Plan of the Diana School (Drawing: Henry San-
well-being and security in children. We also think that off).
 Reggio Emilia 17

limited by their intentions, which are often as a sub-

stitute place for inclement weather. Malaguzzi be-
lieves that for a large space to function, it must be
planned to provide opportunities for social exchange.
In Diana, the concept of a piazza is a place where
social interaction and exchange of ideas occur. The
piazza was conceived by the teachers as a place where
children and adults may meet frequently.
Reggio educators are advocates of the concept of
community, which is always evident in the philosophy
of the school. The sense of community encourages
children, teachers, and parents to work together and
to build together. The location of the school, too, in a
highly visible part of the city was an important issue
for the founders, since the interaction between the
school and the surrounding community is enhanced
by the school's location.
A major feature of the Diana school is a large atelier,
or studio, a key space where children explore ideas
developed in the classrooms through the practice of
visual arts. In an interview with Carlina Rinaldi, one
of the pedagogical coordinators of Reggio, Gandini
reports that the practical and sensitive use of space
was an important element transmitted to the architect.
Since, at the beginning, classroom space was inade-
quate, Malaguzzi conceived of a special space or ate-
lier, where all children in the school could work on
visual arts projects connected with activities planned
in the classroom.
In the earliest meetings with the architect, Mala-
guzzi and the teachers also conveyed the importance FIGURE 1-6. Glass walls bring outdoors inside (Photo: Leila
of connections with the outdoors (Figure 1-6), and the Gandini).
need for daylight in the school building. This effect
was achieved through the transparency of glass walls
and bringing the outdoors inside through an atrium
(Figure 1-7). The indoor garden in the central space
becomes a gathering area for children and teachers for modified. The results of this evaluative research led
eating together, working in small or large groups, as to the addition of a decentralized studio or mini-atelier,
well as for conducting casual interactions. Glass walls which provided each age group with a special work-
also separate work areas to create a communal feeling, place adjacent to their classroom. Also, parents and
though smaller more enclosed areas are available for teachers agreed that there was a need for satellite
intimate activities (Figure 1-8). In the outdoor play spaces added to the central space to provide more
yard, there are many trees, with a tunnel for hiding opportunities for interaction, as well as for differen-
and a tree house for the older children to climb (Figure tiated activity areas. In retrospect, these additions
1-9). were perceived by the teachers as a major philosoph-
In the mid-1970s, there were additions to the Diana ical development in the evolution of the school. As a
school that came as a result of a fire, yet reflected the result of their past experiences, the teachers readily
growth of new technological tools such as the com- accept change and modification to welcome new ideas
puter and the video camera, and the need for more and different people (Gandini interview with Vea Vec-
differentiated spaces. In preparation for the recon- chi 1992).
struction of the building, research was conducted Malaguzzi believes that the Reggio schools "show
where parents and teachers analyzed their time and the attempt that has been made to integrate the edu-
space use in several Reggio schools. They made ob- cational project with the plan for the organization of
servations on space use, and on quantity and quality work, and the architectural and functional setting, so
of movement, in order to determine which locations as to allow for maximum movement, interdependence,
had a special identity and which spaces needed to be and interaction" (Gandini interview 1992).
18 Child Care C e n t e r s

FIGURE 1-7. Interior view (Photo: Teachers of the Diana

School).

FIGURE 1-8. Glass walls separate works areas (Photo: Leila FIGURE 1-9. Tree house (Photo: Leila Gandini).
Gandini).
 Reggio Emilia 19

ACKNOWLEDGMENT April 1992, and authored many articles about this in-
novative approach to education. Comments by Loris
The material for this section was generously provided Malaguzzi, Carlina Rinaldi, and Vea Vecchi also
by Dr. Leila Gandini, who also conducted and trans- helped to clarify the philosophical intentions of the
lated interviews with teachers of the Diana school in Diana school.
The Stanford Arboretum Children's Center

SUMMARY the rotation of the sun. The interior of the site is

This children's center was designed to provide a dominated by a courtyard around which the building
home-like setting for 106 infants, toddlers, preschool- and its playgrounds emanate. A 12-person committee
ers, and mildly ill/recuperating children. Located near developed the basic program requirements for the
the arboretum on the Stanford University campus, the child care center, basically following the California
center was built in 1988 for the offspring of faculty, licensing requirements.
staff, and students in response to the growing need
for child care, particularly for families with special
PROCESS
needs. A programming committee worked closely with
the architect to develop an environment that would During the programming and schematic design phases,
satisfy the needs of very young children. the Stanford University administration established a
programming committee. The committee participated
in four meetings in order to reach an agreeable solution
CLIENT for the program and building design. The committee
Stanford University provides a variety of child care included the architectural team, university facilities
programs through parent cooperatives, half-day, and personnel, hospital personnel, child care consultants,
daytime-only programs. With the increasing need for student representatives, registered nurses, the dean of
additional child care spaces as well as options for student affairs, and representatives of other campus
families who could not adjust their schedules to cur- child care centers. At the initial meeting this group
rent programs, the Arboretum Children's Center of- expressed its aim: to develop an environment that
fered a new approach. A "get-well" component is in- would be conducive to the happiness, psychological
cluded in the center providing interim health care. The growth, and physical well-being of the children. The
center also operates 18 hours a day to accommodate committee also recognized the need to accommodate
diverse family schedules. families who could not adjust their schedules to the
current programs. Another urgent need that emerged
from the discussions was for interim care for children
PROJECT who had an illness requiring them to stay home, but
Donald MacDonald Architects designed the Arbore- who were not recovered enough to join their groups.
tum Children's Center to incorporate the natural en- A special "get-well" facility was included in the center
vironment and provide a home-like setting for the chil- for recuperating children of parents who could not
dren. They conceived the building as a spiral of small take the extra days from work or study to care for
modules with pitched roofs which offered the best them.
access to sunlight because the building form followed At the second meeting, the architects prepared sev-
20
 The Stanford Arboretum Children's Center 21

occupy the smallest playrooms located close to the

entry and lobby, toddlers the larger ones, and pre-
schoolers, the largest (Figure 1-13). As children grow
older, they move up the spiral, symbolizing increased
independence and growth. The spiral shape also fol-
lows the path of the sun, allowing all rooms to have
sunlight during the daytime. This layout also permits
expansion of the playrooms as well as enlarging the
building by extending the spiral.
The director's office is located near the entrance
with a view of the entire building. This location per-
mits the director to monitor the activities of all parts
of the building complex.
The building is located adjacent to the arboretum
and incorporates the existing vegetation into the play
yards to provide a varied environment with both sunny
and shaded areas. The landscaped yards include sand
pits, play structures, and tricycle paths.
Each playroom is designed to symbolically replicate
the surrounding environment. The ceilings are painted
light blue and clear skylights provide a direct view of
FIGURE 1-10. Model of preferred spatial arrangement (Photo:
Magnus Stark).
the sky and trees outside. The green grass is extended
into the building through the use of a soft green carpet,
and by green doors and window frames. Each play-
eral block models to demonstrate the three-dimen- room also has an exterior covered play area providing
sional effects of different building configurations (Fig- shade on sunny days and cover on rainy days. The
ure 1-10). The block models help to reduce potential green of the roof blends in with the tree canopies and
client misunderstanding. Program requirements were makes the building appear to be a part of the natural
also color coded to allow the client and architect easy setting.
manipulation of different building arrangements. The building is heated with a radiant floor heating
Classroom blocks were cut in the form of square cubes system and is partially carpeted, particularly condu-
to a realistic scale, thereby controlling construction cive for children to use the floor for many activities.
costs resulting from the efficiency of the building form.
The architects developed four schemes in response to
the program. They included a radial form, a spiral AFTER-OCCUPANCY RESPONSES
form, a double-loaded corridor, and a fragmentary Comments from the teachers using the building for
form. All schemes allowed for expansion and ample several years supported many of the architect's inten-
outdoor space. The group agreed, however, that the tions. The home-like, village scale of the project, with
spiral form was the most versatile (Figure 1-11). Fur- separate playroom modules, was one of the favored
ther meetings were devoted to detailed program infor- features (Figure 1-14). The color palette, too, seemed
mation and to project scheduling. to reflect residential colors, which was a desirable
The building design aimed to create a place that feature of the building. The teachers reported the floor
would be "home-like" in order to minimize the trauma heating to be very successful, especially since many
of the child's transition from home to a social envi- of the younger children spend most of their time on
ronment. Similarly, the building scale would comple- the floor.
ment the home-like atmosphere. To this end, the build- Teachers' comments about disliked features of the
ing is subdivided into small modules, making each building included the high noise levels. The compact-
playroom a recognizable, individual "house" with a ness of the plan brings playrooms in close proximity
pitched roof, giving it a residential character (Figure to each other. The added advantage of cross ventila-
1-12). The get-well facility is separated from the center tion and operable windows provides comfort, but also
by its own entry, kitchen, and laundry. This decision carries with it the noise generated by active children.
was the result of considerable discussion and concern The location of the kitchens was also reported to
for the spreading of viruses and bacteria. be a problem since they did not allow for full super-
The general layout of the center follows the spiral vision of children. Teachers involved in food prepa-
shape of a nautilus shell. Playrooms graduate in size ration reduce the number of staff available for the
from one end of the spiral to the other, where infants surveillance of children. The only other reported
22 Child Care Centers

FIGURE 1-11. Floor plan showing spiral shape layout of the building. The courtyard faces north
(Drawing: Thanh Do).
 The Stanford Arboretum Children's Center 23

FIGURE 1-14. Building exterior (Photo: Magnus Stark).

source of dissatisfaction was the excessive heat build-

up from the skylights in certain portions of the build-
ing, although they are operable.
The initial goal of providing more individualized
FIGURE 1-12. Aerial axonometric showing the modules linked environments for children through the clustering of
by flat-roof circulation spaces (Drawing: Thanh Do). playrooms creates a residential setting sympathetic to
the Palo Alto community.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
For a detailed description of this project, refer to
MacDonald, D. (1989) Deinstitutionalizing Architec-
ture for Children: The Stanford Arboretum Center.
Children's Environments Quarterly, 6.4:40-47.

FIGURE 1-13. Interior of a typical playroom. Above are clear

skylights offering a view of the sky (Photo: Christopher Irion).
SUNY Stony Brook Child Care Center
Attitude Survey v
Charette Process J
Community Meetings v
Design-In
Focused Interviews
Fishbowl Planning
Game Simulation v
Group Dynamics j
Public Forum
Task Force J
Training
Workshop v

SUMMARY
tant hired by a joint committee of representatives from
A needs assessment of students, staff, and faculty adminstration, faculty, and parents, developed a pro-
conducted by the State University of New York at cess in which the responsibility for making decisions
Stony Brook indicated that present care was inade- rested with those with competence and expertise in a
quate to satisfy current demand. The present capacity particular area. As a result, the corporate board ex-
of 90 children located in a residential setting in three panded to include a broad spectrum of parents and
small buildings would need to be relocated to accom- teachers who volunteered to work together to discuss,
modate a projected need of 200 children. A committee plan, and evaluate design options reflecting all facets
representing the university administration, parents, of a child care center.
and students planned for the expansion of campus
child care. A selection process involving several in-
terviews retained a design consultant, allowing partic- PROJECT
ipation and collaboration of all groups to occur in the
decisions regarding the design of the expanded facility. In 1987, the Provost formed a Child Care Task Force
Several workshops considered site planning options to:
as well as the design of playrooms for all age groups. • Review the space needs of child care and the allo-
cations currently being made to child care
• Survey the extent and nature of the need for child
CLIENT care at Stony Brook
The choice of a collaborative strategy in the devel- • Assess the current management model of child care
opment of the children's center at the State University at Stony Brook, study other management models of
of New York at Stony Brook was prompted by a successful child care centers, and recommend a
division between university administration, and par- model best suited to maintain efficiency in providing
ents and teaching staff who were part of a corporation child care
that operated their present facility. The rift between • Recommend a course of action for the expansion of
the two groups was largely due to poor communication child care
during a sequence of unfulfilled administrative prom- The needs assessment suggested expanded hours,
ises and unclear expectations between parties. Since part-time care, and underscored the need for expan-
the organizational structure and goals of a university sion of child care facilities, for flexible infant care
are different from those of a campus child care center, particularly, and low-cost child care. Once parent-run
a dialogue between groups can foster administrative cooperatives, the centers at Stony Brook merged in
understanding. To prevent the university-community 1985 and linked to the Empire State Child Care Ser-
gulf from expanding, Henry Sanoff, a design consul- vices Inc., thus permitting Stony Brook to receive
24
 SUNY Stony Brook Child Care Center 25

FIGURE 1-15. Parent-teacher work group (Photo: Henry Sanoff).

New York State and SUNY-wide child care funds. teaching staff met with the design consultant at the
The task force further recommended a liaison between children's center and worked together in groups of
the university administration and the Stony Brook four with the aid of preassembled site planning kits.
Child Care Center, Inc., in a separately constituted Scaled wood blocks were constructed to provide a
committee to plan for expansion of the delivery of three-dimensional quality that would be easily
child care services on campus. A further recommen- grasped. The wood blocks corresponded to all the
dation called for the new child care building to sub- room areas and classrooms. Work groups manipulated
sume the three existing buildings dedicated to child the pieces into various combinations of age-group
care under SBCC Inc., with the understanding that classroom arrangements until they reached consensus
the three existing centers should be duplicated in the about the appropriate solution (Figure 1-15). The
dedicated building. groups devoted two hours to this exercise. They con-
The present facility, which had been in operation sidered many issues that would influence the design
for over ten years, consisted of three adjacent houses of the facility, including solar orientation, circulation,
located in a wooded site, accommodating 90 children. age group clustering, and parking. Not surprisingly,
Staff and parents involved in this innovative program each group arrived at similar solutions since they had
were adamant about retaining the intimacy, scale, and numerous discussions about their new facility and had
quality of their present facility, in spite of the univer- reached many areas of agreement. They divided the
sity administration's endorsement of a needs assess- site into locations for four separate buildings to reflect
ment that would increase its capacity to 200 children. the characteristics of their present facility (Figure 1-
Since the existing site could not adequately accom- 16). They admitted reservations about their solutions,
modate the expansion, the campus planner offered an and also remarked that the scale and complexity of
alternative site located strategically near parking and the exercise were greater than they realized.
a major campus circulation corridor, referred to as Involving the parents and teachers in a "hands-on"
South Campus. The site location and disposition of experience sensitized them to the myriad of decisions
the existing self-contained centers plan were the most to be made and how those decisions could influence
controversial aspects of the new facility since the the outcome. They came away from the experience
teachers feared they would lose the intimacy of their with an understanding of the need for a judicious bal-
present centers. ance of many critical factors, and an empathy for the
responsibilities of the architect. In return, all work
groups conveyed many ideas about site organization,
PROCESS though a few participants voiced frustration at not
An initial workshop explored site planning options. being able to achieve what they intended. Each group
The administration declined participation in this work- struggled to achieve the separation and autonomy con-
shop, but agreed to abide by any decisions that would tained in their present arrangement. All participants
reflect consensus from the participants. Parents and agreed that they had reached a point where the archi-
26 Child Care Centers

FIGURE 1-16. Site designs developed by parent-teacher work groups.

 SUNY Stony Brook Child Care Center 27

tect's expertise was necessary to evaluate their ideas Many of the ideas related to infants, toddlers, and
as well as to solve problems beyond their capability. three- to five-year-olds were expressed by the teachers
Follow-up work sessions consisted of classroom or- in the form of scenarios that describe children's daily
ganization concepts for different age groups and sub- routines. They currently employ multi-age groupings
sequent alternative building design solutions proposed which they agree to be more natural and educationally
by the architect. Sanoff asked teachers working in beneficial than rigid age grouping. Multi-age grouping
each of the three centers to organize the children's provides a classroom organization sufficiently flexible
area for their respective age groups as a function of to accommodate children at different levels of matu-
their prevailing philosophy, and the desired staff-child rity. Moreover, the younger children will have the
ratios in harmony with the New York State Day Care experience of being the older children when the older
Licensing regulations. Teaching staff members devel- group moves on and a younger group moves in.
oped activity diagrams and drawings of their ideas.
Three different conceptual schemes (or parti) were
developed for group discussion by the design consul-
CONCLUSION
tant, Henry Sanoff, all of which were based on the
ideas generated at the first site planning workshop From the university administration's viewpoint, the
(Figure 1-17). Rather than the four isolated, single- collaborative strategy improved relations between all
focus buildings that appeared in the parent-teachers groups, and provided a new channel of communication
original solution, there was unanimous support for a for parents and staff to share their child-related ex-
building with separate entrances to achieve the desired pertise. All voices were heard during the discussion
autonomy and separation contained in their present sessions and, while there was not always total agree-
facility. This solution also permitted easier food ser- ment with the decisions, there was general acceptance
vice during periods of inclement weather. Access for that the process was fair and open.
teachers and administrators would also be easier, since
all movement would be under protective cover.
28 Child Care Centers

FIGURE 1-17. Sketches of three alternative design schemes based on results of work groups
(Drawing: Henry Sanoff).
 SUNY Stony Brook Child Care Center 29

FIGURE 1-17. continued.

Wake Community College Child
Development Center
Attitude Survey v
Charette Process
Community Meetings
Design-In
Focused Interviews
Fishbowl Planning V
Game Simulation v
Group Dynamics
Public Forum
Task Force
Training v
Workshop v
SUMMARY
child care center initiate a formal needs assessment
Programming and design consultation were requested that includes the following steps:
by the planning group of a proposed 75 child facility
and training center for Wake Community College's 1. Campus survey of student child care needs
Child Development Program in North Carolina. They 2. Survey of campus child care centers
contacted the Community Development Group at 3. Site visits to child care facilities
North Carolina State University for design assistance 4. Consultation with child-care experts
to guide the planning group through design develop- 5. Departmental planning
ment (Sanoff 1989). Since this facility was intended as
a demonstration site for the county, the department The above steps constitute the design research
head and client representative, the teaching staff, and phase of the collaborative design process. The design
the educational consultants to the program were eager research phase included a needs assessment, visits to
to follow a planning process in which research find- other child care centers, and the establishment of ed-
ings, their expertise, and educational philosophy ucational goals which included desired staff-child ra-
would be linked to design decisions. This was partic- tios and other factors inherent in a high quality center.
ularly important since the architect was not identified Although typically initiated by the client, the architect
at the inception of the project, and the planning team can often provide guidelines for more systematic fact
would need to be sufficiently informed about the de- finding procedures.
sign process to be effective advocates for their ideas. Surveys and visits to existing facilities, if properly
organized, can reveal valuable insights into their func-
tions, since casual visits often reveal obvious results.
CLIENT
The Child Development Program at Wake Community
PROJECT
College currently occupies classrooms in a variety of
campus and off-campus buildings. A component of the The purpose of this project was to create a demon-
education program is a practicum where students are stration child development center to serve as a learn-
involved in observing and conducting exercises in chil- ing laboratory for college students enrolled in an early
dren's centers throughout the County. For more ef- childhood education program. It was also intended to
fective student training, it was proposed to construct create a building that demonstrated the use of space
a new teaching facility with an integrated child devel- appropriate for different ages and levels of develop-
opment center. ment. From infants to toddlers to preschoolers, play-
Typically, institutional client groups planning the rooms were designed to accommodate a variety of

30
 Wake Community College Child Development Center 31

activities into learning centers. The centers were spa-

tially organized to provide for active areas, construc-
tive exploration, and fantasy play, allowing for free
and uninterrupted movement.

PROCESS
Early in the planning process, it is desirable for rep-
resentatives of the user-client group to embark on a
program of visits to other child care centers. The vis-
iting team "walks-through" (Preiser, Rabinowitz, and
White 1988) each facility and reports on their basic
features. The walk-throughs consist of a briefing ses-
sion, open-ended interviews with teachers, and obser-
vations of plan layout patterns of different facilities.
Visitors should note positive and negative features of
the facilities. Unless the visits are organized to include
an interview schedule and specific features to be ob-
FIGURE 1-18. Teachers constructing a model of a classroom
served, the results can produce only obvious and su- (Photo: Henry Sanoff).
perficial results. The visits help to familiarize client
groups with the issues they will encounter during the
facility development process. They also provide non- preschoolers would be engaged. The conceptual
professional visitors with the direct experience of ob- framework used for the design of the facility was the
serving a child care center in action. activity center (Sanoff and Sanoff 1981). The teaching
Since the playroom is the basic spatial unit of a staff of the child development training program iden-
children's center, prior familiarity with its constituent tified the developmental objectives for each activity
elements can enable teachers to enter into a produc- by age group, and the ''molecular" activities that
tive dialogue with the architect. Modeling the play- would occur in the activity center.
room is an activity developed for a teachers' workshop, The water play area, for example, the objectives of
one that allows participants to manipulate fixed and which would include sensory and perceptual acuity,
movable playroom elements in order to achieve the concept formation, and eye-hand coordination (Sanoff
desired developmental objectives. Working in teams 1982; Weinstein 1987), would involve such molecular
of three, teachers are assigned a design task to create activities as pouring, measuring, mixing, and floating
a playroom for a specific age group, such as infants, objects, all of which are related to the primary activity.
toddlers, or preschoolers. Found materials including Activity data sheets recorded the relevant activity in-
cardboard, wood blocks, styrofoam, construction pa- formation which served as a program and resource for
per, and plastic are provided along with instructions future decisions (Figure 1-19). The data sheets pro-
to the teachers for measuring and cutting the materials vided a format in which specific equipment needs
needed to construct a three-dimensional model. could also be identified for future purchasing.
The model making is preceded by an exercise in Since the planning of a child care facility also re-
which developmental objectives and corresponding flects a particular ideology about child development,
activity areas for specific age groups are discussed a space planning exercise was developed to engage
and agreed upon by each team. Participants discuss the teaching staff in decisions related to playroom
model results, then join playrooms together to resem- layout. A planning guide of 50 square feet of usable
ble a building for different age groups. At this juncture, space per child limited the number of activity centers
participants discuss issues of playroom adjacencies, that could be included in a playroom, and accordingly
building flow, and location of services (Figure 1-18) in scenarios were written by teachers about a typical
an exercise of four hours in duration. Walk-throughs child's day. The constraints encouraged the teaching
and playroom modeling are effective methods for pre- staff to use "trade-offs" effectively since they were
paring the client group to participate actively and con- required to decide which activity centers were most
structively in the planning stages of a child develop- important for various age groups. Graphic symbols
ment center. corresponding to each activity center (Figure 1-20)
Planning began with focusing on the child as the enabled the manipulation of children's movement pat-
basic unit of development. Next, the design partici- terns in the classroom. This element was the first step
pation phase involved the collection of behavioral data in providing environmental information to foster men-
relating to each activity in which infants, toddlers, and tal image development. Spatially organizing activity
 32 Child Care Centers

FIGURE 1-19. Typical activity data sheet identifying the toddler age group and corresponding
activity requirements.

The teachers worked through a playroom layout by

manipulating activity symbols for each age group.
They outlined the flow process from entering the fa-
cility, greeting the staff, removing their coats in the
cubbie area, and moving to various activity centers.
When planning the infant room, the teachers identified
the diaper change as the focal point with surveillance
to all other activity areas. To avoid the clustering of
unsightly cribs, the teachers proposed decentralizing
the sleeping activity into several crib alcoves. This
process entailed small-group discussions that required
consensus in all decisions. When agreement was
reached, the symbols were fastened to the base to
constitute a record of the group's decisions. The de-
signer constructed cardboard scale models of each
playroom using movable walls and furniture, corre-
sponding with the flow patterns in the diagrams de-
veloped by the teachers (Figure 1-21). This stage of
the process permitted the teaching staff to visualize
the three-dimensional implications of their decisions.
Simplified schematic models of the playrooms limited
FIGURE 1-20. Graphic symbols used to organize the toddler
area. the amount of information presented at one time, con-
veying only the most significant issues in order to
minimize information overload. Teachers could recon-
sider earlier decisions, particularly when they saw
centers on a "game board" corresponding to a play- conflicts arise that were not easily predicted in the
room permitted the determination of which centers two-dimensional diagrams. Although circulation be-
were to remain fixed and which were to be flexible. tween activity centers was considered in the devel-
The spatial layout process required teachers to con- opment of the activity symbol diagrams, the scale
sider planning concepts, adjacency requirements, cir- model conveyed the need to establish clear boundaries
culation, and visual and acoustic privacy between ac- between centers to prevent distraction while permit-
tivity centers. Most of all, the process reinforced the ting the teacher an unobstructed view of all children's
concept of activity centers. play areas. The scale models included information not
 Wake Community College Child Development Center 33

FIGURE 1-21. Model of classroom corresponding to form diagram (Model: James Utley).

shown on the activity diagrams, such as furniture and ters into playrooms for different age groups. Although
equipment, but the movable pieces were easily manip- abstract in nature, the diagrams allowed teachers to
ulated by the teachers as they referred to the activity gain an understanding of "conceptual relationships."
data sheets. Teachers were better able to clarify their intentions
When the teachers reached agreement about the regarding the way in which the educational program
best playroom arrangement, the designer developed would be enhanced in the design of the classrooms.
form diagrams elaborating on their spatial decisions This exercise also provided the participants with the
(Figure 1-22). These diagrams combined activity cen- tools to evaluate plan alternatives and, most impor-
tant, a procedure for further playroom modification
after the building was in use.
The results of the participatory exercises helped to
generate design criteria, as well as to modify the re-
quirements of the building program. Several state-
ments described the fundamental environmental char-
acteristics of an effective child development center.
They were as follows:

The environment must be comfortable and inviting for

children and adults. It should reflect an atmosphere condu-
cive to children's growth. Materials and equipment should
be easily accessible to children in order to encourage inde-
pendence and self-esteem.
An effective means of organizing the environment is to
develop interest centers where the playroom is divided
into areas that focus on specific activities. It is advisable
that quieter activity areas be placed in close proximity in
order to promote a quiet atmosphere. Activity areas de-
mand visual clarity and well-defined limits if children are
expected to interpret cues on appropriate areas for certain
types of play. A quality playroom would include the fol-
lowing activity areas:

FIGURE 1-22. Form diagrams describing activity centers in the • Creative expression/art
toddler area. • Literature/language art
34 Child Care Centers

• Dramatic play/housekeeping equipment also contribute to the distinctiveness of the

• Block building activity centers.
• Self-image, personal hygiene
• Science and exploration
• Cooking TEACHERS' RESPONSE TO THE PROCESS
• Water play
The diagrams and scale models provided a clear se-
• Carpentry
• Manipulative quential procedure where all decisions could be traced
• Music and movement and subsequently modified. The teachers, however,
• Personal space found difficulty in comprehending the consequences
of many spatial decisions. While they were able to
More specific guidelines that influenced the final so- follow the process of playroom organization, they had
lution included: difficulty visualizing the implications of alternative
• Protected outdoor play area adjacent to each playroom playroom arrangements. A continual reference to
• South orientation for playroom and adjacent outdoor scale models and perspective drawings aided the
area teachers substantially in contributing their expertise
• Daylight to be provided by rooftop glazing and glazing to the design of the building. The teachers remarked
orientation. that this process provided them with a better under-
standing of the principles of spatial planning, and the
role of the architect. They experienced the "ripple
effect," in which minor changes in adjacency relation-
ships manifest themselves into major revisions in the
IMPLEMENTATION
spatial layout of the playroom, or of the building. This
The teaching staff was involved in organizing all the diagnostic procedure of examining flow processes and
building components into a facility design using linking objectives to activity centers enables teachers
graphic symbols that corresponded to the major build- to develop a conceptual understanding of playroom
ing parts, such as playrooms, kitchen, offices, corri- and building layout principles.
dors, and lobby area. Age-group adjacencies were
considered with opportunities for different age groups
to have visual contact with each other. This effect was CONCLUSION
ultimately achieved in many ways, including low win- The interaction between teachers and the designer
dows in each playroom for children to be able to see described in this project is clearly a departure from
into the adjacent room. The parents' "drop-off" was the traditional approach to facility development. Con-
the initial step in the flow process that also examined ventional practice usually denies the expertise of the
connections between indoor and outdoor activities. user (nonpaying client) and his or her involvement in
The planning concept that emerged from the discus- design decision making. Traditional designers also fo-
sion was that of a "central spine1' from which play- cus on the formal and visual issues and give less at-
rooms would be connected. The spine would be more tention to the behavioral factors that may equally in-
than a corridor, yet similar to a street, where parents, fluence the form of the building. This tradition could
teachers, and visitors could see into the playrooms, be carefully guarded since the design of a child care
observing children's activities (Figures 1-23 and 1-24). facility is normally developed at the floor plan level,
To emphasize the street concept, it was necessary to defining relationships between classrooms and other
fill the area with daylight through the use of overhead areas, and disadvantaging the teaching staff because
skylights (Figure 1-25). Each of the playrooms, too, of their inability to comprehend floor plans. The teach-
would have a central spine leading to a covered out- ers' expertise lies at the level of behavioral interac-
door play area. Spatially well-defined activity centers tions within the playroom, but this is typically ignored
were located on either side of the playroom spine. by architects and left to the teachers to resolve after
These playrooms included fixed areas for art and water occupancy of the facility.
play, and centers that could change their focus at the In the project discussed, a structured process en-
discretion of the teacher. Spatially well-defined cen- abled child development professionals to lend their
ters imply the need to be distinctly different from expertise to the initial programming stages of the de-
adjacent centers. This differentiation was character- sign process. Use of activity data sheets, activity sym-
ized by physical features such as partially surrounding bols, and form diagrams permitted the designer to
dividers or storage units, implied boundaries through integrate knowledge about children's behavior and
the use of columns, changes in floor level or ceiling their requirements into a format that was conducive
height, changes in floor covering, and changes in light to making space planning decisions. Integrating the
levels (Figure 1-26). Learning materials, furniture, and expertise of the staff in this guided process established
 Wake Community College Child Development Center 35

FIGURE 1-23. Floor plan of the children's center (Drawing: James Utley).

clear linkages between child development goals and product as a result of their involvement. It is evident
the types of places where these goals could be fulfilled. from these experiences that the dynamics of a partic-
The teaching staff's continual involvement in the ipatory process and product are different than the
building design process encouraged the exchange of results of a more traditional design process. Not only
ideas and concepts with the designer, which increased is there a shared sense of ownership in the product,
the staff's ability to act as effective design team mem- but participants are empowered by an understanding
bers. The active part of the process usually terminated of the decisions that led to the physical form decisions.
with the schematic design of the children's center, This approach has the further promise in enabling
which is the result of the team's involvement. teaching staff to make spatial modifications after oc-
These activities show that people who participate in cupancy.
design decisions have greater satisfaction with the The effectiveness of a collaborative process is con-
36 Child Care Centers

FIGURE 1-25. Interior street of completed building (Photo:

FIGURE 1-24. Roof axonometric (Drawing: James Utley). Henry Sanoff; Architect: Haskins Rice Savage & Pearce).

tingent upon the involvement of the architect from the expedite the production process. Construction of this
inception of the project. When the architect is an in- facility was completed in 1991.
tegral part of the process, the building design propos- The language of the program should reflect the con-
als are clearly understood by the user-client group of cepts developed by the teaching staff and conveyed in
teaching staff, parents, and administrators. On those terms of educational goals and children's activities.
occasions when the programming document was com- The language of the architect — the floor plans and
pleted prior to the architect being commissioned for elevations — are the interpretation of verbal concepts,
the project, significant communication problems can and are often unintelligible to the user group, espe-
occur between the user group and the architect. In cially if they are not developed simultaneously with
this instance, the architect of record was appointed the program. The implications of these experiences is
by the college administration after the program and that ownership in the design process, achieved
preliminary design had been completed by the con- through active involvement in design decisions, per-
sulting design team. Although considerable effort was mits the user-nonpaying client to exercise free and in-
made by the design team and teaching staff to explain formed choice. The separation of the programming and
the rationale for the programming and design deci- design stages not only limits participation of a wide
sions, the architect had great difficulty in grasping range of experts but also jeopardizes the ability of the
many of the nuances of the proposed design solution. product to fulfill the expectations of the program.
Similarly, the architect's drawings were not understood
by the teaching staff, since the drawings were pre-
pared for construction purposes. This situation cre- ACKNOWLEDGMENT
ated difficulty in the working relations with the client The success of this project is largely due to Joan
because the architect often urged quick approval to Sanoff, Department Head, Early Childhood Devel-
 Wake Community College Child Development Center 37

opment, Wake Technical Community College, who

participated in the programming and design develop-
ment, and urged the college administration and archi-
tect-of-record to produce a high quality building. A
note of thanks is also due to James Utley, Community
Development Group member, for his thoughtful design
work.
An earlier version of this chapter appeared in Chil-
dren's Environments Quarterly, Volume 6, No. 4,
Winter 1989.

FIGURE 1-26. Interior view showing diaper change area sepa-

rated from crib area (Photo: Henry Sanoff; Architect: Haskins
Rice Savage & Pearce).
 2
Responsive Elementary, Middle,
and High Schools

39
Responsive School Environments

The amount of time young people spend in school, and distraction were common complaints from chil-
from preschool to twelfth grade, is so significant that dren and teachers in open schools (Bennett et al.
it is important to recognize that much of this time is 1980). Studies at the elementary level have associated
devoted to living as well as learning. The quality of open-space classrooms with reduced task involve-
this living, therefore, is an important matter (Gump ment. Decreased achievement in the open school was
1987). Both the quality of student life and the quality generally attributed to its more informal approach and
of education are directly affected by the quality of the to the design that failed to protect against distractions
school environment. (Gump 1987). Data from achievement test results,
School environments might refer to physical provi- comparing open-space schools with traditional
sions as well as the patterns of a school's operations. schools, indicate that certain students may be unsuited
Students' perception of their environment, whether to an open environment, and that this type of envi-
supportive or hostile, interesting or boring, is also ronment may encourage negative achievement effects.
integral to an understanding of the school environ- The staff moving from a traditional school building
ment. Gump (1987) refers to this integrative concep- to an open-space school also found the transition frus-
tion as the ecological environment. Schools and class- trating. It has therefore become common practice to
rooms can then be considered from the viewpoint of partition activity areas to reduce the openness. Studies
enclosure, size, and density, and the behavioral con- in the use of partitions to protect activity areas from
sequences of these characteristics. community areas in secondary schools have shown
Schools generally have been designed according to that there were fewer interruptions where academic
two basic patterns: open schools, or schools without areas were distinct from nonacademic areas (Evans
walls and corridors, and traditional schools with en- and Lovell 1979). Issues of spatial organization within
closed classrooms along each side of a corridor, or elementary and high school classrooms, however,
"egg-carton schools." While open-school environ- have not adequately been addressed in the research
ments were constructed largely in the 1970s, they rep- literature, except for the need for more small group
resent a large proportion of the school building inven- space (Castaldi 1977).
tory. Open schools were envisioned as having a Opportunities for privacy, which are never substan-
distinct economic advantage, since the space usually tial in traditional school buildings, are less available
consumed by corridors became usable for learning. in open areas. Privacy has been shown to contribute
Open classrooms contained different activity areas to a child's growth and development (Proshansky and
and grouped students in a variety of sizes and abilities. Wolfe 1974) and consequently opportunities for in-
While team teaching was shown to be more likely in creased privacy, such as secluded areas, have been
an open school (Gump and Ross 1979), the lack of recommended especially for reading (Ahrentzen 1982).
enclosure of basic activity areas created problems of Elementary students' desire for privacy niches (Mack
noise and distraction. Studies have shown that noise 1976) has stimulated research into the "privacy booth"
41
42 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

— a classroom niche — in which a single student could of the student group can make a significant difference
work in relative seclusion. The booths often were se- in the feelings of children and teachers, as well as in
cluded and did not permit a view to the outside. Stu- the conditions for learning.
dents, however, often prefer a retreat, but not total
exclusion (Curtis and Smith 1974). While the data on
THE TRUMP PLAN
such experiments are not conclusive (Weinstein 1982),
they do suggest that many physical arrangements can Images of the Future by J. Lloyd Trump was a com-
provide the opportunities sought in the privacy booth. missioned study aimed at improving the quality of
Since students often seek seclusion, they might prefer secondary education for the school of the future. The
spaces that are not visibly isolated or cut off from study was commissioned by the National Association
view. Students appreciate an environment that pro- of Secondary-School Principals, who believed that
vides a variety of places to allow different learning America has met the challenge of quantity, in terms
experiences to occur. of students attending schools, but not that of quality.
There have been numerous studies on the effects of Written in 1959, the report suggests that "the second-
class size and learning; most studies, however, com- ary school of the future will not have standard classes
pare the effects of higher student population without of 25 to 35 students meeting five days a week on
an increase in the effects of the classroom environ- inflexible schedules." In terms of student-teacher re-
ment and the amount of teacher resources (Gump lations, "the secondary school of the future will pro-
1987). With no expansion of space, social density will vide for closer relationships between students and
increase with the increase of students. Research on teachers. The secondary school will make the teacher
class size and learning has shown that smaller class more a consultant than a taskmaster." Instructional
sizes (lower densities) yield better achievement time would combine small group and large group meet-
scores. Substantial differences occur when class sizes ings, as well as time for individual study. Since stu-
are reduced from 30 to 15 students (Glass et al. 1982). dents have different learning styles, they would pursue
For teachers, on the other hand, a reduction from 30 specialized studies and develop personal goals.
to 20 students has a marked attitudinal improvement. In the report a view of educational facilities was
Generally, research has shown that lower classroom that "space within the building will be planned for
densities improve learning as well as the attitudes of what will be taught in it and how it will be taught."
both student and teacher. This is partially explained The school of tomorrow was one that consisted of
by seating arrangements, student attitudes, and per- flexibility of space in which large rooms will be divided
formance. Adams and Biddle (1970) found that an into small seminar rooms for small-group discussions.
"action center" in the front and center positions of the Finally, the report suggested that architects, engi-
seating area yielded as much as six times more stu- neers, scientists, and educators will work together to
dent-teacher interaction than if the "action center" design better structures to house these new require-
were in the more rear and peripheral areas. The results ments.
of greater participation in the front and center posi- The Trump plan influenced the development of
tions might be more effective learning and higher many schools during that period; one in particular was
grades. Clearly, there are disadvantages to students the Decatur-Lake view High School in Illinois, a
on the periphery: less classroom participation and im- school of 1,000 students in six grade levels from 7-12.
paired learning ability. Consequently, with more stu- Former Principal, David W. Beggs 111, describes the
dents in the classroom, peripheries are more extended school planning process in his book, A Practical Ap-
and remote. In classrooms that are heavily populated plication of the Trump Plan (1964). Based on a desire
with students, the loss of open space to desks can to find a better way to individualize instruction, the
imply fewer opportunities for small-group activities. staff of the school, inspired by the Trump Report,
Since students need some spatial separation, increased began a series of meetings, identifying teacher
density could lead to negative student reactions to the strengths as well as different ways by which adoles-
classroom, and to their ability to learn within it. cents learn. After a number of conferences and meet-
The feasibility of smaller classes may not be eco- ings centered around theories of learning, the follow-
nomically possible for many school districts; however, ing beliefs about how adolescents learn were agreed
arrangements can be made to reduce the instructional on:
group size within the classroom. Small-group arrange-
ments can be provided by the use of aides, parent • Students learn when they see purpose to learning.
volunteers, and student instructors. Many of these • Learning is an active process.
educational approaches are in operation now. • Change in behavior is the central goal of instruction.
These findings related to the issue of class size are • Students learn at different rates and on various lev-
consistent with those in day-care research. The size els of comprehension in different content areas.
 Responsive School Environments 43

• Students learn best as a result of the appeal to the tion." For Beggs and the Lakeview School it implied
senses: seeing, hearing, touching, and smelling. that students must be taught on a one-to-one basis,
• The environment for learning, psychological and even when in groups.
physical, is contributing to successful outcomes.
• Learning is affected by the students' concept of RESPONSIVE ELEMENTARY AND
themselves and their attitude toward others.
MIDDLE-GRADE SCHOOLS
The Decatur-Lakeview Plan was carefully struc- There is a gulf between what is known to be the needs
tured to meet the needs of a particular staff at a par- of adolescents and their experiences in schools (Lip-
ticular time. This project was characterized by a vast sitz 1977). Decisions about schooling are more often
amount of staff and community involvement. There made on the basis of budgets and buses rather than
was never a vote taken by staff; consensus determined on an understanding of the physical, intellectual, psy-
acceptance. The Lake view Lay Advisory Committee chological, and social needs of adolescents. Schools
consisted of 54 members with an even distribution of that encourage the developmental needs of young peo-
parents from each of the six grade levels. Community ple neither look the same nor do they have identical
participation was not on the level of professional de- programs. Safety and academic achievement are nec-
cisions about how the Plan should be shaped, but it essary for all schools, but they are not sufficient in
served as an arena for criticism. The focus of the themselves to produce responsive schools for adoles-
activities of the lay group was on how the parents in cents. The requirement for physical and emotional
the community felt about the new program, the build- safety is an essential characteristic for the success of
ing changes, and the implications for staff. Usually the any school. Learning cannot occur in an environment
committee would meet, hear a presentation, break into where people fear for their personal security.
small discussion groups to consider the issues pre- Researchers who have studied academically effec-
sented, and report back to the large group. In this tive schools have found that student behavior and
school, the teachers were considered to be the source achievement is influenced by the overall school envi-
of ideas and policy recommendations. They were anx- ronment. Achievement, attendance, and behavior are
ious to develop procedures to be understood and ac- better in schools where there are many opportunities
cepted by the majority. They were receptive to ideas for large numbers of students to assume responsibility
evaluated by their worth, presented by individual and participate in the operation of the school (Rutter
teachers, administrators, or resource people. 1979). Achievement and attendance are higher in
Teaching teams were organized for each grade level, schools where students perceive the environment to
within single content areas. Lake view teachers have be pleasant and comfortable.
a tradition of cooperative endeavors, though not nec- Since young people vary in physical development,
essarily working together in instruction. The results intellectual capability, and interests, the need for di-
of this shift in mode of instruction was that teachers versity would be an important characteristic of a re-
became more interested in their students' progress as sponsive school. In such a setting, students and teach-
teams developed. The Plan implied a reliance on team ers would be engaged in different learning activities,
teaching to realize the fullest advantages of the small- in and out of the classroom, using a variety of print
and large-group program. and nonprint materials, where a variety of teaching
If teachers are to work together on instructional methods would be used. Small group work, lectures,
problems, an appropriate setting in which they confer, individual projects, and experiential learning, com-
or do individual study, must be established. Beggs bined with flexible scheduling, are features that would
states, "The school's facilities partially determine respond to the need for diversity.
what can be done and what cannot be a part of a Young people also need opportunities for meaning-
school's program. Students are directly influenced by ful participation in their schools, particularly those
the physical features of the school they attend." He activities that will improve the school environment.
suggests that educators have given far too little atten- This can include a voice in running their schools as
tion to the facilities, buildings, furniture, and their well as in design and construction activities. Student
arrangements. Space-planning is an important educa- involvement in establishing the school's structure, and
tional function. in setting limits, leads to learning and responsibility.
Beggs concludes with a promise for the future when In a responsive school, there are opportunities for
he states, "All of the changes and adjustments made young people to contribute to the school's structure,
in the schools will be to individualize instruction for with increasing levels of independence and self-regu-
students. The spotlight will be on the individual and lation as they grow and mature. There is an interde-
how he can be assisted in reaching his full potential pendency of needs that requires schools to understand
as a free man with limitless potential for self-realiza- the developmental stages of adolescents in order to
44 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

design environments that encourage learning and There are lots of interesting things to do in my room.
healthy growth (Dormán 1981). I get to help add things to my room to make it even
better.
ASSESSING CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENTS
Actual and ideal profiles were obtained from students
Physical space in the classroom is often characterized in both open and traditional classroom elementary
in simplistic terms such as "open" versus "closed," schools in California. Students from the traditional
with very little insight into the qualities or attributes school described their ideal classroom as one that
of the learning environment, except for the appearance would provide them with "lots of comfortable places,"
of the shell of the building (David 1982). Although and as a place where there were "lots of interesting
there have been efforts to assess the classroom envi- things to do." In addition, they would prefer not to
ronment, most studies have stressed physical features, spend the entire day at their desk. Open-classroom
such as lighting, temperature, acoustics, and floor- students described their actual environment as one
space-per-child, while School Boards use cost-per- containing variety, with "lots of comfortable places."
square-foot as an objective measure. An important but They also indicated that there are few places "where
missing factor in assessing classroom environments is you can be by yourself," and it can be difficult "to
how it is perceived and used by students and teachers concentrate on what you are doing."
or, as David (1982) suggests, the social functions of This research aims at developing a language to as-
the classroom. The assessment strategy he proposes sess the functional aspects of a classroom. David
consists of a set of descriptive statements, printed on (1982) also points out that once a school has been
separate cards, which students sort into categories to built, the teachers become the "designers" of their
describe the actual and ideal environment. The state- classrooms. This assessment procedure can be an ef-
ments are further rated on a five-point scale whether fective means used by teachers to gain systematic
they are "most like my classroom" to "most not like feedback about the performance of the classroom in
my classroom." The statements are based on student response to their educational goals.
needs and performance, and are based on operational
definitions of concepts such as privacy, personal
space, personalization, social grouping, personal HIGH-SCHOOL ENVIRONMENTS
meaning, and participation. They are as follows: Environmental research at the high-school level is not
as extensive as lower-level school situations. Studies
I have enough space to work without others crowding related to the size of school based on student popu-
me. lation were conducted by Barker and Gump (1964),
My room has places where you can be by yourself if who compared small and large schools according to
you want to. curricular and extracurricular activities. Comparisons
I have a place of my own where I can keep my things. were made by the number of environmental units that
In my room it's easy to concentrate on what you're make up a school. This unit, the behavior setting, is
doing. a particular place that has some type of physical en-
I get to choose where I sit. closure, where habitual behaviors occur, such as the
I can see everything that goes on in our room from history class, the main office, rehearsals for plays, and
where I usually sit. so on. Since the social and psychological significance
I spend most of the day at my desk. of extracurricular settings have been described as crit-
The furniture in my room is arranged to help us work ical to adolescent peer relationships (Coleman 1961),
together easily. school size can influence students' opportunities for
I feel like I have a place here that belongs to me. participation. In extracurricular activities, students
I can fix up my place the way I want it. plan, evaluate, and execute their decisions, whereas
There are lots of good places to work in my room. in the classroom, teachers are the major decision-
It's quiet enough for me in my room. makers. Large schools present a different set of con-
We often change the way my room is arranged. ditions than small schools. As the size of the school
My room is neatly arranged and clearly organized. increases, the ratio of students to behavior settings
My room is just the right size for me — not too big increases, and the number of settings does not in-
and not too small. crease at the same rate as the student population.
My room is pleasant to look at. Small schools, then, have fewer students to carry out
My room is a special place for me. their extracurricular activities, requiring those stu-
There are a lot of comfortable places in my room. dents to work harder and assume more responsibility
I get to help decide how our room will be arranged. than students in larger schools. Consequently, stu-
 Responsive School Environments 45

dents in small schools were more likely to occupy Plath (1965) found that the campus plan substantially
some positions of power and responsibility than were reduced serious student deviancy.
students in large schools. School-size studies also Another factor influencing school size relates to the
show that students' satisfaction was a result of being environment around the school. In rural areas, the
active and challenged, though large schools do not movement toward the consolidation of high schools
offer as many responsible positions per student as requires that small communities may lose their exist-
small schools. The larger school depends on more ing small high school, often an important feature of
formal and impersonal controls, and tends to central- the town's identity. Also, small local high schools
ize administrative operations, becoming less respon- often help to enrich the economy of a town.
sive to the teachers and students (McPartland and In urban areas, attempts to build large high schools
McDill 1977), and is likely to find change more diffi- in urban neighborhoods often meet with community
cult. opposition because they usually require large-scale
To preserve some of the small-school advantages demolition, and threaten neighborhood stability. Gold
for a large school, the schools-within-a-school plan (1975), a New York facilities planner, suggests that
has been adopted (Plath 1965). This is a campus ar- renovation of existing buildings for smaller schools is
rangement with clusters of buildings, where students' economically feasible and less of a wasted energy in-
and teachers' experiences occur in smaller environ- vestment than large-scale demolition.
ments. As students move between classes, they cross Clearly, small high schools involve a greater pro-
one another's paths more frequently than they would portion of students in responsible positions than large
in one large school building. The campus plan arrange- ones. This involvement affects the likelihood of stu-
ment fosters closer peer and teacher relationships. dent satisfaction that comes as a result of being active
Garbarino (1980) noted that when large numbers of and challenged in these positions. Although the large
students occupy an environmental unit, individuals high school may be inevitable, it may be necessary to
become anonymous and are beyond the personal con- implement small-school effects.
trol of small groups, where deviance can be one result.
Assessing Schools for Adolescents
I Attitude Survey I I
I Charette Process I I
| Community Meetings |S |
| Design-In I I
Focused Interviews \v
Fishbowl Planning
Game Simulation v
| Group Dynamics | |
I Public Forum | |
Task Force |v
I Training |v |
Workshop v

SUMMARY CLIENT
There has been an expressed need from citizens, ed- The Center for Early Adolescence works to increase
ucators, elected and appointed officials, and architects the effectiveness of agencies and professionals who
for guidance in assessing middle-grade schools. This work with adolescents of ages 10 to 15 years. The
need has been, in part, an outgrowth of reports of Center also serves as a clearing house for information
increased violence, dropouts, and youth unemploy- for professionals and volunteers working with young
ment. Quite often, decisions need to be made about adolescents, and maintains a pool of consultants to
the closing of schools or conversions from junior highs assist agencies and institutions with specific planning
(7-9th grades) to middle schools (6-8th grades), yet and programming requests. As the Center became rec-
there are few effective tools available for examining ognized as a national advocate and information re-
the quality of schools. Although there are many dif- source, parents, policymakers, and citizens began to
ferent grade combinations for students age 10 to 15 request help in making decisions about schooling for
years, which have inhibited a dialogue about the pur- young adolescents. Hence, the idea of an assessment
pose of schooling for this age group, the Middle checklist based on the developmental needs of young
Grades Assessment program (Dormán 1981) attempts adolescents was born.
to focus on what is known about early adolescent
development.
With the aid of a checklist, teachers, citizen groups, PROJECT
or policymakers are guided through a procedure for The purpose of this project was to develop an ap-
interviewing, observing, and discussing ways and proach for making teachers, parents, students, and
means for making middle schools more responsive to policymakers aware of the appropriateness of their
the developmental needs of young adolescents. This school environment for young adolescent students.
self-assessment process was employed in a number of The long-range goal of this project was to develop an
schools that have reported changes in their school action-oriented education and self-assessment process
climate and curriculum. for school improvement. As an assessment tool, it was
Modifications included changes in student work pat- designed to take a comprehensive look at middle-grade
terns to allow groups physically to move more freely; schools to see how the academic and developmental
increased display of student work; more use of stu- needs of young adolescents are accommodated by the
dent-made posters, murals, and bulletin boards; and a physical facilities, the school climate, and the teaching
greater variety of teaching approaches that often re- program.
quired changes in the organization and layout of the An environmental design component of this assess-
classroom. ment tool was created by North Carolina State's Com-

46
 Assessing Schools for Adolescents 47

munity Development Group, to supplement the inter- provides necessary information on early adolescence
views and observations included in the Middle Grades and on schools that can be used in planning to
Assessment Program (MGAP). A group-discussion strengthen middle-grade schools. The program has
process was developed whereby members of the com- many possible uses among which are staff use in ac-
munity would examine the architectural character of creditation self-study, school boards, citizens coun-
spaces in school buildings, to assess how these spaces cils, and parent-teacher organizations, for their as-
can enhance adolescent development and academic sessment of middle- or junior-high school quality and,
effectiveness. most important, as a component for an evaluation
designed to precede modifications to the school facil-
ity.
PROCESS
The checklist consists of a series of ideal statements
In order to experience healthy development, adoles- and corresponding questions to be asked of the prin-
cents require that certain needs be met. Young ado- cipal about his or her role, as well as about the cur-
lescents require diversity, which entails different op- riculum, and interviews with teachers, guidance coun-
portunities for learning and different relationships with selors, students, and parents (Figure 2-1).
a variety of people. In a school that responds to its In addition to interviews, an observation form was
students' need for diversity, one would not find stu- developed to gain a more comprehensive understand-
dents all doing the same thing at the same time in ing of the school environment. Observations were re-
similar rooms. One would not expect to see students quired of the physical facilities (Figure 2-2), where
sitting in neat rows of desks, all facing teachers who such items as places for socialization, spatial flexibil-
are lecturing or reading from textbooks. Instead, in ity, and opportunities for students to personalize their
responsive schools, students and teachers would be school, are noted. Observations of the classroom cen-
engaged in different learning activities in and out of tered around the ability of students to direct their own
the classroom. A variety of teaching methods includ- studies, and modify the classroom to suit their needs
ing small-group work, lectures, learning by doing, in- (Figure 2-3). The Media Center or Library was also
dividualized assignments, and learning centers, would the subject for extensive observation, for recording
be used. the variety of areas for individual and group study,
Young adolescents need opportunities for self-ex- and for relaxation.
ploration as they integrate the change of adolescence
into a new sense of "self," and as they begin to think
about future vocations and avocations. They need op-
GROUP INTERACTION APPROACH
portunities for meaningful participation in school and To stimulate more participation among school com-
community. Not only can schools provide the struc- munity members, design aids were developed to in-
ture and means for young adolescents to have a real crease people's awareness of the architectural impli-
voice in the running of their schools, but they should cations of the school environment. Unless a teacher
also have the opportunity to identify and carry out understands why one room arrangement may be su-
projects that will improve the school environment, perior to another, all the physical changes in the world
such as building outdoor recreation and nature areas. will have little or no impact on the nature of the learn-
The rapid physical growth of adolescents is directly ing process within the classroom (Weinstein 1979). It
related to their high energy level, and the need for requires more than moving furniture. Room arrange-
opportunities to vent their energy through physical ments should reflect the educational purpose the
activity. They need to build confidence and a sense of teacher has in mind, and the educational process by
worthiness and opportunities to succeed. They also which he or she proposes to achieve them.
need the self-satisfaction that comes from knowing Prior to planning and designing appropriate environ-
that they have done something well, and that it is ments for adolescents, the objectives for that environ-
recognized by others for its importance. ment must be discussed, considered, and decided
These and other needs form the basis for an assess- upon by the teachers, administrators, and students.
ment program that is basically a checklist, underscor- The relationship among the activities students engage
ing the ideal situation and questions to ask in order to in, the places that accommodate those activities, and
discover the extent to which school is fulfilling these their relationship to the objectives, is the basis for
expectations. The checklist was designed to be used designing. The objectives that are found in the edu-
by educators, parents, citizens, and policymakers. It cational literature describe concepts that are para-
is a tool for observing and assessing, and making de- mount to the development of the young adolescent.
cisions regarding schools for young adolescents. It These objectives include personalization of the learn-
48 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

FIGURE 2-1. Student interview schedule (Reprinted from the Middle Games Assessment Pro-
gram. Copyright 1981 by the Center for Early Adolescence, University of North Carolina, Chapel
Hill. Used with permission.).

ing environment, student control of movement, pro- ization reflects persons' commitment to a place by
vision of adequate meeting and social gathering places, reflecting themselves in their surroundings. Where
environmental flexibility to accommodate different personalization exists in the learning environment, it
student activities, and the ability for students to facil- manifests itself in a number of ways. Prominent dis-
itate projects and studies in their areas of interest. play of items of special interest to young adolescents
While there is agreement within the education is one way in which personalization is exhibited. The
profession that these objectives may be crucial to the items displayed should identify who occupies and uses
development of young adolescents, there is a lack of a particular place by reflecting their interests and per-
agreement about the relationship of these objectives sonality, whether they are students or teachers. Space-
to the places in which they ought to occur, or to the use can reflect connections among home, school, and
variety of possible spatial arrangements. The interpre- community, in addition to displaying student work.
tation and philosophy of an educational program has Another important aspect of personalized space is the
a significant impact on how the educational objectives presence of designated places where adolescents can
are evidenced and realized in the learning environ- gather, free from danger, to engage in stimulating ac-
ment. For example, "personalization of place" is an tivities, conversation, and exploration of ideas. Such
important objective because, as the educational liter- places may take the form of outdoor courtyards, out-
ature points out, young adolescents need to have a door tables and benches, or interior places such as
stake in their environment (Sommer 1974). Personal- student lounges or corners of a larger room.
 Assessing Schools for Adolescents 49

FIGURE 2-2. Physical facilities observation form (Ibid).

FIGURE 2-3. Classroom instruction observation form (Ibid).

50 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

FIGURE 2-4. Typical objectives for a middle-grade school.

SCHOOL WORKSHOP
ticipants were asked to rate each photograph, using a
After recording observations, interviewing students prepared list of five descriptive words (Figure 2-6).
and staff, the school-community members were ready The discussions resulting from the photographic rat-
to consider features of the physical environment, ings were extremely informative to the members of
through small-group discussion sessions that stressed each group, since the participants were interpreting
consensus decision making. The opening discussion the meaning conveyed by each image. This factor
was devoted to establishing commonly agreed-upon helped to elevate the discussions from the more rou-
objectives. Group participants chose the most impor- tine dialogue about school environments that usually
tant statements from a prepared list compiled by the focus on space requirements, ceiling heights, and seat-
design evaluation team from the educational literature ing arrangements to discussions about privacy, inti-
(Figure 2-4). This open discussion permitted different macy, and activity type.
viewpoints to be heard with the possibility that partic-
ipants could learn from each other. Once objectives
were selected, they were matched to three photo- IMPLEMENTATION
graphs of school settings that satisfied the desired in- There are numerous middle-grade schools across the
tentions (Figure 2-5). The photographs that were se- country engaged in school-improvement projects using
lected included typical school settings as well as the Middle Grades Assessment Program. The schools
unusual places and settings. Although the photographs all vary in size, physical facilities, location, and so-
represented the types of spaces that might occur in a ciometric makeup of the student body, yet these have
middle school, the discussions revealed that there was not been deterrents if educators want to improve their
not always a suitable match to the original objective. schools. The thrust of the program is to help middle-
This factor contributed to an expanded discussion of grade schools marshal their own resources and deal
spatial qualities and characteristics, and how particu- effectively with self-improvement.
lar environments might be altered to achieve the de- The self-assessment process is conducted by a team
sired intention. of 6 to 18 school staff and parents, usually selected
To further demonstrate the importance of architec- by the principal. The results of the assessment process
tural features each photographic image evoked, par- leads to an action plan, which includes conclusions
 Assessing Schools for Adolescents 51

FIGURE 2-6. Rating images of school settings (Photo: Henry Sanoff & Tun Sing Chen).
52 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

drawn from the assessment, possible actions or be- select alternative activities, or work with other stu-
havioral objectives, responsible persons, time frame, dents in small groups. The findings were instrumental
and cost estimate. This plan is included in a report in developing the school's improvement plan, which
describing the assessment purpose and process. Con- was put into immediate effect. To insure that the plan
clusions are specific such as those developed by the was carried out, specific days were set aside for train-
Eual Landry Middle School (Delle, Gaubert, and Pi- ing and planning sessions.
card 1989) in Louisiana. For example: "ELMS will Another school, upon realizing that many young
maximize the use of available space inside and outside adolescent boys are just as desirous of privacy as are
of the school building." Possible actions include state- girls because of their changing bodies, immediately
ments such as: "Teachers will be encouraged to vary installed partitions in the boy's dressing room and
their teaching sites depending on activities taught (use restrooms. In a California school, a group of students
of commons area, gym, grassy area, etc.)" and: participated in the assessment by interviewing the stu-
"Maintenance personnel will be requested to place dents.
built-in shelves in order to increase floor space in While in the process of doing their assessments,
classroom." Responsible persons for completing the different schools began noticing that spontaneous
action are members of Central Office Maintenance. changes were occurring. For example, there was more
Another conclusion from this Louisiana middle school positive interaction between teachers and students;
was that: "ELMS will provide quiet area for students more interest in the school among students, parents,
to participate in quiet activities." Possible actions in- and staff; and more specific behavioral objectives from
cluded: "The administration will set up a student teachers. The assessment gives teachers a more sanc-
lounge to reward students for appropriate behavior." tioned method to participate in setting priorities for
and: "Teachers will establish an area inside the class- the school. As a result, staff members feel empowered
room for quiet activities." to make their school a better place and are committed
Examples of other improvements reported by par- to reaching agreed-upon goals.
ticipating schools included in-service workshops on The current lack of participation by architects in the
such topics as understanding early adolescent behav- assessment process has underscored the need to em-
ior, and alternative discipline strategies and student phasize the importance of the physical environment in
evaluation. In one instance, an assessment team that achieving desired educational objectives. Architects
had observed 19 classrooms found the need for more can provide assistance in providing alternative inter-
student work to be displayed throughout their school. pretations to education standards and specifications
They also realized that most of the students were that could facilitate a more flexible use of space. Also,
devoting classroom time to listening and writing. an increased awareness of the way in which the school
Teachers were not using a variety of teaching ap- environment can be modified would encourage teach-
proaches, nor were students given opportunities to ers to explore alternative learning methods.
Coyote Canyon Elementary School
I Attitude Survey | |
I Charette Process | |
Community Meetings v
Design-In
Focused Interviews
Fishbowl Planning
Game Simulation
Group Dynamics v
Public Forum
Task Force
Training
Workshop

SUMMARY CLIENT
The Central School District of Rancho Cucamonga, The School Board of the City's Central School District
California, was an outgrowth of the Cucamonga appointed a principal designated for the new campus
School District, petitioned by ten families in 1870. In to chair a newly formed community design committee.
its early days, the area was inhabited by the Tongva Membership was composed from the community and
Indians, later was a portion of the Spanish Land district-at-large through a charter, and included par-
Grant, and from the late 1800s to the mid-1900s was ents, teachers, and administrators. The committee was
a thriving vineyard area. From a one-room school- responsible for soliciting input from parents, commu-
house in 1890, limited growth up to the 1970s had nity members, City of Rancho Cucamonga officials,
caused the district to add classrooms on a piecemeal community groups, certified and classified staff, and
basis through the purchase of portable classrooms. An other individuals or groups who wished to represent
upswing in home construction that began in the mid- their ideas to the committee. They were responsible
1970s because of its close proximity to Ontario Airport for considering design alternatives presented, and for
and two major freeways, caused the Central School making recommendations to the Board of Trustees
District population to expand rapidly. Since incorpo- regarding preliminary designs and final plans. While
ration in 1978, the City has placed strong emphasis on this community design committee served in an advi-
controlling development and the quality of construc- sory capacity, none of the committee's decisions was
tion and design. The Central School District believed overridden by the School Board or District Adminis-
that if they involved those who teach, maintain, ad- tration.
ministrate, attend, and visit their schools, their designs Early in the process, committee members visited
would be much stronger and responsive to the needs and videotaped eight existing elementary schools
of users. To this end, the architectural firm of Wolf, within the District. Each of the schools was different
Lang, Christopher was retained to design the new in its organization and design, including courtyard
Coyote Canyon Elementary School. This architectural schemes as well as schools where access occurs
firm's decade-long history of participatory design was through the use of interior corridors. Some of the
influential in the District's decision in the selection major features that were compared during the walk-
process. In addition to the local School Board, a de- through evaluations were building image, circulation,
sign committee was formed to help shape the educa- use of windows, and climate control. The results of
tional program as well as the design of the building. the walk-through visits enabled the committee to gen-
The rich and varied history of the community was a erate desired characteristics, which included sense of
strong influence on the design of the building, which entry, well-defined circulation, individual climate con-
features four theme courtyards, each reflecting four trol, and exterior courtyards. These characteristics
major periods in the history of the city. helped shape the goals for the school.

53
54 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

PROJECT
The planning process initiated by the Central School
District of Rancho Cucamonga stems from its nonau-
thoritarian management structure which mandates
public participation in the planning and design of dis-
trict schools. A community design committee, drawn
from the community at large, has a charter established
through bylaws, which outlines its procedures and
responsibilities. The selection of an architect for this
elementary school was based on the School Board's
familiarity with Wolf, Lang, Christopher's ability to
work effectively in a participatory mode. The design
committee consisted of 14 community members, 10
staff members, with several others representing the
City and the adjacent residential area. A principal,
designated for this new campus, came from the adja-
cent elementary school, and served as a facilitator. FIGURE 2-7. Native American village featuring a wickiup
The meetings were conducted informally, with most (Photo: Fred Daly).
decisions being reached by consensus. In general, the
planning process included the following:
• Brainstorming and goal setting
• Information gathering and exploration, including
visits to numerous unique elementary schools
• Development of goals and objectives
• Development of an educational program
• Review of master plan and classroom alternatives
An example of the 21 program goals included:
• The school should have a sense of tradition
• The school should be inviting and friendly
• The design should provide for natural daylighting
• The design should incorporate elements from winery
or historical Spanish designs
• The school environment should facilitate learning
• The design should foster a positive attitude among
students, staff, and parents FIGURE 2-8. Mission style courtyard (Photo: Fred Daly).
• The school should be designed for children
• The interior environment should be inviting, incor-
porating warm colors and natural light

Based on the program goals, the design team pro-

vided several alternative schemes for discussion. The
three major concepts proposed were ideas exhibited
in the schools visited; they were a courtyard scheme,
an internalized scheme, and a scheme that integrated
both of these concepts. One option was selected with
a recommendation to incorporate several of the posi-
tive features of other options that were explored. The
scheme selected featured an internal administrative
cluster that included the media center, multipurpose
room, and lobby with an internal corridor connected
to the classroom courtyards. This solution satisfied
the goal of providing student access during inclement
weather and high winds, while allowing the use of
courtyards during pleasant weather. While the design FIGURE 2-9. Interactive display station (Photo: Fred Daly).
 Coyote Canyon Elementary School 55

committee discussed each area of the school in gen- ish-Mexican courtyard, for the second and third
eral, detailed discussions were conducted with people grades, consists of a five-foot Aztec pyramid, which
having particular expertise in the area. For example, also serves as a sitting area where adobe planters
the food services coordinator and district librarian dis- accent the outdoor learning environment. A third
cussed the kitchen and media center, accordingly. courtyard, adjacent to the third- and fourth-graders,
The design team proposed a scheme that symbolized represents the Mexican/Spanish rancho period of early
the rich and varied history of the community. The California, with mission style focal elements, such as
initial desire was to create a school that emphasized a mission bell, and wagon wheels embedded in the
the community's Spanish heritage. However, as the pavement (Figure 2-8). The fourth courtyard, planted
idea developed, the design took on much more signif- with grape vines, will remind the students of Califor-
icance by identifying the four major periods of history. nia's first vineyards located within the city before it
Consequently, four theme courtyards have been in- became a residential area. This courtyard is accented
corporated into the design to reflect Rancho Cuca- by a grape arbor that will eventually shade a seating
monga's early history. The idea of the historical court- area as it matures.
yards came from a desire to give new students who A main hallway, or central spine, serves as a historic
have recently moved to the community a sense of their gallery where pictures depict the early residents and
local heritage. The design of each courtyard was the buildings and sites important to the area. The gallery
result of ideas generated by a Community Liaison will also include interactive displays to acquaint stu-
Committee, a group of people with a keen interest in dents with a variety of professions, as well as to dis-
Rancho Cucamonga's heritage, consisting of parents, play student work (Figure 2-9). The gallery allows all
staff, historians, architects, and a descendant of the students access to classroom areas as well as access
local Native American tribe. It was established in or- to the courtyards.
der to provide more appropriate, sensitive, and au- Some of the significant decisions that were made as
thentic design input for the courtyards. The courtyards a result of this participatory process included the es-
represent four major periods in the history of the city tablishment of the central corridor or gallery space,
starting with the Native American's courtyard, the the historic courtyards, the science and nature area,
focal point for the kindergarten and first-grade class- and the compact design of the support services, which
rooms. A traditional village is simulated to include a included the media center, the multipurpose room, and
wickiup and dry river rock bed (Figure 2-7). The Span- the administration section (Figure 2-10).

FIGURE 2-10. Plan of building (Drawing: Wolff, Lang, Christopher).

56 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

AFTER-OCCUPANCY RESPONSES periments. Generally, the overall aesthetic quality was

In an article in the city's newspaper, the Daily Bulle- clearly a source of pride among the respondents, par-
tin, students of Coyote Canyon were reported to have ticularly by the principal, who was appointed to open
built an Indian court. The children bent willow poles, the school (Figure 2-11). The principal designated for
tying them tightly with string just like the Tongva the new campus, who chaired the community design
Indians, 200 years ago. Besides the wickiup (a small committee, was reassigned as a result of the State's
dwelling), the Native-American court has a grinding year-round requirements. The superintendent and new
stone for acorns and a loom used to weave rabbit principal pointed out, however, that participants in the
capes and blankets. The project is part of a unique committee may not be the occupants once the facility
plan to create a living-history curriculum at the newest is complete. They therefore suggest the necessity for
school in the Central School District. Native-Ameri- considering the generic functions that continue for the
can community leaders were "pleased that they life of the building. They both comment on the poor
wanted to depict the Gabrieliano (or Tongva) people location of the kitchen not being adjacent to the stu-
in the proper way." Barbara Drake, secretary to the dent eating areas. Teachers, on the other hand, ex-
Gabrieliano tribal council, commented that "The kids press different concerns.
are so excited. The whole school is in an uproar. Their remarks were consistent and referred to the
Everyone wants to come over and see it." A teacher, small size of the classroom. The most common an-
Darlene Carlmark, sees a longer-term goal for the proj- noyance, though not a building feature, was the loud-
ect. "By the time a child comes into kindergarten and ness of the bells, which cause the students to react as
leaves after fourth grade, they'll have an enormous though there were an emergency. Other features ap-
background about the history of this area. Under- peared to be more focused on particular aspects of the
standing your own history helps you to understand building such as heavy doors or the inability to control
other cultures." the temperature in some of the classrooms. Generally,
the teachers' responses are related to their previous
Staff members responding to a survey of best-liked
experiences, though the feeling of openness, the use
and least-liked features unanimously endorsed the
of daylight, and the color scheme were those features
courtyards as an important design idea that encour-
that were regarded as particularly unique to this school
aged teachers to explore and experiment with new
building.
approaches to teaching. The outdoor areas encourage
small-group activities, as well as opportunities for
planting and gardening. Accessibility to the outdoors
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
was seen as an important aspect of creating a variety
of learning places. The material for this section was in the form of written
The science and nature laboratories were also cited comments generously provided by Gaylaird Christo-
by teachers as features contributing to their exploring pher, minutes from committee meetings, and news-
new teaching ideas, particularly more "hands-on" ex- paper articles.

FIGURE 2-11. Building exterior (Photo: Fred Daly).

Davidson Elementary School
I Attitude Survey | |
I Charette Process |S |
I Community Meetings S
I Design-In
I Focused Interviews v
I Fishbowl Planning
| Game Simulation |v |
| Group Dynamics
Public Forum
Task Force
Training
Workshop v

SUMMARY 1991, has been to create a climate conducive to team

teaching in the county's elementary schools. The
Davidson, North Carolina, is a small, active commu-
growing population and inadequacy of older schools
nity that has taken an interest in its facilities and their
in the area have prompted the school administration
appearance. As a result of Davidson's activism, its
to construct four new elementary schools in 1992, on
outmoded elementary school is being replaced as a
four different sites. The Davidson site is the only one
result of a recent bond issue that provided funds for
containing an existing school building, located in a
a new 600-student elementary school. In anticipation
well-organized community, with an appearance com-
of their new building, the Davidson teachers had or-
mission, an historic district commission, and an active
ganized, and began discussions about educational
citizen's group. The School Planning Board selected
changes they would like to see occur. Recognizing the
the firm of Adams Group architects because they had
community spirit and interest in this project, the
experience producing effective results, working with
county school planning administration awarded the
a variety of community groups, and a previous award-
contract for the new school to the Adams Group ar-
winning elementary school addition. Davidson Ele-
chitects, because of their past experience in working
mentary School already had a committee structure
effectively with community groups.
examining excellence in education, and a group of
The community involvement process initiated by
teachers and parents anxious to be involved in the
the Adams Group and consultant, Henry Sanoff, con-
process of designing their new school.
sisted of several workshops oriented toward students,
teachers, parents, community members, and school-
planning representatives. The intent of these com-
PROJECT
munity events was to build consensus for the educa-
tional objectives of the new school in order that the The Davidson Elementary School was designed to
building would complement and support those inten- accommodate the teachers' and parents' vision of an
tions. appropriate environment for kindergarten through 5th
grade. It was also a goal of this project to reexamine
the use of educational specifications (ed specs), and
CLIENT
to assess their intentions through reactions of the users
The school district located in the Charlotte-Mecklen- — the teachers, the parents, and the students. It was
burg area of North Carolina is undergoing educational equally important to evaluate the ed specs in view of
reform that can have a substantial effect on the design the pedagogical changes proposed for the school dis-
of school buildings. The results of numerous work- trict. In addition to a new elementary school building
shops and teacher in-service training programs in designed in collaboration with the school community,
57
58 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

the ed specs were reevaluated. This assessment pro- to spatial concerns, they were fearful that the long
cess occurred through the use of extensive interviews noisy corridors in their present school might be re-
with teachers at each grade level, as well as through peated.
workshops aimed at identifying educational objectives The interviews were followed by a walk-through
for different grade levels, and the complementary evaluation by the teachers of the existing two-story
teaching methods for achieving those objectives. school building. The walk-through revealed many neg-
ative features of their building, such as noisy corri-
dors, desks located in the corridors for tutoring pur-
poses, and play areas separated by parking.
PROCESS
The combined interviews and walk-through evalu-
The process began by an introductory meeting with ation disclosed the features of the building that were
the Davidson Elementary School Principal, Dr. Eu- valued, as well as giving voice to the aspirations for
gene Davis, to outline a strategy for parent, teacher, the new building. A parent-staff-teacher workshop fol-
and student involvement. The first step consisted of lowed the more individual activities that occurred on
individual interviews with each of the teachers to re- the previous days. This workshop was intended to
view the educational specifications provided by school create a dialogue among teachers: about their educa-
planning. The specifications consist of a quantification tional objectives, the variety of teaching methods gen-
of spaces, and a listing of classroom equipment for erated from those objectives, and the types of physical
each grade level. The obvious limitation of the ed settings that would be supportive. This workshop was
specs is that they presume a set of educational objec- designed to prepare the participants for the second
tives and a style of teaching. During the interview meeting that would engage them in the site design of
process, many discrepancies were found between their new school building.
teachers' requirements and the ed specs, such as the The teachers were divided into small groups based
location of teachers' workrooms, location of counsel- on their teaching focus. They selected objective state-
or's office, and general requirements for proximity ments from a prepared list generated from the edu-
between academic and administrative areas. Teachers cational literature. They were asked to make their
preferred several small workrooms to be adjacent to decisions based on group consensus to insure that all
their classroom to allow for parent tutoring and shar- voices were heard in the deliberations. In addition to
ing ideas with other teachers, rather than the required work groups clarifying their ideas and intentions about
work area designated for clusters of classrooms that classroom education, there was strong support for the
would be remote from the individual classrooms. The school's interaction with the Davidson community.
teachers also discussed teaming, and the opportunity Developing a sense of community emerged as an im-
for teachers to collaborate more effectively. In respect portant focus for the teachers.

FIGURE 2-12. Participants organizing photographs of settings to correspond to teaching methods.

 Davidson Elementary School 59

FIGURE 2-13. Children's and teachers' wish poem.

The ability to link teaching methods to physical In addition, teachers, parents, and students were
settings was a new experience for the teachers, since asked to write a wish poem, stating their desires for
their teaching methods were always constrained by their new school. All participants were asked to com-
the existing classroom. The use of photographs cor- plete the phrase, I wish my school . . . (Figure 2-13).
responding to the physical settings allowed partici- The results of the wish poem, students' drawings, and
pants to explore and discuss a wide range of traditional all subsequent work was on exhibit in the school, as
and nontraditional settings used to accommodate var- an ongoing record of events, as well as serving to
ious teaching methods (Figure 2-12). The opportunity inform those who were not participating of the events
to use the outdoors for a variety of different activities that had occurred.
— for small- or large-group activities, for reading, art, The final workshop consisted of a building-image
eating, and gardening — expanded the teachers' study, and site-planning exercise, in which 35 teach-
awareness of new opportunities for their new school ers, parents, and school-planning officials worked col-
building. This discovery found its way into the build- lectively. The building-image study began with a slide
ing design in the form of outdoor areas adjacent to show depicting ten different school buildings, each
each classroom, covered porches, and a variety of representing different regional characteristics and de-
different courtyard spaces. sign features (Figure 2-14). Each building was rated
Children, too, were involved in offering their ideas by the participants, and an overall priority list was
and perceptions about the new school through their established. The purpose of this exercise was to in-
art and through poetry. The art teacher and office staff crease the participants' level of awareness to the pos-
of the Adams Group met with all the students in the sible variations in the visual character of school build-
school, for two successive days, through an art exer- ings. In effect, the exercise intended to expand their
cise where the students were asked to draw a picture vision of building images beyond their everyday ex-
of their ideal or dream school. The students made periences with school buildings.
different types of drawings including floor plans, sec- The final event was the site-planning exercise where
tions, and elevations. Images such as towers, clocks, participants were given a scaled drawing of the new
and clerestory windows all appeared in the students' site, located several blocks from their present school,
drawings. One of the interesting ideas that emerged and scaled building components representing all the
from these sessions was that the media center could spaces in their school building (Figure 2-15). All com-
open to the outdoors, a feature that was included in ponents had labels fastened to the styrofoam compo-
the building design. The students also stressed the nents. Each of the six groups was asked to develop a
need for daylight in the classrooms, and other areas building plan located on the site, considering bus drop-
of the building. off, parking, soccer field, cluster patterns of class-
60 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

FIGURE 2-14. Beauty Contest: Evaluating images of school buildings.

FIGURE 2-15. Site-planning workshop (Photo: Henry Sanoff).

 Davidson Elementary School 61

FIGURE 2-16. Display of solutions at site-planning workshop (Photo: Henry Sanoff).

rooms, outdoor space, and appropriate orientation and find the comments very minor in detail. All the teach-
daylight. At the completion of the two hour exercise, ers seemed to identify elements of their design ideas
representatives from each team presented their solu- in the architect's submission. At this point, and until
tion for discussion and debate. All of the solutions preliminary drawings were completed, the involve-
were then displayed for review by the participants
(Figure 2-16).
Similarities among solutions occurred in the delib-
erate use of open space and courtyards, and the clus-
tering of kindergarten, 1st-, and 2nd-grade classrooms,
separated from the 3rd-, 4th-, and 5th-grade class-
rooms. Team teaching appeared to guide many of
these design decisions.
While group members had some dissatisfaction with
their solutions, they all agreed that they had a better
understanding of the complexity of issues that re-
quired simultaneous consideration. They readily ad-
mitted being more sensitive to the role of the architect,
and were willing to leave the resolution of the prob-
lems to the architect.
The Adams Group met after the workshop to syn-
thesize the workshop results and to arrive at several
alternative concepts that would satisfy the require-
ments developed through the interviews and work-
shops (Figure 2-17). After considerable design delib-
eration, one scheme was developed and proposed to
the client group. This was accomplished by posting
large-scale drawings in key locations in the present
school building, and a request for teachers to write
comments, directly on the drawings, about positive
and negative features (Figure 2-18).
After several days of allowing the teachers to dis-
cuss the proposal and to comment, the drawings were FIGURE 2-17. Initial sketch of building design (Drawing: Henry
retrieved and reviewed by the design team, only to Sanoff & Graham Adams).
62 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

FIGURE 2-18. Preliminary plan of school (Drawing: Adams Group).

ment of teachers was limited to personal interviews dors with classrooms oriented toward the south, and
clarifying details of classroom design. outdoor play areas for each classroom (Figure 2-19).
The building design contained features that were not This arrangement allowed each classroom to have a
typical of traditional schools in the area: namely, relatively private outdoor area.
grades K, 1, 2 and 3, 4, 5 clustered classrooms to A plan review conducted by the North Carolina
facilitate team teaching and nongraded classes corre- State Department of Public Instruction raised ques-
sponding to the curriculum changes occurring with all tions about these and other unusual design features,
Charlotte-Mecklenburg schools, single-loaded corri- some of which might increase the operating cost of
 Davidson Elementary School 63

FIGURE 2-19. Final plan of school (Drawing: Adams Group).

the building. The Davidson School proposal was very in the process, it is pretty clear that the State and
different from any other school plan that they re- County plan reviewers would have been very forceful
viewed. Since the original intention of this project was to have the architects change the plan. It was only
to create a building that satisfied the needs of the through the intervention of the teachers and adminis-
teaching staff and administration, as well as the his- trators, and the arguments they made for the curric-
toric concerns of the community (Figure 2-20(a)), it ulum, that allowed the slightly higher cost for heating
was agreed to allow the community to make the final to be overpowered by the gains of the curriculum."
decision. To this end, several alternative design solu-
tions were prepared that included the more traditional DESIGN INTENTIONS
double-loaded classrooms. A review with the teachers
and principal indicated strong support for the K, 1, 2 The design of this building was driven by the integra-
arrangement and the opportunity for greater teacher tion of classroom objectives, of experiences planned,
collaboration. The Superintendent's office, too, sup- and of teaching methods, where team teaching and
ported the building concept and believed it would en- group activities were the most influential educational
hance their curriculum goals. Adams' comment: "If features. Another critical factor that emerged from the
the teachers and administrators had not been involved participatory process was the consideration of outdoor
areas as rooms, requiring similar attention to detail as
the indoor rooms. Above all, there was the common
concern by teachers and students for a building that
considered their special needs, that created niches for
privacy and alcoves for chance encounters, and that
conveyed an image of smallness.
To this end, the central concept of the building was
to provide the students with a clear sense of their
domain, differentiated from that of the administration.
FIGURE 2-20(a). Computer drawing of school (Drawing:
Adams Group). This concept was realized by the creation of an art
64 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

FIGURE 2-20(b). Building during final stages of construction (Photo: Tom Weiland).

spine or gallery (12) which connects visual arts (9) and lowed a more traditional pattern of double-loaded cor-
media (10) with each classroom wing. At the intersec- ridors, and age-grade group clustering. Consequently,
tion of the classroom wings and the gallery are social a comparative evaluation is planned after six months
centers providing opportunities for students and of occupancy, and annually thereafter, to assess the
teachers to meet. Also connected to each classroom impact of the participation process on student and
wing is a parent/resource room (8) for counseling, teacher attitudes, performance, academic innovation,
tutoring, and small-group activities. Enlarged corri- and to user reactions to each of the school buildings.
dors flanking classroom wings create special places
for small groups. Nature courtyards, formed by the
confluence of classroom wings, provide opportunities CONCLUSION
for science projects, as well as outdoor group activi- The intent of this project was to narrow the gap be-
ties. The natural part of the site with large trees and tween what we know about the education of young
a stream was preserved for a nature trail and natural people through the literature, and what we observe
habitat. The nature trail connects each classroom to happening in everyday school environments. Obser-
outdoor space. The central courtyard is visible from vations of school buildings and classroom behavior
the main entrance, and has equal access through the have provided some insight into space use, which
art and media areas. This area also provides amphi- often denies the existence of variations in types and
theater seats and a stage for outdoor performances. A styles of learning. Also, buildings produced without
gymnasium was also provided so that the entire school the involvement of those who will use the building can
population can assemble at one time, as well as a place further exacerbate the rising alienation found in many
to serve as a community recreation center. schools. It is evident that having a sense of ownership,
The Davidson School is presently under construc- achieved through participation, can have far-reaching
tion, and was expected to open in September 1993 positive effects, especially in terms of confronting the
(Figure 2-20(b)). It is particularly noteworthy that viability of traditional school building standards.
while the three other elementary school projects were The techniques employed in the participatory stages
awarded at the same time, they are in the same stages of this project have been used in a variety of different
of construction. They were designed in a traditional school projects by this author and independently by
manner and without the involvement of the future the Adams Group. They are well documented in the
occupants of the building. The other schools also fol- publication, Design Games (Sanoff 1984).
First Ward Elementary School
Attitude Survey
Charette Process
Community Meetings v
| Design-In | |
Focused Interviews •
Fishbowl Planning
Game Simulation v
Group Dynamics
Public Forum v
Task Force
I Training | |
Workshop v

SUMMARY tern, the University of North Carolina at Charlotte,

and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
A unique activity took place at Charlotte's oldest ac-
Demonstrating expertise as classroom teachers re-
tive urban public school — First Ward Elementary. A
quired certain changes in their school: they would
group of PTA parents, teachers, school staff, and com-
have to unite diverse parent populations behind First
munity leaders, working together, brought to fruition
Ward, and broaden the support base by recruiting
many new ideas and a long-term strategy to improve business, civic, and religious leaders. At their urging,
First Ward Elementary and to restore its former stat- the principal formed the Friends of First Ward, a
ure and prominence in one of Charlotte's oldest up- broad-based community support group to help chart
town neighborhoods. the school's road to academic excellence and com-
The teachers initiated the idea of organizing the munity leadership. They agreed that replanning the
energy and talents of a dedicated parent organization school would serve as a rallying point for both
to participate in the planning process for a school "Friends" and parents from the diverse neighborhoods
renovation project. The Charlotte-Mecklenburg the school serves.
Schools showed confidence in this group by offering
First Ward School the opportunity to conduct the en-
tire planning process. PROJECT
The success of this project has demonstrated that
This is a four-to-six grade elementary school that
teachers with the support of a well-organized parent
serves First Ward, Fourth Ward, Piedmont Courts,
group, working along with architects, can be an effec-
and Lansdowne neighborhoods. In its original condi-
tive guiding force in planning and designing educa-
tion, the school was conspicuously disoriented from
tional spaces to meet the needs of students and the
the neighborhood. Entrances were particularly in need
surrounding community. In 1989 this school received of definition. In addition, the school had a negative
the Department of Education award for excellence. appearance because of a mismatched collection of per-
manent and temporary buildings. A large asphalt area
that edged East Ninth Street presented an uninviting
CLIENT
face to the community. A lack of trees and landscaping
The need to renew First Ward School began as a added to the sterility of the campus.
dream of nine teachers who focused their graduate Conflicts also existed among bus loading and un-
studies on the improvement of their inner-city school. loading, staff parking, walk-in traffic, and automobile
They were backed by the Metrolina Consortium, a drop-off and pickup. Since the school campus com-
partnership of the Charlotte-Mecklenburg School Sys- prised less than six acres (compared to 15 acres for

65
66 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

a typical elementary school), it was imperative that after school with the faculty, and that evening with
the site be carefully utilized for resolving building, the parents. The results formed the basis for a two-
circulation, and recreational needs. day design workshop conducted by the architects. The
First Ward Elementary was always considered to workshop consisted of a general discussion about the
be a unique resource within the Charlotte-Mecklen- value of the school as a resource for the school system
burg School System. The experiment of involving both and the city. More specific discussions pertained to
faculty and parents in a collaborative planning process the expansion of the current programs in art and dance
reaffirmed this long-time claim. Because of an upcom- as well as to provide a new media center. An important
ing bond referendum, and through funding by the by-product of the workshop was a poster that com-
School Board, parents and faculty were able to inter- municated the participatory process and the design
view and select their own architect. This response to ideas to the School Board. As a result, the School
"grass roots" participation represented a major break- Board included First Ward School in the Fall 1987
through for the local school system. When it came Charlotte bond referendum. Because of higher prior-
time to make the selection, the major characteristics ities, First Ward School was not approved for reno-
the teachers and parents were looking for was the vation until the following fall. The architects were
willingness and ability of the architect to involve them selected by the teachers, a first-time occurrence in the
— as well as parents and students — in the design school system, and the participatory process begun a
process itself. They ended up choosing a collaborative year earlier was continued.
team consisting of principals from two firms, The The project presented the architects with a unique
Adams Group (formerly Morgan Adams Group) and challenge. To begin with, they were dealing with peo-
Murray Whisnant Architects. ple who were not used to making design decisions.
Activities commenced with members of the College And because of funding deadlines, a final plan and
of Architecture, University of North Carolina at Char- projected construction costs had to be prepared in less
lotte, led by Ken Lambia, who initiated a workshop than six weeks. After six weeks of intense workshops
involving the children in drawing, painting, planning, and planning activities, parents and staff had com-
and dreaming about the future possibilities of the pletely redesigned the campus, which sits at the edge
school (Figure 2-21). Simultaneously, teachers met of Uptown.
with parents at neighborhood coffee klatsches, gath- The architects conceived of a step-by-step frame-
ering long lists of needs and suggestions. Culminating work within which participants could make decisions.
these activities was a full day of "programming ses- It was their belief that the school community needed
sions": at breakfast with the Friends of First Ward, to be presented with clear choices in order to feel
comfortable in making decisions. Consequently, a va-
riety of methods were utilized to allow people to re-
spond and to provide the type of information needed
by the architects.
Background research was done, exploring current
design trends, as well as evaluating other schools using
the "walk-through" process, which consisted of guided
visits, and meetings with teachers and staff. The ar-
chitects also placed a great deal of emphasis on be-
havioral design research, a growing body of scientific
knowledge that uses architecture, psychology, and the
behavioral sciences to analyze how buildings affect
people's behavior — and this means going directly to
the people who use the building. "You need to dis-
cover people's frustrations as well as their dreams,"
Adams explains.
The first step that the design team took was to meet
with both students and teachers to discuss their aspi-
rations; this included asking students to make up
"wish lists," or dreams and fantasies of what they
wanted in their school. Answers ranged from no
homework to skylights in the gym. They were then
asked to draw pictures of their ideal school. What
emerged ranged from images of the school mascot to
FIGURE 2-21. Children's drawings. simple floor-plan diagrams.
 First Ward Elementary School 67

Next, came a meeting with more than 30 teachers ically followed and, you might say, was the dessert,"
and community leaders. Adams organized the session Morgan notes. "To create the design, we reviewed all
into problem-solving games with six small teams. Each the information from the many sessions and looked
team was asked to list goals for the school, rank the for areas of consensus. We kept the points of consen-
goals by importance, and identify the learning activi- sus as constants for utilization in our designs (such as
ties that supported each goal. a new entry and image to the community). Where
Their next task was to choose a location on the there was conflict, we developed new design options
campus for the proposed activities. A group of 32 and worked our way back to consensus." Areas of
photographs was then supplied by Adams. The photos conflict included the location of the media center,
were pinned on a site plan to indicate where teachers community access versus school accessibility of art,
felt their proposed activities best fit (Figure 2-22). Fi- dance, gym, and meeting areas, and the office location
nally, each team made a stand-up presentation of their with respect to teacher or visitor convenience. Five
proposed site plans, and explained the rationale for alternative site plans and models were prepared for
their choices. discussion with the teachers, who were asked to rec-
"For me, these sessions represented the meat and ord their likes and dislikes on a visual rating scale.
potatoes of the process. The building design then log- The final result was a preferred alternative, which was

FIGURE 2-22. Workshop results showing location of preferred settings on existing floor plan
(Drawing: Adams Group).
68 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

subsequently revised to include the positive features community, while also being available for various
of the other alternatives. It included an outdoor cov- community activities (Figures 2-23 and 2-24). The
ered area or courtyard for school events, surrounded "hard surface" play area serves students while also
by special places for art, dance, and meeting areas functioning as a formal entry plaza facing Uptown
which varied in form by the use of light and changing Charlotte. The covered gathering area for school and
volumes. This concept was referred to as the village community events has affectionately been called "the
scheme where all activity areas were connected by Terridactile." The multipurpose building is oriented
covered walkways and each had a direct outdoor con- toward the city to serve a variety of community and
nection. school needs. Serving as the focal point for the whole
Difficult decisions and painful compromises had to school, the environmental courtyard offers imagina-
be made on several issues: conflicts between car and tive barnyard sculpture, and opportunities for artistic
bus traffic, the need for security versus the desire to displays by the students. Clay tiles are displayed on
be open to the community, and budget restraints ver- the buildings that face the courtyard. The tiles were
sus design expectations. Each decision and every the product of a "tile workshop" conceived by the
compromise was reached by consensus, a slow and architects as a way for parents, teachers, and students
complex process, but a critically important one. There to personalize their building by producing the 85 tiles
were no losers, only winners — a natural by-product that became a permanent part of the building (Figure
of creative collaboration. 2-25).

IMPLEMENTATION
The final design solution was a new free-standing
building proposed to convey a positive image to the

FIGURE 2-23. Floor plan showing renovation (Drawing: Adams Group).

 First Ward Elementary School 69

FIGURE 2-24. New addition: Media (right); Multipurpose (center); Art/Dance (left), taken from
entry courtyard (Photo: Alan McGuinn).

AFTER-OCCUPANCY RESPONSES the principal, responded by noting the changes she

observed in the attitudes and behavior of staff and
Three years after occupancy, the staff that participated students. The most important change, she observed,
in the First Ward School Renovation process were was the "closeness of the staff," that resulted from the
asked to comment on the design features they liked participatory process. The teachers' morale showed
and those they disliked. In addition, Pat Holleman, marked improvement, since there was a "can do" at-
titude resulting from working together to challenge the
bureaucracy. Positive, marked changes were also
noted in the spirits of the students, resulting from their
involvement. Attendance records improved and CAT
scores went up by ten points in three years. Parents,
too, remarked that First Ward Elementary no longer
looked like a school, but was inviting. People generally
felt better about bringing their children to school.
Neighbors were equally positive about the new image
of the school and its openness to the community.
The majority of staff members found the building's
overall appearance to be the most-liked feature, which
was further qualified to include the interior and exte-
rior appearance. One of the most favorable character-
istics of the interior was the feeling of openness
achieved by the introduction of daylight. The addition
of the art, dance, and media center were described as
pleasant places in which to teach (Figure 2-26). The
gymnasium, which doubled as an assembly area —
often referred to as a multipurpose area — on the other
hand, was seen to be less satisfactory. The capacity
of the assembly area was established in 1989, by the
County Public School System and the architect. Dur-
ing the three years after occupancy, several mobile
units were added due to the increase in enrollment.
FIGURE 2-25. Tile workshop with teachers, parents, and chil-
As a result, the entire student population can no longer
dren (Photo: Alan McGuinn). assemble together in the multipurpose area, which has
70 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

FIGURE 2-26. Dance and art addition with view of the city (be- FIGURE 2-27. Newspaper editorial announcing design award.
yond) taken from covered bridge (Photo: Jo Ann Seiburg Baker).

also been used as a theater and for viewing films, ACKNOWLEDGMENT

activities not originally discussed in the development Comments by Graham Adams, Architect, and obser-
of the program. vations by Pat Holleman, Principal of First Ward,
The building received an honor award from the served as the basis of this case study.
North Carolina Chapter of the American Institute of
Architects (Figure 2-27).
East Orange Middle School
Attitude Survey
Charette Process I
Community Meetings Iv
Design-In
Focused Interviews |v
Fishbowl Planning | v
Game Simulation |
Group Dynamics I
Public Forum |v
Task Force |
Training |
Workshop

SUMMARY to four-family houses. The restriction of site size

posed such problems as the accommodation of the
The East Orange Middle School (EOMS) was designed
necessary playground area, and parking for 150 cars.
with full community participation and opened in 1975.
The designers achieved this involvement by using a
storefront on the city's main commercial street as a PROJECT
studio whose door was always open to passersby. The
Uniplan decided that the approach for design of this
architectural firm of Uniplan, located in Princeton,
project was through community involvement. With the
New Jersey, set up the design center to directly con-
support of a grant from the Educational Facilities Lab-
front the problems of school planning in another city.
oratory (EFL), the concept of a design center was
The East Orange School Design Center (EOSDC) was
proposed. The EOSDC opened in 1970 with a public
an informal way of involving citizens and officials in
celebration. The street was closed to traffic, the Mayor
planning and design. It allowed people to walk in off
of East Orange cut the ribbon, and the Center began
the street at any time to observe, inquire, and even
its work. The objectives of the Design Center were:
assume a task.
• To draw people into the design process and make
them equal partners
CLIENT • To overcome the lack of constructive focus and act
The Board of Education of East Orange, New Jersey, as a catalyst for community vitality
selected the firm of Uniplan to design the new middle • To help people understand each other through in-
school. East Orange was, in 1970, a city undergoing volvement
rapid social change. The population was about 50 per- • To stimulate and cross-fertilize ideas
cent black — relative newcomers and young people • To identify community hopes and ideals, and mea-
who came from socially troubled cities such as New- sure them against the realities of economic and tech-
ark and Philadelphia. The white population, in con- nical constraints
trast, was aging. As a result, the schools were 90 • To assure that the physical needs of the children and
percent black, and did not necessarily reflect the city's adults of East Orange will be met
racial composition.
The educational specifications for EOMS called for
PROCESS
a capacity of 1,800 students in grades six through
eight, and emphasized educational principles which The process was initiated by identifying some 30 com-
allow for personal growth according to life style. The munity organizations, and several evenings every week
site proposed for the new middle school was a tract were devoted to meeting with these groups to get their
of less than four acres in an area surrounded by one- perceptions and recommendations. The children from

71
72 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

impressions of the community. Here the design team

and community members exchanged views and estab-
lished mutual trust. In the second phase, program
needs, goals, and aspirations, as well as constraints,
were explored. Since the community participants re-
quested that the gymnasium, pool, and library would
be planned to serve the entire community as well,
considerable interest was generated for their solution.
Students and community members built study models
and eagerly expressed their viewpoints. The final
phases produced seven study schemes, and a final
scheme, respectively (Figure 2-29). Community mem-
bers, participating in these phases, were given an op-
portunity to see how architects work, and to under-
stand the advantages or disadvantages of their
FIGURE 2-28. Children's drawing reflecting the spirit of the de- contributions (Murphy 1972).
sign process. At the design center it was learned that there was a
desire of the community for a close relationship be-
East Orange schools expressed in drawings and paint- tween the learning areas and the outdoors. This wish
ings what they thought a school should be (Figure 2- posed some difficulty if the entire site was covered
28). The Center's open door attracted the collabora- with a building. After considering scale and ground
tion of the community, particularly young people, coverage, the architects proposed that the entire roof
whose involvement was influential, even though they be used for play space for students and a park for the
had no prior training in design. The Center's director community (Figure 2-30). The rooftop park would be
for Uniplan, Larry Goldblatt, an architectural student reached by public ramps when the school is closed
from North Carolina State University, and two young (Figure 2-31). It also became evident that students
people from the community in particular, Stefanie Wil- would enter the school from many directions, and a
son and Larry Goldstone, organized other youths to "main entrance" would be of use to only one ap-
work in teams. A human resources map was prepared proach.
showing where everyone lived, their interests, needs, The building, which opened in 1975, is in the form
and goals. of three blocks connected by an internal "street" at
The process was divided into several phases begin- the lowest level, with a variety of configurations along
ning with the introductory phase, which produced the way. Each block contains a "house" consisting of

FIGURE 2-29. Several study schemes displayed in design office (Photo: Larry Goldblatt).
 East Orange Middle School 73

FIGURE 2-30. Photo showing roof play area (Photo: Matt Sinclair).

FIGURE 2-31. Roof plan of building showing ramp from the street connecting to the public park
(Drawing: Uniplan).
74 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

FIGURE 2-32. Students' activity area (Photo: Matt Sinclair).

FIGURE 2-33. Aerial view of school (Photo: Larry Goldblatt).

two 300-student family units, where each family unit A follow-up, one year after construction (Murphy
operates almost as an independent school, but shares 1976), revealed considerable activity in all parts of the
certain facilities within the house such as performing school (Figure 2-32). The prominence of the ramps
arts, homemaking, and industrial and fine arts (Figure was a clear expression of community use. Access to
2-32). This is a manifestation of the school's philoso- the school from all directions was successful, and no
phy of giving students an educational plan to complete entrance hierarchy existed or was intended (Figure 2-
at their own rate of speed within a "family" unit. The 33). In a recent interview, Architect Larry Goldblatt
upper levels of each house are identical, with high- comments that: "The citizen/parent involvement
ceiling loft classroom areas for each family. The loft clearly beneficially affected the design process. The
areas are meant to be manipulated by the students to building would not have been built as designed had it
correspond to their activities. not been created in the community based setting."
Ligón Middle School
Attitude Survey |v
Charette Process |
Community Meetings I
Design-In
Focused Interviews I •
Fishbowl Planning
Game Simulation v
Group Dynamics
Public Forum [^
Task Force |
Training |
Workshop

SUMMARY cents, teachers, and parents. It was apparent that their

approach did not consider ways in which the physical
In response to the growing concern for more student
environment could enhance educational goals.
involvement in school planning decisions, this project
was conducted to develop a procedure for utilizing
student experiences to contribute to the design deci- PROJECT
sion-making process. Through the use of a question- Ligon Middle School in Raleigh, North Carolina, a
naire directed at assessing their present school envi- typical 1950s building, consisting of a series of self-
ronment, it was found that junior high-school students contained classrooms arranged along a double-loaded
favored the educational program, yet were critical of corridor, was the subject of a student assessment.
the inflexibility and dullness of the physical environ- Students were questioned about attitudes toward their
ment. school and community, about their classroom, library,
To complement the student responses, additional and outdoor areas, and about their preferred learning
reactions about the day-to-day operations of the style. A questionnaire was administered to 80 stu-
school were sought from teachers and staff members dents, representing the various grade levels contained
through the use of structured interviews. These find- in the school. From the results of the questionnaire,
ings provided a basis for developing a conceptual lay- a student profile was developed that characterized
out for a new school building. their likes and dislikes.
This information was used to supplement the results
CLIENT of teacher and staff interviews that provided the
source for the development of a building program. The
The Wake County School System is continuously in- overall results of the assessment pointed to the need
volved in building and programming modifications to for a new building, particularly if the information gath-
their constituent schools, of which Ligon Middle ered would be influential in shaping new places for
School was a prime candidate, since they had under- learning. This information became the foundation for
gone programmatic changes without any alteration to the program which described the characteristics of all
the building. The principal and teaching staff were building spaces and their appropriate relationships.
anxious to participate in a process that would enable
open discussion and critical commentary in order to
present an approach to school boards that would stim- PROCESS
ulate more innovative school buildings and programs. The research team had made frequent visits to several
Although the teaching staff had been involved in a junior high schools. These visits included "walk-
self-assessment of their educational program, their fo- throughs" and informal observations of students en-
cus was the responsiveness to the needs of adoles- gaged in a variety of activities. The walk-throughs
75
76 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

FIGURE 2-34. School evaluation questionnaire.

 Ligón Middle School 77

were usually guided by administrative staff, who were school environment and their educational program. An
asked to respond to questions about building perfor- important category of information contained in the
mance. The observations, which reveal the complexity questionnaire pertained to the physical characteristics
of student and staff activities, were a necessary com- of the classroom, where students spend a considerable
plement to plans of the buildings being assessed. This amount of time (Figure 2-35). When asked about the
preliminary investigation was necessary to determine quality of light, for example, a majority of students
the assessment strategy, particularly since the limited indicated that the combination of daylight and incan-
amount of time available to conduct the study was a descent or fluorescent light produced "adequate" light
critical factor. A questionnaire was the format for the levels, while nearly half of the students preferred day-
conduct of the study because it would yield the great- light exclusively.
est amount of information in the shortest period of When asked about classroom-activity use, students
time. indicated that the majority of classrooms were not
The study began with a survey of Ligon students, typified by simultaneous activities occurring during
who were asked to evaluate particular aspects of the class time. Less than half of the students indicated
school environment based on their personal experi- that furnishings were moved to accommodate different
ences. Information was obtained about existing activities. The majority of changes reported involved
conditions as well as the desired environmental con- repositioning of desks for greater visibility, with no
ditions. A 50-item questionnaire was administered cabinets or partitions being moved. Those who occu-
during class time to 80 students, ranging between sev- pied classrooms where there were no changes, indi-
enth and ninth grade (Figure 2-34). The questionnaire cated that it was due to a lack of time, that they were
attempted to target students' feelings about their not permitted to make changes, or that they preferred

FIGURE 2-35. Classroom evaluation questionnaire.

 78 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

the classroom the way it was. It was perceived by the student use. While the vast majority of students indi-
students, however, that such changes would be im- cated the importance of having places that "belonged
portant. Many students also indicated that increasing to them," over half suggested that no such place ex-
classroom activities and noise levels would not nec- isted at Ligon. Main areas identified as belonging to
essarily be a source of disturbance. The nature of the students, by those who felt that such areas did exist,
activity areas that could be incorporated into the class- were the play area behind the gym, the cafeteria, the
room were reported to be either special-interest sup- corridors, and the counsellor's office. Looking further
port areas or individual study areas. This desire for for insights about places students chose to go to be
increased activity areas suggests the need for greater alone, work with others, or work on group projects,
classroom organizational flexibility. the general indication in all three cases was a per-
When asked for their likes and dislikes about their ceived lack of appropriate places in the school which
classroom, students reported that the best-liked fea- support individual or small-group activity, or provide
tures were the classroom size, the teachers, and the the option for privacy. Generally, students indicated
presence of their friends. The features of the class- that the only places they could go for privacy were
room that were most disliked were inflexible seating the restrooms, the library, or nowhere. When asked
arrangements, uncomfortable furnishings, and poor about a place to work with others, many students cited
ventilation; other students described the classroom the use of classrooms, due to convenience, or due to
colors as depressing. the lack of other available choices. Some students
Student reactions to their visual environment was selected the library to work with others because of the
also an integral component to the school assessment. availability of resources and the privacy. Working on
The approach used was to compare a typical class- group projects was also conducted in the library or
room with one having different physical characteris- classrooms because of the resources and the quiet
tics. Two photographs were selected (see Figure 2- atmosphere. Personalization opportunities were typi-
35), depicting alternative classroom environments. cally in evidence by display of student work, or items
Students evaluated each using a list of opposite pairs of special interest, located on bulletin boards in class-
of descriptors. The photograph on the left in Figure 2- rooms, in the library, in the lobby, and in the corridors.
35, which depicts a typical Ligon classroom, generally Many of the students, however, indicated that such
elicited unfavorable responses. The alternative class- displays were controlled by teachers and administra-
room (the photograph on the right in Figure 2-35), tors, not by the students.
evoked more extreme and positive feelings, such as Outdoor areas, another important component of the
"friendly" and "cheerful." Figure 2-36 shows the com- school environment, were indeed used by a majority
parison of the two profiles. of the students. The most frequent use occurred during
Another major subject area included in the ques- scheduled school hours in the athletic field, and less
tionnaire was that of places exclusively designated for frequently after school, since many students do not
reside in the neighborhood and are bused to school.
Generally, outdoor activities included team sports,
conversation and socializing, and observing. Student
desires for additional types of outdoor activities
ranged from eating to studying areas.
The importance of community-school interaction to
the enrichment of the students' educational program
has long been recognized by the County School Sys-
tem. While over half of the students felt community
involvement was important, the same number felt
there was no active community participation program
in the school.
It appeared that those features about the school that
students felt most positively about were programmatic
in nature. They liked the strong academic program,
and had good rapport with the teachers and the ad-
ministration. The students believed that the recrea-
tion facility and the resource center were very good.
Overall, the school was judged to have numerous pro-
grammatic options available to the students, and the
FIGURE 2-36. Profile comparing existing and alternative class- learning atmosphere was considered to be warm and
rooms. friendly. On the other hand, the features disliked most
 Ligón Middle School 79

quirements between learning and support areas in the

school. Teachers participated in the clarification of
adjacency decisions, which were made on the basis of
such factors as shared equipment, frequency of stu-
dent and teacher interaction, and movement patterns,
such as traffic flow and circulation. The results con-
stituted an assessment of the present school building
as well as a program for modification, or for a new
facility.
From the information gathered about spatial activ-
ities and their requirements, it was possible to gener-
ate use patterns for daily, weekend, and evening oc-
cupancy. The occupancy analysis revealed the need
for separating and controlling the publicly used areas
such as the library, the gym, the cafetorium, and the
unified arts area from other learning areas.
It appeared that modifications to the existing build-
ing, based on the new program, would be extensive
and difficult to achieve. As a result, it was agreed that
a proposed design solution would better serve the
Ligon community and the School Board, as a model
of what ought to occur. The concept that emerged
from discussions with students and with teaching staff
FIGURE 2-37. Plan of proposed school (Drawing: Cheryl consisted of a building organized into three distinct
Walker). types of learning areas:

Open learning: This area would require places for lan-

by the students pertained to the physical environment. guage arts, social studies, and foreign language.
Those features were ventilation and heating, lack of Unified arts: This area would require lecture and lab-
visual appeal, dull interior colors, and uncomfortable oratory spaces for science, shops, and studios.
furnishings. They also suggested the development of Performing arts: This area would require space for
outdoor areas for dining, studying, and conversing. theatrical productions, scenery construction, and
To complement the extensive student survey of re- rehearsal areas for the choir and the band.
actions to their school environment, interviews were
conducted with the teaching staff of Ligon. The pur- Each type of learning area was clustered around its
pose of the interviews was to assess the adequacy of own common area. Performing arts and unified arts
the present environment and to discuss the necessary were directly associated with the cafeteria, while the
and desirable changes. An activity data sheet was quieter learning areas were connected to the library
developed on which to record information pertaining resource center. The major public areas, such as the
to the primary subject area, supporting activities, and library and cafeteria, were linked by an exhibition area
their spatial requirements. This information-logging to the entrance, since they would be used by the
process required teachers to examine critically their community, the students, and the faculty (Figure 2-
present working environment in order that proposed 37). Other more technical information was also inte-
changes have a realistic basis. All activities were grated into the program. Consideration for thermal
coded by desired group size and privacy requirements. comfort and daylight were the most important physical
This information was combined with adjacency re- factors that influenced the shape of the building.
Nantucket Elementary School
Attitude Survey
| Charette Process J
Community Meetings v
Design-In
Focused Interviews v
Fishbowl Planning
Game Simulation
Group Dynamics
Public Forum
Task Force
Training
Workshop

SUMMARY environment, this 600-student building had to satisfy

the programmatic needs of a contemporary educa-
Nantucket Island, off the southern coast of Massa-
tional facility.
chusetts, once flourished through its whaling industry
during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when
it was the world's whaling capital. During that time, CLIENT
many fine buildings reflecting the New England style
were erected. The scarcity of wood on the island, and The overcrowding of Nantucket's schools and the
difficulty of transporting materials to the island, cre- need for diversified facilities were issues confronting
ated the need to preserve the existing buildings. By the town's School Building Needs Committee. This
the early 1900s, Nantucket experienced a depression committee was composed of seven members with rep-
resulting from the decline of the whaling industry. It resentation from local government, finance, educa-
was not until that time that "off-islanders" began to tion, and other town committees. The architect, work-
buy these historic buildings with the intent of preser- ing with the School Building Committee, studied
vation. In 1936 the State passed legislation establishing numerous options, including the evaluation of the ren-
historic districts. Thus, the Town of Nantucket estab- ovation of existing elementary schools which was con-
lished a Historical District Commission to protect the sidered not to be an appropriate path to follow. The
architectural legacy of its whaling past. Its sole pur- high cost of renovation and the substantial amount of
pose was "to maintain the fundamental harmony of deferred maintenance influenced the town's decision
the historic community by having the decision-making to build a new elementary school, and to abandon the
authority on all new and renovated structures on the existing elementary facility. A large sandy site covered
island in reference to its architecture so that the strong with low level shrubs and small pine trees was se-
influence of existing architecture can be harmoniously lected. The island, being uniformly flat overall, influ-
blended into the new structures, thus preserving the enced the low silhouette of the new facility.
traditions of the era of 1846." This factor influenced The building program was established by the School
the design of new buildings on the island. Administration and by the architects' collaboration
The design of the Nantucket Elementary School by with the administration, teachers, students, and the
Earl R. Flansburgh and Associates Inc., adapts tra- Building Committee.
ditional architectural features to shape an innovative
building in harmony with the existing setting. The
PROJECT
distinctive materials, proportions, and stylistic char-
acteristics of the residential vernacular is appropri- The design process for the development of this school
ately translated into a large, public structure. In ad- consisted of a series of meetings between the archi-
dition to the dominant architectural and historical tectural and interior design staff, the school adminis-

80
 Nantucket Elementary School 81

tration, and the teachers. In developing the architec- 4. The character of the kindergartens. The kindergar-
tural character for this building, the Architect took a ten classrooms are located at the front of the school
wide variety of slides of existing architecture on Nan- to allow for easy pickup by the parents. In order
tucket Island and presented to the Building Committee to achieve a domestic scale to the kindergartens,
a survey of this architecture and the dominant forms the toilets were accommodated in small structures
it represented. The meetings of the Building Commit- giving the appearance of little houses.
tee consisted of informal discussions with the Archi- 5. How the lunch servings would function. The lunch-
tect about design issues. The Architect, however, serving area is located adjacent to the gymnasium-
often met independently with the teachers and repre- cafeteria, which also functions as an auditorium.
sentatives of the Committee. The issues that were Circulation to the auditorium is possible without
discussed at these sessions were as follows: going through any other part of the school.
6. Outside play space. There is outdoor play space of
1. The character of the classrooms. The classroom a general nature for the entire school, with a special
character that was analyzed included the height outdoor place for the kindergarten.
and positioning of sinks, the location of wardrobes,
the type of exterior access, and the desirability of The teachers were very interested in a library facil-
painting exposed utility lines bright colors. ity at the center of the school to display the importance
2. The facilities in the project rooms. In project rooms of books, as well as to provide a symbolic center for
there were lavatories at adult and student height. the school. Other ideas generated from their discus-
3. The location and function of the library. It was sions was the location and character of the music
determined that the best location for the library room, and the design of the toilet-room roofs. The
was in the heart of the clusters of classrooms. The preliminary designs were reviewed by the teachers and
library floor is depressed two feet below the main by the School Building Committee. The School Build-
floor of the school, providing a separation between ing Committee was responsible for overseeing the de-
classroom circulation and library seating. In addi- sign, and their approval was necessary before pro-
tion, the library has a story-telling area that is sunk ceeding (Figure 2-38).
into the floor.

FIGURE 2-38. Plan of Nantucket Elementary School (Earl R. Flansburgh & Associates).
82 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

The educational program for this 600-pupil school ure 2-39). The bright colors, graphics, and large areas
called for the development of a 20-classroom facility, of natural light, which contribute to the building's
six of which are oversized to facilitate team teaching, character, also provide for scenic views of the site and
an art room, two kindergartens, and a multipurpose adjacent moors (Figure 2-40).
activity area. The design solution consisted of three Because of the historic significance of a new build-
clusters, each consisting of six classrooms with its ing in Nantucket, the Historic District Commission
own project area, and each having its own identity reviewed the progress of the design. Several architec-
characterized by the use of different colors. The clus- tural aspects were reviewed in detail, such as the size
ters are grouped around three sides of a central sunken and character of the windows, and the character and
library which is open to classroom activity areas (Fig- height of the steeple on the roof (Figure 2-41). The
steeple was eventually incorporated into the roof of
the entrance. The sloped-roof classrooms were con-
sidered very important to the faculty. Both the School
Building Committee and the Historic District Com-
mission were interested in the scale, details, and pro-
portion of the new school and how it would relate to
the character of the existing town architecture.
The final design solution resulted in the largest
building on Nantucket Island. Variations in roof
planes, and window heights and configurations typical
of buildings on the Island, resulted in a building char-
acter sympathetic to the site and to the quiet residen-
tial context of the Island (Figure 2-42). The building
was completed in 1978, and was awarded design ci-
tations both by the American Association of School
Administrators, and by the Boston Society of Archi-
tects, for the manner in which it reflects the unique
character of the small island.
FIGURE 2-39. Central sunken library (Photo: Peter Vander-
warker).

FIGURE 2-40. Building interior (Photo: Peter Vanderwarker). FIGURE 2-41. Building exterior (Photo: Peter Vanderwarker).

FIGURE 2-42. West elevation of school (Drawing: Earl R. Flansburgh & Associates).
Needham Broughton High School Addition
Attitude Survey |
Charette Process |
Community Meetings I
Design-In I
Focused Interviews Iv
Fishbowl Planning \v
Game Simulation I
Group Dynamics Iv
Public Forum
Task Force I
Training I
Workshop v

SUMMARY and new construction to accommodate the present and

predicted enrollment surge.
The haphazard development of an old neighborhood
Broughton High School, located in Wake County,
high school, faced with continued random growth,
has held national distinction as an educational insti-
precipitated the need for a feasibility study to explore
tution for many years, yet its facilities do not reflect
expansion options. As a result, a design team from
that quality, since expansion in the past 30 years has
North Carolina State University's Community Devel-
occurred in a haphazard manner. While the county
opment Group was requested to develop a needs as-
school officials were prepared to evaluate the physical
sessment by the Wake County Public School admin-
conditions of the present facilities in order to establish
istration. It was the administration's intention to
budgetary requirements, the high-school staff was
pursue a consensus approach for identifying needs and
concerned that future modifications reflect congruence
priorities for the school community.
between student needs and physical changes.
Discussion sessions were conducted with students
and staff to develop each department's space require-
ments and to create a profile of student needs for PROJECT
additional support services. Daily patterns of people's
Needham Broughton High School, in Raleigh, North
movement throughout the campus were mapped to
Carolina, was originally built at the turn of the century.
provide site behavior information necessary for site
It was Wake County's oldest and best high school,
design and planning recommendations. Site-develop-
and has undergone numerous additions and alterations
ment recommendations were complemented by stu-
since then, yet maintained its historic significance
dent assessments of their daily work environment, and
throughout the years. Like many inner-city high
of preferences for desired conditions. Alternative site
schools across the country, Broughton was threatened
plans provided the school administration with a direc-
by numerous social forces, such as student rebellion
tion for future action by suggesting advantages and
and uneasy integration, which would compel it to
disadvantages of each option. Construction was ac- change or close. As influential leader and school prin-
tually completed ten years later. cipal for 21 years, Dr. Richard Jewel has been an
instrumental force in helping the school earn national
accolades for academic achievement and racial diver-
CLIENT sity. Faced with a rapid increase in student enrollment,
Wake County, North Carolina, school officials have the county school board prepared a renovation budget,
presented the school system's long-range construction without any consideration of the functional or aes-
needs to the community, which required a vote to thetic implications of additions to a historic building.
issue bonds to pay for building projects. A bond issue Because the school administrators and staff were fear-
was needed to finance the $100 million for renovation ful that plans for renovation would exclude their rec-
83
84 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

ommendations, they sought design assistance from the An understanding of the academic program, of its
Community Development Group. This decision was organizational structure and of its objectives, was
prompted by the need for involving students, teachers, gained through a self-evaluation report conducted by
and administrators in a collaborative process aimed at the staff and a visiting team. To further supplement
distilling the expertise from all users of the building the information base, an inventory was conducted of
into the development of appropriate design recom- the basic components of the school, which in this case
mendations. At Broughton, teacher and student com- was the department. A survey data form was prepared
mittees were normally set up to have a say on changes. to enable administrators and staff to record informa-
The Broughton High School campus is located on tion related to their objectives, activities, participants,
an inner city, 15-acre site, cornering on two adjacent and spatial requirements (Figure 2-43).
heavily travelled streets. The school is easily acces- Interdepartmental and intradepartmental interac-
sible by foot, bus, or automobile, and experiences tions were described by participants in this process,
heavy use by students and community members in the using a network diagram, where interactions were
evening hours. graphically plotted according to traffic and communi-
cations frequency. The process of examining depart-
PROCESS mental connections, through this diagrammatic tech-
nique of user movement or flow patterns, was a
Participation by the school community in establishing revelation to the participants, who were not aware
user requirements was seen as a strategy that could that space planning, as a predictive procedure, could
be managed by the school to provide design guidelines minimize many existing conflicts. In addition to infor-
to the county school administration and the future mation about user flow patterns of the facility, a series
architect. In addition to a program of needs and re- of "real-time" studies were conducted to disclose how
quirements, alternative schematic plans were devel- students, teachers, and staff use the campus environ-
oped to demonstrate how verbal statements of require- ment, and how they feel about their place in this en-
ments are transformed into spatial and formal vironment.
solutions. To establish a program of future needs, it Techniques such as cognitive maps provide useful
was necessary to collect two types of information: insights into how the campus is understood by it users.
space requirements to accommodate future enroll- These maps are individual drawings that show which
ment, and satisfaction and dissatisfaction with the street and building features are recalled about the cam-
present school environment. pus (Kaplan 1973). The value of using such a map is

FIGURE 2-43. Typical department data sheet describing general requirements.

 Needham Broughton High School Addition 85

FIGURE 2-44. Front facade of existing school (Photo: Henry

Sanoff).

based both on the belief that people store information

about their environment in simplified form, and in
relation to other information they already have, and
on the assumption that this information is coded in a
structure that people carry around in their head, and
that this structure corresponds to the environment it
represents. Maps are an indicator of important envi-
ronmental features that require consideration when
modifications are proposed to existing conditions.
Several classes representing different grades were
requested to draw maps of their campus. These studies
were conducted while students were in their class-
room. Since the Broughton campus represents a col-
lection of buildings, it was also necessary to under-
stand the nature of the students' mental picture of the
campus, or if they could depict the "main" building.
While there is no commonly agreed-upon reference to
a main building on the Broughton campus, this per-
ceptual information complements the students' cog-
nitive mapping studies. The results of the image study FIGURE 2-45. Campus cognitive map.
were very revealing, since all students made drawings
of the original historic building, which is listed in the
National Register of Historic Buildings (Figure 2-44). While the drawings of the existing campus identified
For them, the school derived its meaning from the major circulation paths and identified public open
tower. The students' drawings accurately located the spaces, they provided nefther information nor insights
entrance and tower of the main building, and carefully into how these paths and spaces were actually used.
located the clock in the tower considerably larger than Specific data on circulation paths were obtained
their representation of the windows (Figure 2-45). Few through tracking studies of staff and student move-
students, however, indicated building materials in ment during key hours of the day. By stationing ob-
their drawings. The mapping exercise yielded equally servers at various locations on campus, people's
interesting results, especially when the students' movements were recorded at specific time intervals
drawings were compared to the actual environment and subsequently transcribed onto a series of com-
the drawings represented. The plan drawings of the posite maps that described traffic patterns and their
original or main building accurately depicted its basic frequency (Figure 2-46). The unobtrusive tracking of
form which was articulated by the auditorium, the people's movement revealed daily use patterns,
girls' gym, and the interior courtyard. Very few stu- congestion peaks and lows, and points of conflict.
dents were able to represent the limits of the building Other information was compiled through student
or its proportions. diaries or activity logs, which are a self-reporting of
86 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

FIGURE 2-46. Tracking study of internal and external movement patterns.

activities recorded at specific time intervals (Figure 2-

47). This technique combines the features of obser-
vations and questionnaires, though it relies on the
accurate logging of events by students. Self-observa-
tion has the additional advantage of clarifying infor-
mation obtained from more conventional observation
methods. As a result, it is possible to obtain a clearer
picture of user activity and the corresponding campus
locations of that activity. The activity log provides
answers to the questions of who, where, and when of
building use.
Student reactions to their existing environment pro-
vides yet another level of information that has a direct
bearing on design proposals. By comparing existing
settings with proposed school settings, it is possible
to assess the relative satisfaction with a wide range of
different types of learning environments. By present-
ing photographs of classrooms, work areas (Figure 2-
48), study areas, and corridors, students were able to
compare their environmental situation with three ad-
ditional alternatives. Their preferences for the best
settings were not surprising, since they were all char-
acterized by informal, relaxed, daylight-filled settings
containing learning areas that were highly concen-
trated. None of the existing school settings was in-
cluded in any of the choices made by students. The
exercises identified those elements that were most im-
portant, which portions of the existing building should
be preserved, and what would constitute a satisfactory
FIGURE 2-47. Typical daily log of student activities. image.
 Needham Broughton High School Addition 87

1. Please select in order of preference where you would like to WORK.

A _ B_ C D

2. Your 1st choice is selected because :

3. Your last choice is due to :

FIGURE 2-48. Photo comparison of existing space to alternatives.

88 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

IMPLEMENTATION an analysis of existing facilities consisted of predom-

inantly science classrooms.
The insights developed by the design team from results The results of the investigation were submitted to
of the questionnaires, maps, and tracking studies pro- the Wake County Public School System as a recom-
vided a basis for generating alternative design con- mended procedure and solution for the school expan-
cepts. Discussions with teachers and administrators sion. While there were several minor renovations to
also contributed to an understanding of the impact of the school during the next several years, it was not
the building design on student learning. This was par- until a decade later, in 1990, that the architectural firm
ticularly significant at Broughton High School, since of Milton Small was commissioned to prepare a design
the high enrollment required double-shift scheduling, solution for the school's needed expansion to accom-
which precluded the use of student free time, a source modate 1,900 students. A program for a new science
of considerable dissatisfaction. Discussions about al- addition was given to the architects by the Wake
ternative design concepts with faculty, students, and County Public School System. Since the elapsed time
administrators, helped to evaluate each proposal ac- from the previous study was ten years, the project
cording to its fulfillment of the school community's team headed by Associate Kerry Kane analyzed the
needs. These discussions involved having small work existing use of space and possible locations for the
groups carefully consider four concepts: three pro- new addition. Meetings were held with the principal,
posals considered a new campus, while the fourth science teaching staff, and special consultants, to es-
proposed an addition to the existing building (Figure tablish current science education spatial requirements.
2-49). The procedure followed by the architect varied from
While the proposals advocating a new campus were the new approach used by the County School System,
not considered feasible alternatives, they did offer where specialists and staff consultants provide archi-
amenities that could conceivably be integrated within tects with a completed program, eliminating the need
the existing campus. The most important feature for direct contact with members of the local school
voiced by a majority of the participants was the need community.
for an outdoor meeting place, or grand court, achieved The solution proposed by the architect located the
by using the new addition to terminate at the north new science addition in the same position as it was
end of the campus and to create an internal connection initially proposed (Figure 2-50), in order to establish
from the gymnasium to the main building. The spatial a grand court and serve as a secondary entrance to
requirements for the new addition that resulted from the school. The new addition was designed to respect

FIGURE 2-49. Proposed addition to existing school (Drawing: Tun Sing Chen).
 Needham Broughton High School Addition 89

FIGURE 2-50. Plan of addition as built (Drawing: Kerry Kane).

the overall image of the existing building complex, in

spite of the fact that it had undergone several additions
since the original building was constructed (Figure 2-
51).

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
A note of thanks to Kerry Kane, Associate of Milton
Small, Architects, Raleigh, North Carolina, and Proj-
ect Coordinator, who provided important insights FIGURE 2-51. Addition to existing school (Photo: Henry San-
about decisions related to the building process. off).
 Toussaint Louverture Elementary School
I Attitude Survey
| Charette Process | |
Community Meetings |v |
Design-In J
Focused Interviews [v |
Fishbowl Planning
Game Simulation J
| Group Dynamics I I
Public Forum
| Task Force
| Training | |
Workshop

SUMMARY school, prepared for the interview by visiting several

urban schools and soliciting and comparing their ob-
The Toussaint Louverture Elementary School is lo-
servations with the state and federal guidelines. Fed-
cated in a North Central Miami neighborhood occu-
eral programs at the time, Chapter 1, provide assis-
pied by Haitian immigrants. This forgotten, inner-city
tance in making extra teachers available in low-income
neighborhood had grown so rapidly that by 1985, Little
areas.
Haiti needed a school. The Dade County Public
The architects visited classrooms and spoke to
School administration hired Architect Bernard Zys-
teachers and administrators, especially principals,
covich to design this "special needs" school, which
who are often well informed. They noted several re-
serves a community where poverty and overcrowding
curring conflicts resulting from faulty interpretation of
are the norm. After visiting other schools with both
the guidelines. For example, federal guidelines in low-
crowded classrooms divided by chalkboards, and with
income areas recommend student-teacher ratios of 15-
strict programs without provisions to accommodate
to-1, instead of the traditional 30-to-l. To accommo-
the entire student body, Zyscovich created a building
date this requirement, Zyscovich noted that movable
with several courtyards, open corridors, and class-
chalk boards were being used to divide the larger
rooms designed with movable soundproof partitions.
classrooms, thereby satisfying federal guidelines. Zys-
Frequent community visits also helped to create a
covich also observed high noise levels between classes
building to reflect the strong cultural identity and in-
that were often disruptive, causing unnecessary dis-
tense community ties.
cipline problems in the classroom. The perceptiveness
of the preliminary investigation presented in its oral
CLIENT presentation persuaded the local school administration
to award the project to the Zyscovich organization.
The client for this school was Dade County Public
Schools in conjunction with the State of Florida.
Schools in Florida are built according to a code de- PROJECT
scribed as Chapter 6A-2, which consists of a set of The Toussaint Louverture Elementary School was the
formulas based on the student population, which de- first urban school constructed in the county in many
termines the number of classrooms. The general years. The school was named after an eighteenth-cen-
guidelines, then, are elaborated by county school tury Haitian leader who led the slaves in a revolt
boards into education specifications. The local school against French plantation owners in 1791. Located in
board invited several architects to submit proposals a low-income Haitian neighborhood, the school pop-
for the design of the new school located in an urban, ulation was set by the Dade County School Board at
low-income Haitian neighborhood. The firm of Zys- 900 students, and would include kindergarten through
covich, one of the architects short-listed for the new fifth grade. In 1992, the reported school population
90
 Toussaint Louverture Elementary School 91

was 1,200 students. The site, too, was selected by the tect's solution was to provide an outdoor area or ac-
local school administration. The building review pro- ademic courtyard, where the entire student body could
cess for a public-school building is complex and usu- come together (Figure 2-52).
ally overseen by a district project manager represent- Another fact learned from the architect's visits was
ing the County. Specialists are assigned by the school to learn that students were dropped off as early as
district to consult with the architect and are required 6 A.M., while classes normally start at 8 A.M. By
to approve the design proposal. Also included in the combining the teachers' planning rooms to form tow-
review process are the members of the Haitian com- ers, the architects enabled teacher surveillance of chil-
munity. dren's activities prior to the beginning of classes. This
Initially, the building design was influenced by prob- interpretation of the location of teachers' rooms also
lems observed by the architects during their visits to represented a departure from the traditional approach
other urban schools serving the target population. of scattering them throughout the building. Other fac-
They also observed a standard pattern of modern tors influencing design decisions included the location
school buildings that were built in the district, de- of the kindergarten as a separate entity, allowing for
scribed as pod schools. The pod schools are a series a separate drop-off area where parents can bring their
of four classroom units, either one- or two-story, that children directly into the classroom. The kindergarten
also include a media and food-service pod, arranged also had its own courtyard for outdoor play.
on a grid. The pods are easily recognizable because The preliminary design solution, which was based
they are repetitive units. Departure from this norm on input from the consultants and the architect's ob-
was an important aspect for Zyscovich because the servations, was then presented to the Haitian com-
new school needed to have a special presence, since munity in the form of models and color renderings.
it had to relate to a Haitian community and reflect a Almost 500 community residents attended a regular
more personal and sympathetic image. meeting where the Toussaint School was only one of
New classrooms were designed with an acoustic the agenda items. While the community members were
seal, yet maintaining the 15-to-l student ratio in semi- excited about this building as an important cultural
classrooms that share a common space, storage, toilet, symbol, they noted that the yellow color scheme pro-
and vestibule. It was also apparent from Dade County posed by the architect was typical of what was used
Public School's strict program that the traditional au- on jails in Haiti. The connotation, therefore, was not
ditorium had been removed and replaced by a cafe- appropriate for their new school, though they favored
teria-auditorium combination called a cafetorium, a building that stressed light, color, and access to the
which often required repeat assemblies. The archi- outdoors. This large community meeting generated

FIGURE 2-52. Largest courtyard with concrete stage (Photo: Steven Brooke).
92 Responsive Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

FIGURE 2-53. First- and second-floor plan (Drawing: Zyscovich).

 Toussaint Louverture Elementary School 93

FIGURE 2-54. Balcony looking on to courtyard (Photo: Steven Brooke).

smaller meetings with businessmen as well as with the outdoor stage, appeared to generate many outdoor
other organizations, for example, who desired to have activities. The abundant use of windows, especially in
the school be a source of festivals to introduce the the art room, was also mentioned as a desirable fea-
south Florida population to the Haitian culture. ture.
The Toussaint Louverture School has four court- Many of the features least liked about the building
yards (Figure 2-53), and all classrooms open onto resulted from the increased student population — such
them, linked by open-air corridors (Figure 2-54). The as the lack of adequate toilet facilities and an over-
building forms are accented by colors reflecting a Ca- crowded, noisy cafeteria. The covered, but open, cor-
ribbean palette. The original student population has ridors and stairs elicited a negative response from
doubled in the five years since its construction. Part teachers who reported getting wet during a downpour.
of this rapid and unpredictable increase in population Acoustics, too, in other large-group areas, such as the
is that single-family houses are often occupied by more media center, was reported as a disturbance. Combin-
than one family. ing a cafeteria with an auditorium, or cafetorium,
while often seen as a space-saver, is another source
of continual controversy. Often the auditorium stage
AFTER-OCCUPANCY RESPONSES
is not adequately planned for entering and exiting ac-
Several years after occupancy, teachers from the tors without being seen by the audience.
Toussaint Louverture School responded to a question- Generally, there is a sense of pride associated with
naire, asking them to list the three best and least-liked the Toussaint Louverture School as a carefully de-
features of the building. Not surprisingly, the teachers signed building, and as a community focal point. Re-
commented on the attractiveness of the building, its cently, the cafetorium was filled with young Haitian-
lively colors, both interior and exterior, and the open American school children, listening to a talk given by
design concept. The courtyards and patios, especially the first Haitian Miss America, crowned in 1990.
 3
Alternative Schools

95
Alternative Schools

Alternatives have always existed in American educa- to accept the approach offered by the schools. There
tion. The availability of alternatives has varied with is a view that people closest to the action should have
the social and economic conditions of the times, but the opportunity to decide what goes on in a school.
from colonial times to the present, educational alter- The local community, the students, their parents, and
natives have diminished. Educational opportunities in the professional staff should share in the decisions that
the colonial period constituted "a fascinating kalei- affect their own lives.
doscope of endless variety and change," reported "In a society as diverse and complex as ours, no
Cremin (1970) in American Education: The Colonial institution can effectively serve all people," says
Experience. There were enormous opportunities and Owen Kiernan, executive secretary of the National
countless types and modes of instruction during that Association of Secondary School Principals. While
period. Schooling went on everywhere, not only in many students respond well to what educators de-
schoolrooms, but also in kitchens, churches, meeting scribe as the traditional approach, others require al-
houses, sheds erected in fields, and shops erected in ternatives in non-traditional categories. The very high
towns. The proliferation of types of schools was linked rate of high school dropouts each year supports the
to the rapid increase in printed material for instruction assertion that standard offerings do not meet the needs
and self-instruction which enabled people to consider of all students.
a vast range of possible life-styles. In spite of the Many developments, such as consolidation of
diversity of schools, they had a minor role in colonial school districts, construction of larger school buildings,
America. The concern for literacy stimulated the de- governmental intervention, and nationalized curricula,
velopment of laws making parents responsible for their have operated to standardize schools. The creation of
children's education. By the mid-nineteenth century, alternative schools is in part a reaction against stan-
the concept of universal elementary education was dardization, because alternative schools would diver-
accepted. By 1900, compulsory education was as- sify educational opportunities within a community
sured. In America's 200-year history, what was orig- (Smith et al. 1976). The general revolt of the 1960s in
inally a wide range of educational alternatives has education was against the assumption that learning
been reduced to one monolithic public school system must be imposed on children by adults, that learning
without choice for the individual family (Smith, Barr, is not something that one does by and for oneself. The
and Burke 1976). activities of the traditional school were seen as insti-
In a democratic society people should have choices tutional rather than personal and human. While there
in all aspects of their lives. The present monolithic is no single goal that characterizes all alternative
structure for public education in which many students schools, the concept of freedom is central to the think-
are assigned without choice is what Postman and ing of people involved in non-public "free schools."
Weingartner (1971) describe as "a fraudulent plural- There has, however, been some resistance to free
ism." In the present system people have no choice but or alternative schools and programs. Much of this
97
98 Alternative Schools

reaction stems from the stigma of non-public alterna- • Providing opportunities for students to explore
tive schools that opened in the late 1960s, and became which are not available in regular schools
associated with alternative life-styles and alternative • Serving as experimental laboratories for developing
communities. Many of the alternative schools of that ideas for subsequent wider application
period were influenced by A.S. Neill, the founder of • Developing alternative programs to satisfy the di-
a private school in England, whose Summerhill (1960) verse needs of students and parents
philosophy stated that letting children do what they
One characteristic of alternative schools that distin-
want will eventually result in effective learning. This
guishes them from standard schools is that they are
view of education has not had wide acceptance in the
more responsive to a perceived educational need in
United States.
the community. The alternative school usually has a
Another barrier to the acceptance of the alternative
comprehensive statement of goals and objectives since
school concept is the pervasive view held by admin-
such programs usually go through a planning and
istrators, policymakers, and citizens that one school
development process that evokes clearly stated pur-
can be developed to satisfy the needs of all students.
poses. The school also provides opportunities for stu-
Historically, more experimental schools have devel-
dents, teachers, and parents to participate in the
oped in the non-public sector, and many educational
decision making on the school's program and on their
researchers credit recent development of non-public
individual roles within the school.
alternative schools for stimulating public alternatives.
Bruce Cooper (1971) identifies six alternative school
The most noteworthy are the Montessori and Waldorf
models:
schools. Montessori schools are founded on the prin-
ciples of Maria Montessori, who believed that children
1. Parent-teacher cooperative school
should learn by doing, and that a school should de-
2. Community freedom school
velop responsibility, self-discipline, and good work
3. Therapeutic school
habits. The Waldorf School, which originated in Ger-
4. Free high school
many based on the pedagogy of Rudolf Steiner, be-
5. Public alternative school
lieves in the art of awakening children to themselves
6. Residential free school
in order to integrate the development of intellectual,
artistic, and moral faculties, or the whole being, in all
Each model demonstrates different purposes; how-
areas of learning.
ever, there are several representative goals that were
Considerable pressure, however, allowed "alterna-
identified in a systematic study of contemporary al-
tive schools" to emerge as part of the public system,
ternatives (Duke 1978). The most characteristic goals
many of which were similar to the Summerhill type of
were related to exploration (freedom to pursue per-
"free school." The most dramatic was the "school
sonal interests) and participation (in which students,
without walls" as illustrated by the Parkway School in
parents, and teachers participate in the governance
Philadelphia, which began in 1969. The school is struc- and administration of the school while demonstrating
tured around tutorial groups of 15 students, a faculty a particular approach to education). While participa-
member, and a college intern, and provides traditional tory goals focus on the group and the community,
courses of study as well as relationships with over 200 therapeutic goals center on the individual student and
local institutions. Art is studied in the museum, eco- effective growth. Finally, academic goals expose stu-
nomics and math in the bank, mechanics at local ga- dents to a broad variety of learning experiences. Many
rages, and child development at child care centers alternative schools exhibit a blatant rejection of the
(Bremer and von Moschzisker 1971). pedagogical traits widely perceived to exist in conven-
There is much confusion about what constitutes an tional schools.
alternative school. While no definition can be applied
The emergence of contemporary alternative schools
to all alternative schools, there are certain character-
constitutes a challenge to the bureaucratic structure
istics that can distinguish them from the standard
of public institutions as regards their goals and meth-
school. Alternative schools must involve choice and
ods. Although alternative schools have been present
they must be different from the standard school in the
before, they have never existed in such abundance as
community. they do currently.
Alternative public schools traditionally have had
several different roles. These purposes have been
characterized in John Fritz's My Encounter With Al-
Restructuring Schools
ternatives (1975) as:
At an educational summit meeting President Bush and
• Providing educational opportunities for dropouts or the nation's governors agreed to engineer a radical
disruptive students restructuring of America's educational system (Miller
 Alternative Schools 99

1989, Oct. 4, p.l). The impetus for reform was pri- and responsibility comes greater accountability.
marily economic, since the United States was on the Therefore, greater authority will increase the involve-
verge of being displaced as a major force in the world ment and interest of all with a stake in a school. Such
economy. The nation's sinking economic productivity involvement will benefit the students. Allowing deci-
identified schooling as part of the problem and part of sions on finance, staffing, attendance, content, and
the solution (Guthrie and Kirst 1988). This recogni- organization to be made by individual schools may
tion, which began in the early 1980s, sparked a pleth- result in more attention directed to teaching and learn-
ora of national and state reform reports. There was a ing, rather than to the implementation of plans for-
growing belief that the current system was beyond mulated elsewhere (Elmore 1988).
repair and that a complete overhaul of the educational Participation in management leads to a sense of
system was needed. As a result many school districts ownership, which is linked to greater acceptance of
and states have explored new patterns of management, and cooperation with the implementation of decisions,
organization, and delivery of educational services. and ultimately greater satisfaction for all involved. The
Many of the restructuring efforts tend to focus on major rationale behind SBM is the belief that the
decentralization and argue that the individual school closer a decision is made to a student affected by the
community must become the focus of attention, and decision, the more likely it is to benefit the student.
that the resources and authority to change must reside Under a system of school-based management, ac-
with those teachers, parents, and administrators who countability for student achievement rests with the
are closest to the learners. Proponents of this view- individual school. People most aware of the diverse
point believe that school-based management (SBM) problems and needs in a particular school are those
allows principals, staff, parents, and students to be in working at that level.
control of their own destiny. With greater authority
The Hartsbrook Waldorf School
Attitude Survey
I Charette Process | |
Community Meetings v
Design-In
Focused Interviews v
Fishbowl Planning
I Game Simulation | |
Group Dynamics v
Public Forum
I Task Force I I
Training
Workshop

SUMMARY
in educational and administrative issues may be dis-
The Hartsbrook Waldorf School in Hadley, Massa- cussed with teachers and trustees. The faculty have
chusetts, began in 1981 as a result of the initiative and all undergone graduate training in the principles and
vision of a small group of people. The rapid growth methods of Waldorf education, which assert that chil-
and interest in the school enabled their move from the dren are at the center of the school. The class teacher
basement of a house on a small biodynamic farm in meets the class at grade one, and continues with these
Amherst to a larger building, the Ben Smith Tavern, children through eight grades. This provides a con-
an 18th-century inn in Hadley. The success of that tinuity of human understanding and a constancy bal-
move stimulated the next challenge: the need for new anced with a multi-faceted curriculum, one that
buildings on a new site. The school purchased 19 acres exposes the student to many subjects and specialty
of land close to their previous location, land sur- teachers.
rounded by farms and a view of the Holyoke Range. A small group of supporters founded the Hartsbrook
After acquiring the site which sits in a meadow with School in 1981. Its continued growth led to the need
a brook running through it, the school hired the ar- for additional space, and the purchase in 1987 of ten
chitecture firm of Thompson and Rose of Cambridge, acres of land through which the stream "Hartsbrook"
Massachusetts. Through intensive conversations with runs.
parents, teachers, and trustees, Thompson and Rose
arrived at a design that reflects the intentions, needs,
PROJECT
and ideals of those living in the school community.
Hartsbrook is a Waldorf School based on the work of
Austrian philosopher Rudolf Steiner, who sought to
CLIENT
develop free and self-directed human beings. Waldorf
An important feature of the Hartsbrook School is that schools now represent the largest independent school
the faculty is responsible for managing the school. movement in the world, with a total enrollment of over
They believe that this form of administration allows 500,000 students. Waldorf education is founded on
those most closely connected with teaching to make respect for the child as a developing human being, and
decisions regarding curriculum, school policy, and their teaching seeks to prepare the mind, enrich and
long-term objectives. The faculty receives support in ennoble the feelings, and bring forth the strength of
its work from the Board of Trustees, who are active commitment necessary to meet the self-chosen aims
in capital development, building projects, and fiscal of life. Learning is conceived as an enlivening process.
management. Parents are involved in all aspects of the Learning is achieved through the integration of intel-
children's education and in the life of the school. A lectual, artistic, and moral capacities. An important
Parent Council provides a forum where parent interest feature of the school is that the faculty assumes the
100
 The Hartsbrook Waldorf School 101

FIGURE 3-1. Long-range development plan (Drawing: Thompson & Rose).

responsibility for administration, supported by the exposed vaulted ceiling, to be used for activities such
Board of Trustees who are active in capital develop- as eurythmy, movement and dance gymnastics, cham-
ment and building projects. The teachers, trustees, ber music, and festive gatherings (Figure 3-2).
and parents were interested in a new building that The ground floor of the building contains two class-
responded to the Waldorf ideals, as well as to the rooms and a solar gallery, and an interior arcade with
surrounding community of Hadley and the Pioneer a stone floor designed to absorb solar energy by day
valley. The school community sought "an architectural and radiate heat into the building at night. As funds
design which, while innovative, is also attentive to the become available for further construction, this build-
particular vernacular of the New England farming ing will be converted to its original intended use of
landscape. We have aimed for buildings which in their offices and faculty rooms.
forms and placement suggest the scale and simplicity Piening Hall is a passive solar building, using the
of farm buildings while also expressing the very con- winter sun as a source of heating. The building is made
temporary nature of the school." The 20-acre master from regionally quarried stone, and other "nontoxic"
plan proposes a hillside clustering of buildings for materials, and avoids the use of synthetic materials.
classrooms, music, arts, crafts, gymnasium, and din-
ing hall, connected by gardens, walkways, and play
areas (Figure 3-1). The positions of the buildings were PROCESS
established by placing wood poles, string, and flags to The architects set up an office in a farmhouse in the
orient the buildings and the spaces between them to town of Hadley to understand fully the community's
the topography, and to selected views of the land- goals and aspirations. They attended many community
scape. These buildings will constitute the entire mid- functions and festivals, and participated in informal
dle, elementary, and pre-school. discussions in their office. In addition, there were a
The first phase of the project involved the construc- number of formal parent meetings, generally attended
tion of a building containing space for four classrooms, by about 20 people. The parents, however, were most
and a room for assemblies and performances. This comfortable when they reacted to propositions offered
building, Piening Hall, named after a former teacher, by the architects, leaving the educational issues to the
is proposed to be the most prominent structure of the teachers. Their primary concerns were related to ma-
hillside cluster. It includes a bell tower, and a two- terials, construction, and an image that was in char-
story lobby to exhibit children's work. At the center acter with the farmyard setting. The parents' roles
of the lobby floor, an inlaid geometric pattern reflects were most active in the construction stages through
the position of the foundation stone in the earth below painting, carpentry, and landscaping.
and marks the compass points. From the lobby is a The architects initiated correspondence with par-
staircase to the second floor assembly room with an ents, community members, and financial supporters
102 Alternative Schools

FIGURE 3-2. Floor plan of school (Drawing: Thompson & Rose).

 The Hartsbrook Waldorf School 103

by asking them for their ideas about the new school. Using crayons on newsprint paper, people began
The faculty, too, were contacted, and asked to furnish sketching the form of movement from the lobby to the
wish lists of their desires. The following comments assembly room. One of the committee members gen-
were extracted from the architects' notes with faculty erated the original form which was elaborated upon
and parents: by the architects. This form represented one of the
major decisions that grew out of the meetings, as did
Take forms of the building from the landscape. the building and its relationship to the hills beyond.
Make a friendly gesture with the forms and the roof. During the weekly meetings participants devoted a
Buildings should talk to one another. considerable amount of time to developing the pro-
Children need a sense of orientation. gram, reflecting the Waldorf educational philosophy.
Beautiful, but not flamboyant, not pretentious, not Fruitful outcomes from these meetings included the
monumental organization of the program on the 19-acre site in
People need places that are unique, that they can relationship to soil conditions, agrarian vs. wilderness
identify with. views, relationships to the high and lowlands, the wet-
Sense of change connected to corridors lands on the site, as well as to site specific issues.
Corridors should become a landscape in the building. Most of the decisions made at community meetings
Follow the sun-morning work academic (Main lesson relied primarily upon site and building models, rather
in the morning: The sun with loving light makes than drawings. Participation was most effective in dis-
bright for me the day). cussions about the image and character of the building.
The final design solution, the architects suggest, was
primarily a response to community aspirations for a
The primary design process of the new Hartsbrook
building that would embody the dynamic aspects of
School began with weekly meetings, lasting approxi-
the educational program. As a result the building took
mately two and one-half hours, of the coordinating
on a more sculptural quality than their earlier designs
committee that provided the philosophical foundation
had suggested.
of Waldorf education. The membership included a
Due to the large physical distances separating the
trustee and founder, a parent-artist, and two faculty
surrounding parent community of 27 towns, the ar-
members, all of whom reported back to their individ-
chitects also conducted formal meetings with parents
ual groups. They were described as "imagination
in their own houses. The architects and the coordi-
meetings" because they stimulated discussions about
nating committee visited 12 different "neighborhood
the spatial and experiential qualities of the master
groups" to discuss the project in small gatherings of
plan, the buildings, and their special places. Commit-
ten people each, in order for all people to have a voice.
tee members, seated around a circular table, ex-
Children, too, participated in the design process by
pressed the hopes and desires for the school through
sketching their ideas about the school.
"chain stories," as they described aspects of a space
Another strategy employed by the architects, char-
or program. Participants worked with paper, pencil,
acteristic of Waldorf communities, is the staging of
and clay to give shape to their ideas.
seasonal festivals, which they developed around the
Maryann Thompson and Charles Rose state that:
building of the new school. The entire parent com-
munity participated in the celebration of the building,
The meetings focused on the curriculum and its appropri- more so than in the planning meetings. The first was
ate enhancement through architecture and landscape. Our
an equinox festival which consisted of driving a four-
discussion considered such topics as the spiritual and
philosophical foundation of the Waldorf education, the inch-by-four-inch column into the ground on the site
learning path of the child, the characteristic qualities of at the center of the lobby. To the east a long, eight-
each class year, and how these qualities may be embodied foot-high white banner was hung across the site. As
architecturally. We also explored the vernacular architec- the sun set, the shadow of the column moved across
tural impulse, the land, and its history. The relationships the banner from north to south. Issues related to the
of classroom spaces to the immediate site and distant sky and to astronomy are part of the curriculum, thus
views were carefully considered as were the spaces them- the marking of the orientation was an important factor
selves, in terms of form, color, proportion, and detail. for the community, raising their awareness of the fea-
tures of the site. The festival also included story telling
The weekly discussions often focused on the rela- and kite flying. Another festival, in which 300 people
tionship between the space to the activities it en- participated, occurred prior to pouring the foundation.
closed. One of the chain stories revolved around It was a Foundation Stone Laying ceremony, in which
entering the lobby space, its view to the mountains, a copper vessel dodecahedron was placed at the lo-
and the stair sequence leading up to the eurythmy or cation of the wood column; there, students and faculty
assembly room, the largest volume in the building. made wishes for the building, along with a Foundation
104 Alternative Schools

FIGURE 3-3. Volunteers working the site (Photo: Maryann Thompson).

FIGURE 3-4. Community encircling Piening Hall on its Dedication Day Festival
(Photo: Charles Rose).

Verse containing the former chair Ekkehard Piening's passive solar energy, and how the building is being
aspirations for the school (Figure 3-3). The building heated. They experience the movement of the sun by
opening was the occasion for another festival in which changing light qualities in different spaces. The ex-
people held hands and circled around the building, posed mechanical system and flue describe the heating
marking its circumference (Figure 3-4). These festivals system. Also, the use of different types of wood in
were considered to be a source of inspiration about their natural finish reflects the variety of tree species
the building. The architects described their intent as in the area, each used in special ways and for different
creating a process and a ritual about the building. purposes. Generally, the architects were sensitive to
Thompson and Rose also seek to educate the child all aspects of the environment that would sensitize the
through their architecture. This is consistent with the children to these natural phenomena. This direct ex-
Waldorf philosophy of enlivening, which integrates the perience would then lead to a more analytical under-
analytical and experiential aspects of learning. standing, which is the basis of science education in
Through its design, the building will convey the basics the Waldorf tradition. The choice of building color,
of passive solar architecture, and will present each too, reflected an important element in the education
day an example of a responsive and appropriate tech- process. Education in the arts begins with an under-
nology. The solar gallery informs young people about standing of the emotional qualities of color. Since
 The Hartsbrook Waldorf School 105

FIGURE 3-5. School building in its natural setting (Photo: Steve Rosenthal).

color conveys meaning, the decision of the building in our area." The form of the building is described as
color took on special significance and consequently a striking sight in the natural landscape (Figure 3-5).
involved many community members. The choice of Equally noteworthy is the lobby, cited as a positive
color for the first building was a controversial com- feature because of its two-story height, and its evo-
munity decision. Faculty, parents, and trustees gath- cation of a grand feeling in a relatively small building.
ered to review a wide range of color options provided The gentle curve of the corridor or arcade is inviting,
by the architects. They arrived at the choice of blue and helps to create a sense of school community in
because they believed it was an intellectual color rep- the building. In general, the soft curves, the use of
resenting the essence of the Waldorf philosophy, as materials, and the way light moves through the build-
well as the character of the surrounding community. ing were features unanimously appreciated by the
Incorporating non-toxic materials into the making teachers.
of the building was an integral aspect of the teaching The most common concern voiced by the teachers
philosophy, which embodies a strong sense of ecology. in responding to the building evaluation was the noise
Concepts of organic farming are linked to homeopathic generated by the building's mechanical system, and
medicine, appropriate technology, and the use of nat- the general problem of noise transmission throughout
ural materials. This integrative or holistic sensibility the ground floor. While some areas are reported as
is pervasive in all aspects of teaching in the school. noisier than others, the "live" sound of the building
drew the most comments. Other concerns tended to
be rather small, idiosyncratic details, except for stor-
AFTER-OCCUPANCY RESPONSES
age, which always seems to be inadequate.
An evaluation questionnaire was distributed to the Apparently the positive feeling of spaciousness the
teaching staff of the Hartsbrook School. In it they building evokes has some negative side effects,
were asked to respond to the three features they liked namely noise transmission. One teacher responded
best and least about the building. Commenting about that the present use of the lobby area, for example, is
the building features liked best, the majority of teach- not the way it was originally intended to be used. The
ers believed that "the innovative design gives Piening enthusiasm displayed in the descriptions of the most-
Hall its landmark appearance. It is a distinct building liked features of the building, however, appear to out-
that invites comment and puts our school on the map weigh the features liked least. As one teacher states,
106 Alternative Schools

"I find it (furnace noise) annoying in an otherwise cassette tape by Maryann Thompson and Charles
serene and inspirational building." Rose. The teachers, too, of the Hartsbrook School
were helpful in completing an evaluation questionnaire
of the building.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Many of the details surrounding the participatory de-
sign process were thoughtfully narrated on a micro-
Hokio Beach School
I Attitude Survey I I
| Charette Process I I
Community Meetings |v |
Design-In |v |
Focused Interviews | |
| Fishbowl Planning |v \
| Game Simulation v
Group Dynamics J
| Public Forum 1 1
Task Force | |
Training | |
Workshop |y |

SUMMARY
years who are "disturbed, difficult, or delinquent."
This project was conducted by a New Zealand team The Department of Social Welfare (DSW) sends boys
consisting of Chris Watson, Ministry of Works and to Hokio for periods of time ranging from a few
Development (now called Works and Development months up to two years. The school provides for the
Services Corp.), John Gray, David Kernohan, and educational, recreational, and social needs of about 60
John Daish, School of Architecture, Victoria Univer- boys in an attempt to rehabilitate them into society.
sity of Wellington. An evaluation of the process was The DSW had become concerned about the physical
conducted by Michael Edge. This paper describes the condition of the school and in May 1984, they asked
use of a process designed to establish requirements the MWD to look specifically at substantially upgrad-
for change to a New Zealand residential school for ing the kitchen to comply with Department of Health
boys. The Department of Social Welfare (DSW) op- standards. After inspecting the school, the MWD con-
erates the school as a correctional environment for cluded that major alterations would be needed to the
about 60 boys. The case described here is from a kitchen and to other buildings as well. The DSW
Ministry of Works and Development (MWD) project. agreed to an MWD proposal to conduct a feasibility
Thirty-two participants representing six "interest study with the intention of developing a strategy to
groups" took part in a two-day event. Day one was improve the whole school.
devoted to a series of Post Occupancy Evaluations
(POE) using a "touring interview" method. The brief-
ing workshop on day two was designed as "games" PROJECT
which utilized the results of the POE: an Ideas game This project was developed in several phases in order
involving each group in making decisions about what to consider the type of physical improvements to an
to keep, and a Planning game involving each group in existing school that would have long- and short-range
mapping the location, extent, and urgency of changes. effects on the entire school. Surveys of the site, build-
Plenary sessions compared results of group work, ings, and the mechanical services were carried out by
identified issues, and worked towards consensus. the appropriate experts. From these surveys it was
MWD and DSW executives rated the process suc- possible to suggest action for maintenance and general
cessful and an improvement on the usual procedures upkeep of the facility, but not to suggest changes
in briefing and early design. which the DSW would know to be valid for the users
of the facility. The problem facing the MWD and DSW
was that the requirements for Hokio Beach School
CLIENT
were uncertain, yet they had to make decisions about
Hokio Beach School is the only extended stay resi- changes to the facility.
dential school in New Zealand for boys of 11 to 14 The MWD invited the Architecture Research Group
107
108 Alternative Schools

at Victoria University of Wellington (VUW) to moni- • Residents (boys), group 1

tor the assessment process at Hokio and extend the • Residents (boys), group 2
process so that the recommendations would directly • Management
inform designers and managers of the necessary • Casual Visitors
changes.
A total of 32 people, consisting of all groups, par-
The MWD and DSW questions were: How can we
ticipated in the POE on day one, and in the workshop
know what is required at Hokio, taking account of the
on day two.
range of interests and needs of the different people
involved? How do we establish what should be kept,
what should be changed, and the priorities for change?
DATA ANALYSIS
And given the diversity of interests, how can we work
to reach agreement, within weeks, rather than months, The POE's (seven touring interviews) and the work-
on what should be done? shop games (Ideas and Planning) resulted in four cat-
Planning and operation of the study was a joint egories of data for analysis:
effort among DSW, MWD, and VUW personnel.
Overall coordination and project management was 1. Observations and recommendations by each group
provided by MWD. Two members of the Architectural about the existing facility
Research Group at VUW were project consultants, 2. Objectives of each group with respect to the school
and later worked as Facilitation Group leaders in the 3. Priorities of each group expressed as an ordering
field work. A Task Group was established to manage of their main recommendations
the POE. The four members of the POE Task Group 4. Annotated maps showing each group's decisions
included two from DSW, and two from MWD, and about what should be retained, and what should be
also included two females, two males, two Maoris, changed
and two Pakehas (Europeans). The Task Group
planned and trained together, but in the field, members In addition, flip charts and graphics from plenary
worked in pairs. Each pair facilitated and recorded sessions served to confirm agreements, disputes, and
concurrent touring interviews to ensure that the POE results of negotiations between groups. Keywords
events could be completed in one day. were assigned to code each topic raised by the partic-
A Facilitation Group was formed to run the briefing ipants, and then values were established for each entry
(programming) workshop which followed the POE. to enable the topics to be ranked. Numerical values
The seven members of the Facilitation Group included for the "recommendation" and "map" sets were de-
all four POE Task Group members and assistants. The vised by counting the number of mentions. Values
POE used a series of touring interviews, in which each were given to the "objectives" set of topics by count-
interest group toured the facility with a Task Group ing the frequency by which topics were satisfied by
who asked open-ended questions to encourage partic- an objective. Weighted values given to the participant
ipants to talk about important aspects of the facility. indicated "priorities." All topics were then listed in
Each interview concluded with a meeting to review average weighted rank values. Fifty-two separate top-
and record the main observations of each group. ics were identified.
The workshop was in two parts: the Ideas game and
the Planning game. In the Ideas game, each group
POE Touring Interviews
clarified their objectives vis-à-vis the school, and
matched the most important of these with their key Each touring interview consisted of three parts: a brief-
observations from the POE. In the Planning game, ing session, a walk-through session, and a recommen-
each group decided what features of Hokio should be dation review session (Figure 3-6). In the briefing ses-
changed, and arranged their priorities for change. Par- sion, the facilitators introduced themselves and out-
ticipants presented the results of each game in plenary lined the procedure for the POE.
sessions to identify areas of agreement and disagree- Participants were asked to describe their interest in
ment between groups. the facility (i.e., "Please tell us what you do here.").
The same participants were involved in all stages of A walk-through route was then planned with each
the study. The Task Group selected them after dis- group (see Figure 3-6, panel 2). The participants were
cussion with the school principal, DSW executives, asked to suggest any places they particularly wished
and VUW consultants. Six distinctly different inter- to visit or talk about. The facilitators indicated that
ests were organized into the following seven partici- they were interested in being told about "what works"
pant groups: and "what doesn't work." They suggested the POE
need not be confined to physical things but may in-
• Maintenance clude comments on non-physical features of the facil-
• Staff ity such as operational or management matters. The
FIGURE 3-6. Project flow process.

109
110 Alternative Schools

walk-throughs were group interviews done "on the game. The questions to be answered were: What do
move." Participants were encouraged to talk about we want to keep, and why? What do we want to
whatever they found important while the facilitators change, and in what specific ways? Where should we
prompted with nonleading, open-ended questions. start, what is urgent now, and what can wait? The
In the recommendation review session, general dis- intention was that the resulting maps would be passed
cussion led to group observations and recommenda- on to the architects in the MWD for use in developing
tions which were recorded in their agreed wording feasibility study options for Hokio in the short and
onto flip charts. medium term (Figure 3-7).
To start the Planning game, senior managers from
the DSW and MWD summarized the resource con-
Workshop: The Ideas Game
straints for the project and outlined their work pro-
Each group's task was to agree to four objectives that grams and the mandates of DSW, MWD, and the
answered the questions, "What do we want to workshop. Participants sought and received assur-
achieve?" and "How can Hokio School help us?" Each ances that their POE and workshop findings would be
participant thought about these questions individually, acted on, with the understanding that the final deci-
discussed them in interest groups, then in plenary sions rested with the DSW executive.
sessions. To begin, each person was given a list of 20 Each group then worked to decide what should be
objectives and asked to select, adapt, or rewrite the kept, and what should be changed in relation to the
seven most important statements. Then, working in school, both physically (environmentally) and orga-
interest groups, the individual lists were compared and nizationally (behaviorally). To do this they used dif-
discussed until agreement was reached. The group ferent shapes of self-adhesive labels to indicate on the
lists were recorded onto flip charts and posted on the map keep items and change items. Non-physical or
wall. Discussions about differences continued in the non-locational items were noted on a blank part of the
plenary session that followed. same sheets. In round three, groups discussed their
In round two of the Ideas game, participants were options, and annotated the maps with their conclu-
asked to compare or "match" a limited number of sions.
recommendations with the objectives established in All participants came together in a final plenary
round one. The starting point for this activity was each session to compare annotated maps, to note the degree
interest group's recommendations and comments from of consensus achieved, to note or resolve any further
the POE, already recorded on flip charts and posted issues raised, and to discuss future action. One of the
in each work area. facilitators summarized each of the seven maps, in-
After reviewing and discussing their charts, each dicating points of substantial agreement, and minority
group selected seven of the most important recom- views.
mendations, which could have been modified or ex- The facilitators then brought the workshop back to
panded. The summary statements were posted in reviewing the agreements which had been reached. To
order of importance to permit the groups to match and end the business of the workshop, some DSW and
compare their results. MWD participants outlined their answers to the ques-
To conclude the Ideas game, each group, with the tion, "What happens now?"
help of the facilitator, self-reported their findings and
identified observable patterns in their relationships.
POE and Workshop Recommendations
For example, "cared for place" was stated by Boys
group two, and was strongly supported by five of the During the POE, the seven participant groups gener-
seven recommendations, whereas there was no sup- ated a total of 79 statements covering 41 separate
port for the objective, "to develop settings for contact features or aspects of the Hokio Beach School. Two
with family and friends." The facilitators closed the features, "kitchen" and "secure," were mentioned by
session by drawing attention to similarities and differ- six of the seven groups. Several of the most frequently
ences between the findings of each group, while en- mentioned features, "kitchen, bedrooms, administra-
couraging future discussion of their differences. One tion, A and B rooms, and boilers," account for almost
difference concerned the "secure" (two cell-like rooms half of the recommendations. Participants observed
used as a lock-up). This emerged later as a major issue. that the majority of the recommendations referred to
specific physical features of the environment, such as
particular rooms, or building elements, while four of
Workshop: The Planning Game
the features (10 percent), "community interaction,
The purpose of the Planning game was to obtain an family visit, atmosphere, and cultural perspectives,"
annotated map from each interest group which syn- pertained to non-physical or behavioral aspects of the
thesized the work of the groups in the POE and Ideas facility. The remaining features (about 20 percent)
 Hokio Beach School 111

FIGURE 3-7(a). Annotated site plan by boys.

FIGURE 3-7(c). Boys' planning group.

FIGURE 3-7(b). Walk-through.

were less specifically tied to a nameable part of the were documented during the workshop, for a total of
environment. These included, "general upgrade, 54 features of Hokio about which the participants
sports, sand dunes, and outside." wished to make comments. The new items appeared
During the workshop, participants were given op- at different stages in the workshop; six during the
portunities to change, add, or revoke recommenda- Ideas game, and seven during the Planning game.
tions made during the POE. Thirteen new features From the 18 features addressed by two or more groups
112 Alternative Schools

in the POE, only "community access, video, dining activities because he had "asked the MWD to fix the
room, and repaint" were not mentioned in the Planning kitchen and feared that they were about to use a sledge
game maps. hammer to crack a nut." Although he did not feel a
Kitchen improvements, the most frequently dis- sense of personal involvement during the POE, he
cussed issue, had the highest priority. In the POE, six contributed several positive suggestions for improving
of the participant groups made recommendations the POE process. He commented that the workshop
about the kitchen. During the Objectives round of the provided "access to information that I would never
Ideas game, the kitchen also received the highest have got otherwise." Reflecting on the process and the
score. In the matching round of the Ideas game, in follow-up, the client felt satisfied with the progress
which recommendations were ranked by the partici- made and remarked, "a very useful, sensible and
pants, the weighted rankings placed the kitchen at the down-to-earth report, which helped in setting priori-
top, well ahead of "bedrooms." In the Maps, the ties and providing a sense of support." In a letter to
kitchen was identified by six of the groups, as were the MWD, the Department stated its requirements for
"pool" and "secure." change at Hokio, in terms of immediate work (11
The secure was notable because it was rated as items) and longer term work (ten items). The client's
satisfying only one objective, but appeared high in all overall assessment of the study, in comparison with
other recommendation counts, and as a priority. This other decision-making experiences, was that this pro-
finding suggests that there were hidden objectives as- cess had enabled them to move from a statement of
sociated with this feature. This view was supported needs to decisions and instructions to MWD quicker
by the fact that it was equal with the kitchen in number than usual. In addition to the efficacy of participation,
of mentions in the POE and Maps. the client was also aware of a more positive attitude
The "outside" feature was of special interest be- from all participants than in his previous experiences.
cause, unlike the secure, it was rated very high be- With the expectation of appreciable benefits for
cause of the number of objectives satisfied, though it Hokio's users, building controllers, and designers, the
was not given very much attention in terms of rec- participatory nature of the POE and workshop was
ommendations. extended into the design approval phase.
"Outside" is one of the small number of features Normally, design approval in government is a pro-
that are essentially good. This feature also received tracted process, involving the exchange of documents
top billing from the participants when they were asked by mail with little opportunity for face-to-face discus-
to nominate "things you like and want to keep about sion of any aspect of the project. Communication is
Hokio." All groups except Official Visitors, identified distorted by the compounding of inadequate summar-
"outside" as special and valuable. Some groups ies, contextual information being lost, and a bureau-
wished to do things to enhance the outside, such as cratic communication style that suppresses emotions
make a flying fox in the sand dune area, or clean up and imagination. What was needed was a way to cir-
the polluted stream, but no one wanted to make sub- cumvent this ineffective, unwieldy, and time-consum-
stantial changes to the outside. ing communication process. The client agreed that
personal contact would be a more effective approach
for continuing the process. As a result, design devel-
Assessment
opment meetings were proposed to evaluate propos-
Although both the MWD and DSW shared the basic als, to explore opportunities for design improvements,
operational question, "What is required at Hokio?" and to negotiate modifications as conditions for design
the MWD and the designers' focus was on the needs approval.
of the different people involved, especially as they Two months after the POE, four design develop-
related to the built environment. The POE and work- ment meetings focused on projects for bedroom mod-
shop provided a "shopping list" of needs expressed as ification, alterations to the gymnasium, improvements
recommendations, but the MWD did not have the to the living room, and a conceptual plan for the
mandate to undertake further design without formal school. There were four parts to each meeting: a ver-
instructions from the client. To facilitate client deci- ification of design objectives, a description of the
sion making, MWD and DSW prepared a report de- proposal, a review of participants' strengths and
scribing the POE-workshop events and outcomes. weaknesses statements, and a discussion to agree to
A client assessment of the study was provided by changes necessary to satisfy reservations about the
the Director of Residential Services, Department of design proposals. The meeting invitation included a
Social Welfare, Head Office, Wellington, who had at- statement of aims, an agenda, and sketch designs for
tended both the POE and the workshop as a member each of the projects to be discussed. Attending the
of the "Management" interest group. He reported hav- design development meetings were representatives of
ing some misgivings prior to the POE and workshop the Department of Social Welfare head office, the prin-
 Hokio Beach School 113

cipal, other users of the Hokio Beach School, and the ipants. Facilitation graphics enabled all participants to
architects. see how their statements influenced the design modi-
In order to be prepared for the meeting, participants fications, while notations on the drawings became a
were asked to consult with their peers to decide on permanent record of all transactions.
the strengths and weaknesses of each project. Peer
consultation was important to ensure that all ideas
were adequately represented. Participants also re- POST MORTEM: EVALUATION OF THE
ceived POE recommendations, qualitative design ob- PROCESS
jectives (from the workshop), M WD comments, and Several months after the design development and eval-
DSW instructions for each project, all of which were uation meetings, a perception study gauged the ways
used to generate design ideas. The purpose for the in which participants believed the process was signif-
distribution of this information was to develop criteria icant to them as individuals, to their job, to their
with which to evaluate design proposals. department, to other participants, and to future design
In the POE and workshop, interest groups identified and evaluation processes. A summary of responses to
particular objectives such as "make our place more tangible short-term results indicated the implementa-
cared for and attractive" and developed design solu- tion of many minor physical improvements. Intangible
tions with the aim of satisfying these objectives. This short-term results consisted of improved communi-
meeting provided an opportunity for participants to cations among kids, teachers, and managers; aware-
assess the success of this process. Each project was ness of problems and needs of each other; and general
described with the aid of the sketch designs in order improvement of morale of people working at Hokio.
to allow participants to consider strengths and weak- Participants generally regarded the process as per-
nesses of the proposals. Modifications were then pro- sonally rewarding, challenging, educational, and en-
posed to satisfy the weaknesses that the participants joyable. For administrators and managers, the process
identified. developed a better understanding of people, clarified
many issues, and reinforced the belief that involving
users is a much better way of doing things. Generally,
CONCLUSION
participants felt it was significant that all interest
Senior managers from DSW and MWD assessed the groups had gathered together, especially since this was
process and judged it a success in terms of: the first time it had occurred. From the client's point
of view, the process was valuable since it met their
• Setting priorities, which helped decision making
objective of obtaining information that would facilitate
about the changes needed
informed and confident decision making.
• Establishing an agreement that decisions would be
supported by staff and others involved in the school
• Gaining "better" information in the programming ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
process
• Accurate and rapidly produced documentation usa- The participatory briefing workshop was designed and
ble by the client and architect facilitated using methods adapted from the work of
• And helping people gain an understanding and em- Henry Sanoff, Gerald Davis, Robert Shibley, and
pathy for others, as well as building organizational Linda Schneekloth. Robert Morans assisted in design-
support ing the study while visiting New Zealand.
The workshop "facilitation graphics" were done by
The Hokio Beach School project lends support to Peter Beaumont using methods developed by Daniel
the belief that the participatory process is efficient, Iacofano.
cost effective, and produces better results than more Task group members in the POE and assistant fa-
traditional methods. Information was well docu- cilitators in the workshop were Neal Cleaver, Raima
mented, organized, and easily accessible by all partic- Haronga, Tere Insley, and Tony Nixon.
Mowbray College
I Attitude Survey 1 1
ICharette Process I I
Community Meetings I
Design-In J
[Focused Interviews |v \
Fishbowl Planning
| Game Simulation I I
I Group Dynamics |v |
I Public Forum | |
I Task Force | |
Training
Workshop

SUMMARY contribution towards salaries, so that the fees were

Mowbray College is a new school near Melbourne, affordable by local residents with average incomes.
Australia, in the satellite town of Melton. What began The school design developed with extensive partici-
in 1983 as a vision of a community school to supple- pation from the parents and students, under the lead-
ment local education has developed with an annual ership of principal Alan Patterson, appointed at the
building program to render a school valued at $15 start of the project. Parents are involved as teachers'
million in 1996. There are 1000 students at present, aides, as well as with maintenance and gardening,
from kindergarten to twelfth grade sited on a 40-acre which helps to create a strong bond between family
campus. Architects designed the campus through a and school. The school is developed as an educational
process of discussion, invention, and feedback. The village and community for the children.
participants in the process included the teachers, stu-
dents, and parents, led by the principal, Alan Patter-
son, and the architect, Norman Day. Developments in
curriculum and educational philosophy influenced the PROJECT
design, and the extensive landscape has been entirely The principal perceives the school as an intermediate
carried out by the school. Parents are involved as stage between home and the larger community; the
teachers' aides, contribute to the gardening and main- architecture reflects this idea. In selecting the archi-
tenance of the school, and together with the students tect, the principal sought a long-term association of
are responsible for all the catering. ten to 15 years with a person who would be willing to
shape his architectural statements to the educational
CLIENT program. The original primary and middle school
classrooms constructed in 1985 related in scale and
Mowbray College is a private school begun in the form to the surrounding suburban housing. Each class-
1980s when the State Education Department of Vic- room has its own bay window and backyard. The
toria (Australia) failed to respond to pressure to build intention was to create a school which resembled the
additional schools in the rapidly expanding satellite students' home environment. The model for the de-
town of Melton. A group of parents set up a cooper- velopment of the school described by the architect,
ative and eventually obtained grants sufficient to start Norman Day, is as follows:
a private school of their own. Mowbray College first
established itself in a refurbished factory on 12 acres 1. A whole vision (not a plan) for the campus as an
of land. organic village (Figure 3-8)
The continuing challenge was to keep income at an 2. A process for developing each part so it becomes
appropriate level to ensure the maximum government the total development (Figure 3-9(a))
114
 Mowbray College 115

FIGURE 3-8. Plan of campus (Drawing: Norman Day).

3. A community of people and their interests which children and not for systems. . . . To create spaces
initiates the creative process for human activity rather than to satisfy existing ar-
4. Equal importance of large and small elements chitectural dogma" (Figure 3-9(c)). In addition to his
views about what school ought to be, he posed several
The school is a small city with side streets, lanes, questions and réponds to them by citing references to
and arcades; individual classrooms are arranged as Mowbray. They are:
"houses" and larger facilities as community foci.
Why not remove the surveillance humbug — children do
Each classroom is a development of the two-room rural
not respond to surveillance. They like to know where help
school; the library came from the idea that the Baptistry in
and succor can be found but they value their independence
Florence represented the center of growth; the toilets took
and they thrive on trust. Mowbray gives them many nooks
up the slang term for ladies' toilets — the fort — and its
and niches to pass their secrets [Figure 3-9(d)].
round windowless walls are intensely protective. The Art
Is hyperactive behavior needful? Most children go
buildings took process and fabrication as a theme. The
through the chasey stage. Their formal sport satisfies this
Science center is cruciform and represents life discovery.
need. The rest of the spare time is spent sitting and chat-
The siting of each building considers the landscaping pos-
ting. Mowbray has spaces to sit.
sibilities. A combination of long narrow vistas and secre-
Where do students meet? The walkway is the spot
tive gardens combines to give the whole structure a feeling
where everyone smiles and says hello. I can meet nearly
of twisting through an ever-changing landscape (Alan Pat-
everybody in a day by strolling on the walkway. To es-
terson).
planade is a sophisticated notion enjoyed by children.
Must libraries be silent? Libraries are not study halls,
Alan Patterson's philosophical position was "that they are places of discovery and information exchange.
the school environment should heighten the student's The young need space and movement and excitement and
curiosity and reduce anxiety. . . . The scale was to be a place to share their excitement. The library needs to be
fragile and kid-size . . . (Figure 3-9(b)). To build for a happy productive human place where demands are
116 Alternative Schools

FIGURE 3-9(a). Building exterior showing integrated develop-

ment with covered walkway (Photo: Mowbray College).

FIGURE 3-9(b). Child-size scale of buildings with lattice screen

shading the walkway (Photo: Mowbray College). FIGURE 3-9(c). Human scale space (Photo: Mowbray College).

quickly and efficiently met. Access should be easy and im-

mediate. At Mowbray we have an open library where the
drum is the meeting place. High technology provides net-
works and quick access and everyone is satisfied. There is
no security book system and we lose no books to speak
of. Innovative architecture can do a great deal to make the
place happy [Figure 3-10].
Can room design reinforce education objectives? The art
rooms are designed to reinforce the concept of manufac-
ture and process. The clean geometric line with challeng-
ing textures and colors fails to mask the factory. It is a
hands-on place, light, airy, and uplifting. Boys who love
fabrication like doing art. It is not a girls' subject. I am
quite certain that the design of the art building causes boys
to feel at home and 'in the workshop.' Painting for them FIGURE 3-9(d). Lattice screen with cutouts for views (Photo:
satisfies their 'fabrication' urge. Mowbray College).
Can kids care for their buildings? Provided they per-
ceive ownership and control they can. Small separate
buildings enhance these perceptions. Mowbray's landscaping is right for kids — there is a heap
Is landscaping open to question? The positioning of the of gardening to do and horticulture holds a rightful posi-
small structures in an extensive garden network brings na- tion in the curriculum. The layout makes it abundantly ob-
ture to the very edge of the school day. The Mowbray vious that this should be so.
approach is to take each child along walkways through an Can schools be intimate? Schools are about intimacies.
array of plants, shady, leafy, showy, timid, and bold. They are essentially human places and there is a great
 Mowbray College 117

FIGURE 3-10. Sitting area adjacent to library (Photo: Mowbray College).

need for contact and access. The spreading of staff offices and the technical studies building has the appearance of a
throughout the teaching spaces flies in the face of most workshop or factory.
established practice. The monolithic staffroom, often re- The cluster of classrooms for non-specialist subjects
mote from the center of things can hardly improve con- provides the feeling of working within a small community.
tact. In fact they are frequently designed to make it impos- Each room has at least one outlook onto a garden space
sible for students to access staff on a 'demand' basis. and is usually recessed from the main walkway giving it an
Mowbray's little offices off a walkway, in a court and be- air of privacy not often found in traditional classrooms.
tween rooms is an answer leading to greatly improved inti- Within these workspaces furniture may be moved into any
macy. useful configuration to enable students to interact in small
Should the toilets be on the official school tour? The groups or to pursue individual study (Julie Thompson).
washroom and toilet arrangements are most terribly impor- The use of small, self-sufficient stand-alone classrooms
tant in the lives of students. Mowbray's toilet blocks are set down amongst semi-private play, relaxation, and study
highly designed, light, airy, and interesting places. They areas imports a special sense of 'belonging' to all students.
are kept religiously clean and they are designed for easy This semi-isolated environment is truly conducive to aca-
cleaning. Too often the washroom facilities are less than demic pursuits and reflection. . . . Stand-alone classrooms
well thought out and become a center of difficulty. At are also free of the distractions and influences of neighbor-
Mowbray they are given recognition and access is directly ing classes and students activities and promote a relaxed
off a walkway. focused learning environment (Robert C. Barnes).
Students find the walkways a pleasant place to be. They
amble up and down the walkways for fun. Lunchtime and
AFTER-OCCUPANCY RESPONSES recesses see a parade of students up and down, unlike
most schools where each student tends to gravitate to a
While the teachers at M o w b r a y College responded to favorite spot (Duane Wehrung).
their best liked and least liked features of the building, The use of covered walkways throughout is of major im-
each has also written an essay about the school. Ex- portance to the concept of Mowbray College. These walk-
cerpts from the essays are as follows: ways are the lifeline or 'arteries' of the college as they
provide the only physical means of movement and contact
Without doubt the effects of social contact on walkways, around the campus. By so doing, they ensure that the con-
stimulating colors and student developed gardens has had cept of total communication and involvement is maintained
a major impact on student behavior and attitudes. We for- despite the relative 'isolation' of the individual classroom.
get, I think, the toughness outside our walls of many of It is not possible to function as a student at Mowbray
our Mowbray families. We have created a haven of peace without regularly interfacing with the greater college com-
and tranquility — a safe harbor in a sometimes very munity via these walkways. Yet, these same walkways en-
stormy sea and the architectural design both building and sure that no classroom or quiet play area can be violated
landscape has contributed greatly to that (John O'Shea). by unwanted noise or other interruption (Robert C.
The design of the specialist classrooms reflects the type Barnes).
of activities that take place within — science rooms look We are encouraged to get involved at every stage, as the
like laboratories, the art rooms are like giant sculptures, school plans are an 'open book' inviting our comment and
118 Alternative Schools

input. . . . Perhaps the pride that so many at Mowbray other. The orientation of some classrooms led to over-
feel for their environment is there because the school is heating in the summer, while others seemed to be too
really a cohesive linking of all of the small parts — not dark. Also, the irregular shape of classrooms creates
small because they are insignificant, but rather that the some wasted space. The walkways and gardens, re-
parts are important to individual students, staff and par- ported to be a major amenity, were sometimes un-
ents of the school (Mark Valentine).
pleasant due to raging northerly winds.
The major consequences of a dispersed layout are
clearly the cost of services, which increases substan-
The positive features of the school stress the point tially with campus growth, and the problems associ-
that its design allows the teachers to change their ated with disorientation especially for visitors and
environment, rather than regulating them to a certain newly arriving students. In the balance, staff suggest,
order. The variety of shapes, too, gives teachers and the strengths engendered in the novel concept that is
children an opportunity to identify with a particular Mowbray College today far outweigh the penalties.
place. The walkways link the small clusters of build- The most unique aspect of Mowbray College is that
ings providing regular social interaction. Along the its design is by intention; a collaboration between the
walkways are pockets of gardens that create venues architect and the educator. There appears to be an
for students, for large or small groups, active or pas- inextricable connection between the educational phi-
sive. losophy and the design of the building complex. Judg-
Many problems identified by the teachers occurred ing by the responses of the teaching staff, this con-
as a result of the design or ideological intention. For nection is not only experienced in their daily activities,
example, the village-like atmosphere where decen- but also constitutes a welcome change to their previ-
tralized offices were a goal did not provide opportu- ous experiences in more institutionalized educational
nities for the entire staff to meet or even see each settings.
New Futures School
Attitude Survey |
Charette Process |
Community Meetings •
Design-In |
Focused Interviews |v
Fishbowl Planning
Game Simulation |
Group Dynamics |
Public Forum |
Task Force |
Training |
Workshop v

SUMMARY the same time a new community-based organization

New Futures School (NFS) is an innovative facility dedicated to furthering the cause of services for ado-
for adolescent parents in Albuquerque, New Mexico. lescent parents was formed, so that community in-
The school has two major components. A Prenatal volvement and support could be maintained.
Program serves the teen who enters during her preg- The program had moved to a surplus high school in
nancy and remains until the end of the semester in the inner city, then on to an abandoned middle school
which her child is born. The Young Parents' Center in a suburban area, before providing permanent hous-
serves the most high-risk group of teenage mothers ing. The Albuquerque School Board decided to locate
and fathers — those who are determined unable to the New Futures School on a site that includes another
participate successfully in a regular school program alternative facility for other at-risk students. Planning
after the birth of their child. Both provide comprehen- for the new facility began in 1987 when the architect,
sive services. It is an alternative school of the Albu- Dale Dekker, along with APS, and New Futures prin-
querque Public Schools (APS) and is also supported cipal, Caroline Gaston, created the Building Planning
by a nonprofit community-based organization, New Committee (BPC), made up of New Futures staff spe-
Futures, Inc. cially selected by the teachers, counselors, and ad-
The architectural firm of Dekker and Associates was ministrators, to inform Dekker and his project team
selected to design this new facility to provide an ad- about the philosophy, history, and future needs of the
equate learning environment for pregnant teens and school.
young mothers, as well as child care facilities for their
babies. One of the principle considerations was to
design a place infused with hope for some of Albu-
PROJECT
querque's greatest "at-risk" teenagers, many of whom
are already school dropouts. Albuquerque Public Schools have been confronting
the problems raised by teenage pregnancy for more
than a decade. Only recently has the successful pro-
CLIENT gram evolved to find a permanent home for the New
New Futures School was begun in 1970 by volunteers Futures School, the first building in the United States
of the Albuquerque YWCA who were concerned with specifically serving the needs of pregnant teens and
the expulsion from school of pregnant adolescents and teen mothers. The overall goal of the New Futures
the health problems associated with adolescent preg- School is to break the cycle of adolescent pregnancy,
nancy. When the YWCA, in 1976, expressed its desire child abuse, neglect, illiteracy, and poverty. Specifi-
to cease sponsorship, the Albuquerque Public Schools cally, the program seeks to motivate teenaged parents
assumed primary responsibility for the program. At toward completion of their secondary education, to
119
120 Alternative Schools

mature, to have healthy pregnancies and healthy fam- ternal and infant care clinic at the school. Also in-
ilies, and to become responsible parents. cluded is an office for a social services representative,
NFS provides educational services that include a who screens students and babies for public assistance
comprehensive high school program, a G.E.D. prep- eligibility. A job-training program helps the neediest
aration program, as well as classes in maternal and girls find work. Counseling sessions help students
child health, parenting, and child development. Other work through substance abuse or relationship prob-
services include individual and group counseling, lems, as well as through decisions about whether to
childbirth classes, day care, and vocational education. give their babies up for adoption. There is also a store
In effect, the NFS is a combination of educational run by volunteers, where students can buy donated
facility, child care center, and physical and mental baby and maternity clothes at ten cents an item.
health clinic. Because there was no such facility avail- With a population of 230 students and 90 infants,
able as a model, the architect had to develop a com- the school is overcrowded but does not give that ap-
plete building program for the school. pearance due to its open design and cheerful feeling.
Students, staff, and cooperating users participated Interior and exterior colors used for the building are
actively in the design process. The Building Planning shades of rose pink and turquoise. ' T h e girls wanted
Committee, consisting of teachers, counselors, and pinks and bright colors. They said they wanted it to
administrators of the New Futures School served as look like a pleasant place to be, not like an institution,"
the client group for the building. The architectural Dekker said. For this particular student population,
team devoted special attention to the special needs Gaston said, "color scheme and the overall feel of the
and daily routines of the facility's users. Interviews school were highly crucial."
were conducted with all school staff to discuss what "You have to remember that this group of students
features of the old facility they wished to maintain in has already given up and the regular school system
the new school, and what new features they would has given up on them," Gaston said. "Many of the
like to see incorporated. As a result, special consid- students come from troubled backgrounds. The em-
eration was given to the grouping of nurseries con- phasis of New Futures is to raise their self-esteem,
venient to the front of the school, with outdoor access teach them how to be good parents, while providing
to play yards for each one. traditional secondary education, thus making them
Workshops were held with pregnant teenagers, productive members of society. Each student is re-
young mothers with infants, and mothers with tod- spected as an individual. The design of the school had
dlers. "Essentially, we were trying to get a feeling for to reflect this, which the new school does beautifully."
what these girls did during the day, to get a focus on The students are proud to have been included in the
how their day went," Dekker said. design process, and to see some of their suggestions
The resulting floor plan attempts to integrate the reflected in the new building. As a result, they have a
way the school works for faculty, staff, students, and marked pride in the school. Gaston related a story of
infants (Figure 3-11). The main entrance of the school how one student accidentally squirted ketchup on the
was designed for pick-up and drop-off of students who cafeteria wall. The girl immediately got a cleaning rag
were pregnant or who carried babies and diaper bags from the cafeteria staff and cleaned the wall without
(Figure 3-12). The cafeteria, also located in the front any prompting. "You would be hard pressed to see
of the school, allows students and their babies to wait that occur at any school, anywhere," reported Gaston,
for rides after school. Directly behind the open cafe- smiling proudly.
teria is the check-in area for all students and visitors,
providing a panoramic view of the Sandia Mountains.
Since the old school had a central hallway where
AFTER-OCCUPANCY RESPONSES
mothers and their babies often congregated between
classes, Dekker designed a similar hallway "spine" in There appears to be unanimous agreement between
response to the students' desires. This spine contains the 24 staff members and four students who responded
classrooms grouped for high school-age students, and to an evaluation survey about the attractive appear-
a smaller area for middle school. Nurseries are ance of the building, the use of bright and cheery
branched off the spine where there are separate areas colors, and the feeling of openness as one moves
for infants age two weeks to four months, five through through the building (Figure 3-13). The use of skylights
ten months, and babies age 11 through 15 months. in the corridor also contributes to the overall positive
Students are required to work in the nurseries, chang- atmosphere of the building. The organization of the
ing diapers, feeding and tending children. The idea is classrooms at the perimeter of the building makes
to give the students the skills they will need as parents access efficient and rooms easy to find, while good
as well as to give staff the opportunity to observe how lighting provides a cheerful atmosphere. The location
the young women react to children (Natale 1992). of the classrooms in relation to the nurseries was re-
The University of New Mexico runs a weekly ma- ported to be convenient, though respondents ex-
 New Futures School 121

FIGURE 3-11. Plan of building (Drawing: Dekker & Associates).

pressed concern about the inconvenient location of nal circulation. Staff located in interior spaces, how-
offices with respect to the nurseries, and their rela- ever, such as home arts, library, and offices com-
tively small size. Generally, most staff seem to be plained about poor ventilation and general lack of
pleased with the organization of the building into areas comfort control. Equal concern was voiced by many
of concentrations or suites, each with their own inter- teachers and students about the unequal distribution
122 Alternative Schools

FIGURE 3-12. Building facade showing main entrance (Photo: Kirk Gittings, Syntax).

of heating resulting from the inability to control com-

fort in each classroom.
Surprisingly, there was no gymnasium included in
the program. This lack was consistently noted by staff
and students. This omission, as well as other mea-
sures, such as overcrowding, may have been a func-
tion of a limited budget, and initially an inadequate
estimate of the population being served. Other com-
ments about least-liked features of the building were
related to relatively minor inconveniences experi-
enced by individual staff members.
The New Futures School not only serves an inno-
vative role as an alternative program for pregnant
teens and teen mothers, but also, according to the
people who use the building, conveys a positive mean-
ing about educational facilities.

FIGURE 3-13. Interior view of building (Photo: Kirk Gittings,

Syntax).
Saturn School
Attitude Survey | •
Charette Process |
Community Meetings |v
Design-In I
Focused Interviews v
Fishbowl Planning
Game Simulation |
Group Dynamics |
Public Forum |v
Task Force
Training |
Workshop

SUMMARY The educators, businesspeople, and parents who de-

The creation of the new Saturn School, a restructured veloped the program felt that the downtown area pro-
middle school in St. Paul, Minnesota, demonstrates vided a rich environment for learning.
how the concerns of contemporary education can be The downtown location also served to nurture one
fostered through collaboration. Saturn School grew of Saturn's central ideas, that youngsters learn impor-
out of the Secretary of Education's challenge to edu- tant lessons by serving others. Community service is
cators to do for education what General Motors did an important part of the curriculum. Saturn students
for automobile manufacturing by the creation of the tutored handicapped students, helped nursery school
Saturn plant. Initiated by the school board, parents, teachers, and helped to gather, tally, and analyze a
and staff, Saturn was shaped out of the desire for a survey conducted by the City Council. Saturn's par-
school where students would be active learners, and ents and teachers believe that their school should be
where individual attention to their needs could be ac- a contributing neighbor, not just a resident, of down-
commodated through intensive use of technology. town St. Paul.
Saturn began in two rooms of an old building, and
gradually with the help of parents, a new downtown PROJECT
location was chosen: a vacant YWCA building. The
architectural firm of Rafferty, Rafferty, Tollefson was From its inception, Saturn has been envisioned as a
hired to create "workrooms" and "learning spaces" downtown school that draws on many community re-
and remodel five of the existing eight stories of the sources. Currently, students and staff use the facilities
facility to match the philosophy of the new school. of the YMCA, the Science Museum of Minnesota, the
Minnesota Museum of Art, and the St. Paul Public
Library as integral components of the learning envi-
CLIENT ronment. Saturn is a city-wide math and science mag-
Many efforts supported the creation of the school in- net program which serves a diverse student body from
cluding those of the St. Paul Federation of Teachers, all socio-economic levels and from across the city.
the University of St. Thomas, the Minnesota Educa- Saturn's mission statement is: "The Saturn School
tional Computing Corporation (MECC), and a Saturn Community is an interpersonal, individualized envi-
Council, consisting of parents, students, and staff, and ronment in which students become empowered life-
the community at large. The council has had input on long learners prepared for the 21st century." A core
all aspects of program design, including school cal- concept at Saturn is a Personalized Learning Plan for
endar, curriculum development, staff selection and each student. "Saturn is designed as a school where
evaluation, and selection of a permanent downtown all learners succeed. Each student has a Personal
site. Saturn was planned from the very beginning as a Growth Plan designed by students, parents, and teach-
program that would operate in the downtown area. ers to fit the needs, strengths, and interests of the
123
124 Alternative Schools

student. The Personal Growth Plan identifies goals for center, discourse room, and other learning centers)
each student, maps each student's progress towards was based on the activities that might occur in each
mastery, and serves as a learning compass for further of those areas, thereby freeing the teachers, students,
learning activities." and architect from thinking about classroom stereo-
Learning technologies play a significant role in stu- types. What emerged was a five-level building, three
dent learning at Saturn. Microcomputers and video- levels of which were designed to shape an educational
based instruction replace most lecture and large-group idea, where each level conveyed its own theme (Figure
activities, particularly in basic skills learning. Each 3-14).
student works daily on a computer-based Integrated
Learning System (ILS) which contains several
hundred reading and math lessons. The ILS manages
information on student achievement and provides the
teacher, student, and parent with a daily record of
performance.
Saturn School of Tomorrow is a unique and inno-
vative response to the national call for school restruc-
turing and reform and provides a working model for
effective school change. Cramped initially in two
rooms of a building designed for handicapped children,
Saturn's early life was constrained by the limitations
of traditional school space. Gradually, a new image
was formed where classrooms would be replaced with
"workrooms" and "learning spaces." Parents, too,
were involved. They were part of a task force en-
couraged to find a new location for their school.
Saturn is now located in downtown St. Paul, and
occupies five floors of an eight-story, unused YWCA
building. Currently there are 290 students in grades
four through eight. The building has a large audito-
rium, pool, and gymnasium. Students, parents, and
staff participated in the selection and design of the
new school space. The architectural firm of Rafferty,
Rafferty, Tollefson was hired to work with the teach-
ers and the students as they redesigned their roles as
well as their workspaces.
Saturn School Parents Association, teachers, school
board architects, and students met with the design
team several times each week during the programming
process to shape the educational program as well as
the building. Large-group meetings were held with
parents and students in the discourse room of their
temporary facilities to allow for a broad base of par-
ticipation. Issues brought forth by children for the
architect's consideration included the exploration of
an imaginative use of color, the creation of a variety
of spaces, and the design of a building that was as
unique as the educational program. After the first year
of the program in their temporary facilities, children
realized that they could affect their education; con-
sequently they were eager to discuss future learning
areas, unusual shapes of rooms, places to climb, and
places for students to work together. Rafferty suggests
that this participation was fruitful since all the stu-
dents' wishes were incorporated into the design of the
building.
According to the architect, the discussion of places FIGURE 3-14. Floor plans of instructional levels (Drawing:
where children learn (such as an independent learning Rafferty, Rafferty, Tollefson).
 Saturn School 125

FIGURE 3-17. Specialized classroom (Photo: Philip MacMillan

James).
FIGURE 3-15. Cooperative learning level with active and pas-
sive zones (Photo: Philip MacMillan James).
The ground floor contained the reception lobby, au-
ditorium, pool, and sufficient space for the future first
and second grade. The second floor, designated as the
technology level, contained a number of places incor-
porating the computer as a teaching tool. In this level
different activity areas were represented by different
colors. Color coding was created in response to the
variety children were seeking. The level above was
the cooperative learning level, an area in which there
would be an active and passive zone for projects,
meetings, and individual work (Figure 3-15). This area
contained multiple levels for children to climb, ex-
plore, read on steps, and observe the riverfront view.
The existing columns (Figure 3-16(a)) were used to
create the co-op collonade, or main street, through
which all the students would circulate (Figure 3-16(b)).
The student radio station, newspaper, and art and
media center were also an integral part of this level.
FIGURE 3-16(a). Exposed columns prior to renovation (Photo: On the level above was the learning center area: a
Rafferty, Rafferty, Tollefson).
series of rooms dedicated to reading, music, science,
writing and study centers, thematically representing a
small village. To strengthen the village concept, each
classroom or house was treated differently in terms of
color, trim, and window shape (Figure 3-17).
One particular group of students was involved
through Mark French's architecture class. Craig Raf-
ferty came to the class to discuss ideas about the new
building with those students who responded to issues
related to circulation, the need for open and closed
spaces, and color schemes. The students then visited
the architect's office following the building develop-
ment's progress and, finally, visited the building site
during construction.

AFTER-OCCUPANCY RESPONSES
FIGURE 3-16(b). Colonnade through which students circulate An evaluation was conducted by Dr. Hallie Preskill in
(Photo: Philip MacMillan James). 1990, after the first year of the school's operation. It
126 Alternative Schools

is one part of a larger evaluation that will, in three surprisingly, tl*e steps were x_ointed out as a least-
years, describe the effects of a project to restructure liked feature, particularly when level changes were
education in the St. Paul School system. The evalua- discussed early in the process as a method of achieving
tion process consisted of on-site observations of stu- variety. Responses from the teachers were not dissim-
dents, staff, and teachers; individual interviews with ilar to those of the students. They did, however, have
teachers, staff, and district administrators; focus many positive comments about building features that
group interviews with students as well as with parents; encouraged their exploration and experimentation
and a mailed survey to all parents. with new approaches to teaching. More cooperative
A summary of the findings indicated that the teach- learning techniques and more project-based learning
ers were able to enlist participation from nearly all of appeared to reflect the thrust of teaching changes. The
the parents, and the goals of the Personal Growth Plan variety of different types of learning spaces contrib-
appear to be linked to what students are learning in uted to an increase in student-directed learning proj-
their courses (Preskill 1990). Parent support consti- ects.
tutes a major success in Saturn's first year, since it In summary, Rafferty believes that the intensity of
helped teachers and students accomplish many more interaction between all participants contributed to the
of the objectives. They especially liked the fact that successful design of the school. Even more impor-
students were becoming part of the community tantly, he suggests, all participants, including city ar-
through the off-site learning opportunities. chitects and administrators felt a sense of ownership
Unanimous agreement to the color scheme came in the process and in the building, since they all take
from the students. Many also commented favorably credit for the ideas.
to the design of the building. The gym, the pool, and
the discourse room were consistently described as the
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
students' favorite places. Equally consistent was their
negative reaction towards windowless rooms, a con- This section was written from material generously pro-
dition inherent in the shape of the existing building. vided by the Saturn School as well as extensive com-
Thermal comfort in the winter and in the summer also ments conveyed through a microcassette recorder by
seemed to be a constant source of complaints. Most Craig Rafferty, recalling the design process.
Seven Hills School
Attitude Survey |
Charette Process
Community Meetings |v
Design-In |
Focused Interviews [
Fishbowl Planning | •
Game Simulation |
Group Dynamics |
Public Forum |
Task Force |
Training | S
Workshop v

SUMMARY
service to the community. The faculty develop the
The main building of the Seven Hills School, housing curriculum for the needs of children at different age
grades three and six, computer and science labs, of- levels, with individualized groupings and instruction
fices and the library, was destroyed by fire in July to meet the unique needs and abilities of students in
1987. The kindergarten through second grade wing all grades. In addition to their specialized work in the
was only smoke- and water-damaged. The fourth arts, their program in community service brings stu-
grade classrooms were intact and subsequently moved dent art and performance to nursing homes and hos-
to a new site on campus where they have become the pitals. Children also perform their music, drama, and
new science center. Progress towards re-opening, studio work in various festivals and galleries.
however, moved rapidly with the acquisition of seven Parent involvement occurs through a variety of ac-
temporary structures to be used for the following ac- tivities. Parents have an active role in the direction of
ademic year. The volunteer efforts of students, par- the school, as trustees, as well as through a parent
ents, teachers, and alumni also enabled a speedy association.
school start. While temporary facilities were being
prepared, Architect Otto Bauer-Nilsen was working
PROJECT
with administrators and teachers on plans for a new
building. Their vision was to build something that was The Seven Hills Schools of Cincinnati serve the needs
aesthetically pleasing and would fit the spirit and tra- of their students with a program marked by academic
dition of their great school. Their new facility was rigor, a strong faculty, individual attention, and par-
dedicated in January 1989. ticipation. For 70 years they linked the concept of
learning to active exploration, interaction, and discov-
ery in their child-centered program. In July 1987, the
CLIENT 57-year-old main building of the Lotspeich School was
Seven Hills is an independent, nonsectarian, college struck by lightning during a severe thunderstorm.
preparatory day school which comprises elementary, Most of its frame portions, including the library, of-
middle, and upper schools and occupies two campuses fices, science room, computer room and classrooms
in Cincinnati. The Lotspeich School comprises pre- for grades 3 and 6, were destroyed. Classrooms 4 and
kindergarten to fifth grade, and was founded by Helen 5, separated by a masonry addition, were badly dam-
Lotspeich in 1916 as a supportive place where the aged by water and smoke. Eventually part of this
natural curiosity of children would provide the basis section was moved to a new site and restored. It now
for their education. It is a school where education houses the science program. Classrooms for kinder-
extends beyond the classroom to the laboratory, the gartens and grades 1 and 2 were reusable after exten-
library, out-of-doors, studio, and stage, as well as in sive smoke damage was cleaned.
127
128 Alternative Schools

The trustees met immediately and made two deci- much consideration for who the student is and be-
sions: to begin school on time in September and to comes — his and her self-concept, self-responsibility,
hold school on the campus, not in various other attitudes toward school, and personal happiness — as
church-school facilities that had been offered by a for how much and what he or she knows" (Elkind,
generous community. The Hurried Child). The philosophy for the new Mid-
Many of the teachers had lost the accumulation of dle School would emphasize that true learning comes
a lifetime of teaching in the fire. Children, too, stared from active exploration, interaction, and discovery,
in disbelief at what had been their classrooms only not from passive transfer of knowledge. True teaching
one month before. The two weeks after the fire were focuses on the needs of the learner; hence, a child-
filled with images like the sight of the bulldozer at centered curriculum which addresses the physical,
Lotspeich for the demolition and removal of what cognitive, psychological, and social development of
remained of the building. Under the direction of the children is highly valued. This view steered the faculty
Parent Association, hundreds of student, parent, and away from a departmental structure with English,
alumni volunteers did many necessary jobs to allow math, or science teachers, which would stress content.
the school to reopen on time in September. Just be- Rather, they developed interdisciplinary faculty teams
fore the start of school for the academic year, coun- which would address the instructional and develop-
seling was offered to assist teachers in dealing with mental needs of the students. The classroom experi-
their own feelings of grief and loss, as well as with ence could then be enhanced by more ways to involve
possible post-traumatic stress in their students. the students actively in symposiums, panel discus-
Several weeks after the fire, Seven Hills obtained sions, simulation games, and role-playing experiences.
several temporary buildings from different cities while These activities were not possible in their previous
plans were underway for a new building. Seven tem- facility because of the lack of space to divide students
porary structures located near the Fine Arts building into discussion groups, or for rehearsals for dramati-
supplemented the undamaged parts of the school. zations.
Housing the library, French and computer rooms, sci- A workshop involving teachers from the Seven Hills
ence lab, and 3rd through 6th grade classrooms, the Schools and educators from different schools stressed
structures were adequate, and in some cases larger that the focus of the Middle School should be the
than the rooms they were replacing. The new rooms needs of the child, an assertion that reinforced the
had been decorated by teachers and volunteers to current thinking of the teachers.
make them especially cheerful and home-like for the In the meantime a Cincinnati architect, Otto Bauer-
opening of the school year. Nilsen, was working with administrators and teachers
A new Middle School serving grades 6, 7, and 8 had on plans for a new building. They were determined to
been the goal for the Red Bank campus when the build something that was aesthetically pleasing and
Lotspeich School was destroyed. As part of the initial that fit the spirit and tradition of the school. Lotspeich
planning, several teachers spent time exploring the was founded in 1916 by Helen Gibbons Lotspeich,
question "What if 6th grade were added to the Middle who held strong views about children and education.
School? What advantages would this have for 6th One of her views, shared by the people of the day,
graders — educationally, socially, emotionally, and was that fresh air was good for children and learning.
physically? What physical facility would we need to Her original school in her home was called the Clifton
carry out this dream?" The teachers were attempting Open Air School, and it had no heat. The building
to merge the qualities of both campuses in a synergis- built on Red Bank Road in 1930 also had no heat in
tic way that would create an exciting new school. The its early days, so students sat in individual woolen
conclusion was a new Middle School serving 6th, 7th, bags and wore mittens. Many alumni trace their poor
and 8th graders. Adding the 6th grade to the Middle handwriting to the years of writing while wearing mit-
School would lower the age level of the entire school, tens. While the new building certainly has heat, the
lowering the average age, which would have the effect feeling of openness has been maintained through the
of preserving childhood a little longer for the older use of doors from each classroom to the outside and
children. It was generally agreed that a three-year an abundance of windows. This was one of the issues
program would give identity to the Middle School conveyed to the architect by the teachers. In addition
experience. The move from a junior high school ap- to housing offices, classrooms, language and computer
proach to a middle school program was a move from rooms, conference, tutoring and work rooms, their
subject-oriented school work to child-centered schools new library is one-third larger than the old library and
and signified a recognition of a unique period of life complete with a fireplace. Each grade is marked by
with its own strength and needs. hand-carved ceramic tiles designed and created by an
Successful schools for young people ages 10 to 14 art teacher, Diane Kruer, and her student, Dede Gay.
years are positive environments where there is "as The faculty met to review what they had learned
 Seven Hills School 129

FIGURE 3-19. Interior view of kindergarten (Photo: Kathy

FIGURE 3-18. Outdoor access from classrooms (Photo: Kathy Duebell).
Deubell).

from this experience. Eileen Driscoll, principal, stated gazing and meditation on the change of seasons (Fig-
that, "We have learned from each other, in a close- ure 3-19). Further, he set library and hall windows
knit community, students watching their teachers re- low, at child height, and created hallway jogs and
spond with strength and ingenuity to loss and change, alcoves so that halls would look less institutionally
teachers absorbing their students' savoring of the "tunnel and funnel." He also provided a fireplace in
present, of the what is, rather than the what was or the library. ' T h e architect's first design," reports Ms.
may be." The director of operations, Ted Colebrook, Driscoll, "was already close to the mark, and he read-
facilitated the collaboration between the architect and ily incorporated virtually all elements of the faculty
the faculty. He initiated a brainstorming session, from laundry list' program."
which a list was generated, including the following Parents were consulted on the program, but their
considerations: concern focused largely on the safety and non-toxicity
of the building materials. Children's involvement was
All on one floor informal — teachers asked what they wanted and it
Air-light-space generally reflected what the teachers had already re-
Large library for holding school assemblies quested. They did ask for loft spaces, but these were
Direct access to outdoors from each classroom (Figure not incorporated for code and safety reasons.
3-18) "The result of a close and respectful collaboration,"
Display areas for student work reports Ms. Driscoll, "has been a building that is both
Areas in classroom for quiet work and messy projects functional and unusually attractive. The atmosphere
Sinks and water fountain in every room is warm, bright, energizing and welcoming. The spaces
work for different teaching styles including contem-
In addition, the teachers had pooled their past ex- porary hands-on and collaborative. There is virtually
periences with classroom size, and agreed to a square nothing we cannot do in this building from reading
room for about 20 students with tiled and carpeted partners to cooking and serving dinner from Thomas
areas, and a counter for making and displaying proj- Jefferson's cookbook." Ms. Driscoll concludes that
ects. The meeting structure tended to be informal and "faculty involvement in school building design results
consensual, and matters pertaining to the building in a finished product that really works and one that
were often folded into other agendas in faculty meet- truly expresses the soul and spirit of the school" (Fig-
ings, administrative council and board meetings, par- ure 3-20).
ents association meetings, and buildings and grounds
committee meetings.
AFTER-OCCUPANCY ASSESSMENT
When commenting on the most-liked and disliked fea-
IMPLEMENTATION
tures of the new building, the teachers liked the large
The architect included all the teachers' requests into sunny classrooms and their access to the outdoors.
the building program. In addition, he provided a large They also commented on a planning feature which
oculus window in the kindergarten which permits sky- created the library as the "heart of the school," with
130 Alternative Schools

FIGURE 3-20. Floor plan (Drawing: Otto Bauer-Nilsen).

easy access from all classrooms. They disliked the being central to all grades, and inadequacy in size and
results of their recommendation for square class- number of counseling rooms were also least liked fea-
rooms, reporting more wasted space than rectangular tures. They had not been discussed, however, by the
rooms. The location of the teacher's workroom not teachers during the programming sessions.
Wallace O'Neal School
I Attitude Survey | |
Charette Process | v\
Community Meetings I
I Design-In I I
Focused Interviews |v
Fishbowl Planning v
Game Simulation v
Group Dynamics Iv
Public Forum
Task Force
| Training I I
Workshop | •

SUMMARY CLIENT
A private elementary school in Pinehurst, North Car- The Moore County Public School System, which in-
olina, chose a participatory planning process to de- cludes the Pinehurst-Southern Pines area, is in many
velop a long-range building program. This was predi- ways one of the most progressive in North Carolina.
cated on the need to develop better communications Several of the schools in the area provide open class-
between the parents and the teaching staff about the rooms, non-graded classes, team teaching, and other
future of the school. The school's building committee innovations that are still relatively rare in public ed-
invited parents, teachers, and children to become in- ucation. Even so, the Wallace O'Neal School was
volved in intensive work sessions to define collabo- created as an alternative to this public system, and the
ratively their educational goals. motives for this shift were fundamental to the emerg-
The initial sessions began with the children, who ing educational program. There was an expressed de-
were asked for their response to educational goals sire for "quality" education of a kind to be achieved
through various modes of expression. Through the use through energetic, well-paid teachers, and relatively
of poetry exercises, drawing, and role play, the chil- small classes. On a continuum between child-centered
dren were able to voice their concerns in shaping their and teacher-centered approaches, the Wallace O'Neal
new school. The adult members of the school com- program was best described as teacher-oriented, with
munity, too, entered similar activities, and also partic- emphasis on the teaching of subject matter, rather than
ipated in small-group discussions in which they were on student learning. Equally significant was a deter-
asked to consider appropriate educational goals, and mination to develop a school that would be responsive
how they could influence the type of spaces that would to both the needs of the children and the wishes of
occur in a new school. the parents. There was a feeling that the public schools
The final result of the process was a building pro- were too large, too bureaucratic, and too inert to be
gram identifying the range of students' activities and affected by any individual, whether child or parent.
how they should be spatially accommodated in their The desire to participate and to have an effect is an
facility. A follow-up "walk-through" assessment, con- important motive in the creation of any alternative
ducted ten years after construction of their new build- school, and the charette process is an especially ap-
ing, revealed that hasty building decisions had affected propriate planning mode in such a situation.
its proper functioning. Many of the teachers who had
participated in the charette process ten years earlier PROJECT
had maintained their student-centered orientation, and
attempted to humanize their classroom in contrast to The major objective of this project was the creation
the stark institutional setting. of a parent-child coalition to develop an educational
131
132 Alternative Schools

program and to plan and implement physical spaces relevance to the day-to-day workings of a school; in
to complement that program. One approach for reach- fact, there were, within the school community, some
ing this objective is referred to as a "charette," from latent but very strongly felt disagreements about the
the French term, which in architecture implies a pe- best way to implement the program. The parents had
riod of brief but intensive planning. In its present discussed their objectives in general terms; the struc-
adaptation, a charette is an activity that brings com- ture and techniques of the school were left to the
munity members and experts together for a limited headmaster, who was selected because he shared
time period to study specific community problems. these objectives. The school's orientation had been
The essential ingredients are: relatively traditional in its distinction between "aca-
demics," which are emphasized, and "non-academ-
• A problem to be solved ics," which occur during semi-structured "activity
• Community members willing to participate periods." The probable traditionalism of the Wallace
• Experts in both substantive and process issues O'Neal community was recognized in the early team
• A commitment to implement the plans and recom- meetings, when the consultants stated their concern
mendations of the charette that the community may be apprehensive about their
possible "hidden agenda" aimed at propagandizing for
a "radical" school program. Since many of the team
PROCESS members were, in fact, interested in developing a non-
The planning team for the charette consisted of Wil- traditional program and building, the problem was
liam Laslett, project architect; Henry Sanoff, char- genuine, and carried the risk of disintegration of the
ette planner; George Barbour, psychologist; and Joan working relationship.
Sanoff, child development consultant, who conducted Within the team, the issue was dealt with in terms
the student session. This team was responsible for of relative emphasis. Was the team composed of "ex-
planning the charette process, which was conducted perts" whose responsibility was to advocate their own
during three consecutive evenings and three full days opinions of the best educational direction for the
bridging a weekend. school, or was it to be a group of "consultants" whose
The process began when the board members of the obligation was to help the Wallace O'Neal community
Wallace O'Neal Day School, a newly formed private articulate and implement its own ideas? Although the
school in Pinehurst, North Carolina, developed a long- question could not be resolved completely, one deci-
range building plan to include a new facility for a sive factor was that the original charette presentation
proposed kindergarten through ninth grade program. had emphasized the "consultant" role and had been
In the course of interviewing architects for the design accepted on that basis. For this reason, it was gener-
of the new school, the building committee encountered ally agreed that the team would serve a facilitative
one architect who proposed a participatory planning role, and that the biases, though present, should not
approach involving members of the school community be allowed to interfere with the growth of consensus
as well as architects and consultants. In sharp contrast within the client group.
to other presentations based on the architect's expe- The charette began with a morning-long session
rience in planning educational facilities, the building attended by students from different classes. In the
committee was invited to become involved with stu- following week, charette sessions were scheduled for
dents, teachers, architects, and consultants in the cre- Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday evenings, as well
ation of an educational program as well as a building. as the following Saturday and Sunday. Invitations
The Wallace O'Neal community's acceptance of this were extended to the entire Wallace O'Neal adult
pluralistic approach was a measure of their commit- community: parents, members of the board of trust-
ment to their school. ees, building committee, and faculty. The desirability
The concept of community participation was fun- of representation and continuity of participation was
damental to a charette, and set it apart from problem- emphasized, but although this ideal was approached
solving methods which involve experts but exclude in the early sessions, the group was soon reduced to
people. The school planning charette involved the the faculty and those building committee members and
consumers: the teachers, parents, and children who trustees who would carry the greatest responsibility
would have to use and "live with" the results. The for implementing the decisions emerging from the
most valuable by-product, one which in many ways charette.
gave life to the results, was the sense of commitment
and cohesiveness which grew from the struggle of
STUDENTS' SESSION
planning together.
These ideas were the beginnings of an educational The charette team felt that it was important to have
program, but there had been little articulation of their the students of the school understand the events that
 Wallace O'Neal School 133

through various exercises, be made part of the plan-

ning process.
The session opened with the construction of a col-
laborative poem, a group of statements composed of
responses to the phrase, "I wish my school . . ."
(Figure 3-21). This approach permitted the students to
fantasize about their dream school through an open
yet structured process. Wish poems were considerably
more effective than stating objectives, particularly if
the intention was to keep the thinking global and ex-
ploratory. The results of the wish poem indicated con-
cerns about the administration, curriculum, and the
physical environment.
A follow-up exercise required the children to rate
their present school environment using a pre-selected
list of adjectives. This technique, described as a polar-
opposite adjective scale, provided students with a
broad vocabulary for describing and evaluating their
environment. It was particularly revealing when stu-
dents were also asked to describe their "ideal" school
using the same list of adjectives. Not only was it
valuable to compare the results, but it was also a way
of expanding the students' conceptions of the envi-
ronment. The next exercise, from the progression of
abstract to concrete experiences, was for the students
to draw pictures of typical and ideal schools based on
their mental images. Since people react to the built
environment in terms of the meaning the environments
have for them, the image of a school certainly is quite
symbolically loaded. The drawings of the typical and
ideal schools conveyed both positive and negative
characteristics (Figure 3-22). For example, all draw-
ings depicting a typical school revealed brick factory-
like buildings, similar to their stereotypical image of
school buildings constructed in America in the 1920s.
Their drawings of the ideal school, on the other hand,
were more complex, angular, cast in a wooded setting,

FIGURE 3-21. Children's wish poem.

would be taking place, and to give them an opportunity

to generate ideas of their own about the kind of school
they would like to have. Because their direct partici-
pation in the charette was not considered feasible,
it was agreed to conduct a session at the school in FIGURE 3-22. Children drawing the image of schools (Photo:
which a representative group of 14 students could, William Laslett).
134 Alternative Schools

FIGURE 3-23. Children's drawings of schools.

and conveyed a different attitude about a building as and typical school buildings sensitized the parents and
well as its context (Figure 3-23). teachers to the importance of the building's image,
The results of the exercise characterized the stu- even to 11- and 12-year-olds. Students' drawings
dents' concern about their new school. Since their pres- showed an awareness and concern for their new
ent school comprised six wood-constructed mobile school beyond the expectations of the adult partici-
units, they wanted to convey that their new building pants. Second, the summary of the results of the stu-
should not separate them as the present arrangement dent exercises, which constituted the opening of the
does. Follow-up discussions indicated their desire for adult sessions, set a positive tone for the event. This
more interaction that could be better enhanced in one was particularly important since the overall goal of the
building. Here, as in the wish poem and in verbal charette was to help the Wallace O'Neal community
ratings, the desire for variety, spontaneity, daylight, compile information about itself, information that
and color were apparent. could be used to create and evaluate a building design
The students' final experience was an introduction proposal.
to the process of planning a school through a role play During the course of the charette, the team used a
of the charette itself. This activity was developed number of techniques and strategies, each designed to
with the belief that children are interested in playing generate, summarize, contrast, and translate into spa-
with adult roles in order to try them on for size. Role tial terms the information and ideas of the client group.
play relies on the spontaneous performance of partic- The planning team decided that a sound building pro-
ipants when placed in a hypothetical situation. In role gram could be derived only from a clear and consen-
play, the essential core of the activity was understand- sual educational program and, for this reason, the bulk
ing the situation of another person. A student was of the charette time was scheduled for discussion of
placed in a position in which he or she was given the education issues. This choice was questioned from a
opportunity to "feel" what was at stake once given the number of viewpoints: some felt that the educational
basic information. Through such participation, stu- program was already clear, and that they should begin
dents can gain a greater understanding of other roles planning and building; others felt that they had nothing
and relationships, as well as a better awareness of to contribute to a discussion of educational objectives;
what they themselves are doing. still others seemed to feel that the consultants were
The task was to develop a program for the school; avoiding their responsibility by expecting the school
however, the actors were characterized by hypotheti- community to produce its own plans and ideas.
cal descriptions of school board members, teachers, With these issues partially resolved, the second and
and an architect. The session lasted well over two third evenings were used to formulate an educational
hours and into lunch period while students fought and program using a structured process. Participants were
argued and finally fired the minister from the building divided into small working groups in order to provide
committee because they did not want to include a opportunities for each member to voice his or her
chapel in their new school. opinion (Figure 3-24). Voting to reach decisions was
Results from student involvement in the process discouraged in order to allow all ideas to be fully
were twofold. First, students' drawings of the ideal explored as well as to have participants resolve their
 Wallace O'Neal School 135

goals, two of which were common to four of the

groups.
The final session of the charette began with board
members, teachers, and parents assembling to re-eval-
uate the findings of the previous game session, and to
reword, clarify, and amend the material into a new set
of goals that the entire group could support. The sev-
eral new participants who joined the planning group
were readily accepted, and were acquainted with pre-
vious processes and decisions.
The collaborative wish poem was reviewed, and
from it a set of statements were distilled that included
concerns about fostering social awareness, working
with less fortunate children, challenging students,
learning through direct experience, and identifying
parent and community responsibilities. With these
FIGURE 3-24. Parent-teacher workshop (Photo: William
Laslett). statements and the game objectives in mind, the group
was asked to meet without the consultants to produce
a set of goals, written in their own words, that would
serve as the objectives for their school. The group
differences early in the process, so that their continued returned after a long and often boisterous discussion
involvement would be productive. with a list of thirteen statements that they felt satisfied
Relating Objectives for Learning to Education their needs.
(ROLE) was a group discussion process developed by The procedure used to establish the schools' prior-
Sanoff (1984) to familiarize lay people with a design ities within this list was a method in which each goal
procedure in which they could contribute their ideas, was compared with every other one, and to select from
learn from each other, and learn about important de- each pair the one that was most important. This tech-
sign relationships established by the structure of the nique is referred to as paired comparisons. Although
process. Similar to a parlor game such as "Monopoly," this required 78 separate decisions from each partici-
a set of rules was developed to ensure that each par- pant, the procedure was carried out easily by partici-
ticipant would make individual and group decisions. pants, acknowledging their decisions by a show of
Beginning with educational goals, community mem- hands, so that the results were immediately tabulated.
bers examined how goals generate different ways in Thirteen goal statements were ranked in order of im-
which learning can occur, or learning methods; how portance, according to the paired comparison tech-
teachers and students would collaborate (interac- nique.
tions); and, finally, the places where learning methods This product — the participants' goals ranked ac-
and interactions would occur, or settings. cording to their own priorities — provided a great
For each goal that was agreed upon, the work sense of satisfaction for the school community. They
groups had to identify four compatible learning were especially pleased that their overall objectives
methods (see Chapter 5, Participatory Theories and emphasized personal growth rather than a concentra-
Methods for a listing of goal statements and learning tion on academic achievement. From this consensual
methods). For most groups, this step in the process base, a model was proposed for translating the com-
was the beginning of discussions about the relevance, munity's objectives into instructional procedures, and
desirability, and implications of unconventional meth- subsequently into educational settings. The first goal
ods such as non-gradedness and student decision mak- statement, developing a sense of responsibility\ was
ing. The final step in the process consisted of matching used as an illustration by soliciting responses for in-
each learning method with a photograph from a set of structional methods to implement this goal, using the
36 possible choices. This process revealed to the mem- alternatives already familiar from the previous discus-
bers of the community a procedure for evaluating the sion sessions. Some of the methods suggested were:
appropriateness of spaces within a school building. independent study, experimentation, small-group ac-
Over all, it was clear that each member of each tivity, problem solving, role playing, lecture-demon-
group had been given an opportunity at some stage of stration, and group discussion.
the process to define and defend his or her own ideas, Each proposed method was then coded according
and to reach out for agreement and shared understand- to student-teacher relationship, and evaluated against
ing within the group. The five groups participating in the 13 goal statements to determine the methods and
the gaming sessions selected a total of ten different relationships best suited to the program goals. This
136 Alternative Schools

approach enabled the group to understand fully the Art

means by which their goals could be realized. It also Construction
held in abeyance emotionally loaded discussions of Drama
"open" or "non-graded" classrooms until some general Independent study
agreement of children's learning processes was shared Language arts
by all participants. This helped prevent the "fixing" of Music
concepts too early in the planning stages, by allowing Science
solutions to evolve through goal-oriented discussion Social science
rather than through arguments based on prejudgment. Sports
In this way the architect (who participated in all ses-
sions) was given a more complete view of the intention In order to facilitate a productive discussion, data
and direction of the school program and, as a result, sheets were prepared whereby each activity for each
was in a position to generate alternatives appropriate grade could be treated independently (Figure 3-25).
to this community's needs, rather than having to fol- The data sheet became a permanent record of the
low currently fashionable prototypes. requirements of the facility as the development of each
This session heightened the confrontation between of the primary activities suggested its relative impor-
faculty and parents. During the process of associating tance in terms of the allocation of spaces. This infor-
learning methods with objectives, it became clear that mation provided the architect with a reasonable start-
the student-teacher relationship should be a function ing point for the development of a building design, as
of the goals intended, regardless of the popularity or he assumed the role of translating objectives, meth-
convenience of any "teaching" model. The teachers ods, and activities into an accommodating spatial or-
were made aware of the fact that while they had a ganization.
body of knowledge to convey through the academic The charette had reached this point through a series
curriculum, the school's objectives were to determine of structured techniques which enabled the partici-
the way in which students were exposed to "content" pants to define with increasing confidence and inde-
areas. pendence their educational objectives, and the type of
All preceding discussions centered on the develop- environment they would need to implement those ob-
ment of a consensual educational base from which a jectives.
building program could generate. The following ses-
sion attempted to synthesize previous discussions
through the graphic representation of the newly for-
mulated goal statements and learning methods. While AFTER-OCCUPANCY RESPONSES
the charette participants suggested learning methods, Based on the program developed during the charette,
a team of architects responded with spontaneous the architect submitted four alternative proposals and
sketches depicting the physical realization of the pro- accompanying cost estimates for construction. Figure
posed ideas. This session had a twofold impact on the 3-26 represents one plan alternative. An extremely
community group. First, it permitted the participants limited budget, however, and an overconfident board
to view the architects' interpretations of verbal state- of trustees, composed mostly of parents, caused them
ments into physical form; second, the participants be- to dispense with the services of the architect in favor
came more sensitive to the processes designers utilize of visiting schools until they found a floor plan that
in shaping space. While it was evident that the emerg- could easily accommodate their perceived needs. A
ing forms were merely illustrative suggestions, the local builder constructed their new school based on a
group's awareness of the links between learning meth- set of modified floor plans of a similar private school
ods and appropriate spaces was substantially sharp- elsewhere in the state.
ened. Follow-up interviews with the principal and teach-
Although this marked the end of the planned activ- ers, as well as observations of the school building in
ities, the charette was extended at the request of the use several years after construction, revealed numer-
participants in order to provide more specific design ous problems that resulted from the hasty actions of
directives to the architect. The intention was to de- the trustees. The principal clearly stated that concerns
scribe all of the activities that the children would for reducing the initial building cost and dispensing
engage in (the activities that the facility would be with the architect were unwise, since the utility and
designed to serve), and to select the learning methods operating costs and the construction modifications
appropriate to the objectives of the school. The pri- have plagued the school for a decade. An indoor swim-
mary activities of the school day were initially defined ming pool, constructed to satisfy one of the earlier
as: objectives of bringing the community to the school,
 Wallace O'Neal School 137

FIGURE 3-25. Typical activity worksheet identifying community objectives and learning
methods.

FIGURE 3-26. Proposed floor plan (Drawing: William Laslett).

had to be closed for four months during the year be- principal. Even ten years after construction, the teach-
cause of excessive heating and dehumidification costs. ers believed that their involvement could have im-
Discussions with teachers who participated in the proved the building appearance as well as its proper
charette revealed a feeling of alienation by not being functioning. On the positive side, the charette process
directly involved in the plan review process. This role increased the teachers' sensitivity to the emotional
was delegated to the overly zealous trustees and the needs of the students, particularly as they expanded
138 Alternative Schools

their program to include a twelfth grade, and pursued

their student-centered focus. This interest was best
displayed by their lounge-cafeteria, which had the
physical characteristics of a 1950s soda shop, includ-
ing the appropriate music to establish the mood.
One classroom was particularly noteworthy, since
it contained a group discussion area that was created
from pre-owned (due to limited budget) overstuffed
furniture (Figure 3-27). It was apparent that the teach-
ing style reflected the need for space for small-group
activities that varied in nature, yet occurred simulta-
neously. This room, planned by one of the original
charette participants, provides additional evidence
that supports the view that the process had a residual
success. Teaching staff that joined the school after the
charette commented that they regretted not having
been a part of the occasion that represented the turn-
ing point in the development of the school.

FIGURE 3-27. Classroom in new building modified by the

teacher (Photo: Henry Sanoff ).
 4
Higher Education Environments

139
Higher Education Environments

Campus design warrants attention because many older grand physical plans were often considered more im-
buildings can no longer serve their function, changing portant than academic matters. By the mid-19th cen-
demographics will create competition for students tury, the traditional university was criticized for not
through the turn of the century, and, finally, college meeting contemporary needs. An aspect of the new
and university campuses are in poor physical condi- democratic reform of education included educational
tion today. Rapid growth and inflation have caused planning, and books on school design with plans show-
deferred maintenance and constructed buildings of ing classroom flexibility. The Land Grant College Act
poor quality. In recognition of this factor, most Amer- fostered the right of education to all social classes and
ican campuses propose to enhance their physical con- the freedom of students to choose their courses of
dition through restoration, renewal, or replacement in study. With this change of focus came a change in
the coming decade. While campus planning methods attitude about campus planning. Noted landscape ar-
are often used to guide physical development, it is chitect Frederick Law Olmstead, who was involved
useful to consider linking design, behavior, and par- in the design of about 20 schools during his career,
ticipatory planning methods in establishing the campus proposed to adopt a picturesque, rather than a formal
plan agenda. and perfectly symmetrical, campus arrangement. This
Current campus planning methods have evolved approach, he argued, would harmonize with the char-
from the ideal rooted in English medieval universities, acter desired for the neighborhood as well as allow
where students and teachers lived and studied together for modifications in the general plan of building. By
in tightly controlled colleges. In its most formative the 20th century, architectural competitions became a
period, the early 19th century, American higher edu- common method for selecting designs for universities,
cation experienced rapid growth but found itself in though the Beaux-Arts movement advocating monu-
crisis. Traditional education, requiring mandatory mental organization and orderly planning at a grand
chapel services, strict dormitory rules, and adherence scale influenced campus design many years following.
to a prescribed curriculum, gave rise to student frus- After World War 11, rapid increase in enrollments
tration. Vandalism and violence were not uncommon and changing patterns of education dramatically af-
and concern for student order often affected architec- fected campus planning, particularly traditional forms
tural planning (Turner 1984). Much of the collegiate of design. Traditional design usually produced a uni-
work of that period was thought to belong to the fied design with a particular architectural character.
architectural category that included prisons and asy- Master plans were abandoned in favor of establishing
lums. Classical curricula seemed to embody the clas- principles for future growth, since many college ad-
sical style of architecture, and the Greek Revival ministrators found such plans unrealistic and difficult
which was popular for nearly all building types seemed to implement fully. By the mid-20th century, the view
particularly well suited for colleges. Symmetry and of the university was that it could never be complete.
order were apparent in the planning of all schools, and This gave rise to the individual campus building, with

141
142 Higher Education Environments

little regard for the whole. Campus open spaces were (Huebner et al. 1979), an academic department (Hueb-
filled with large lecture halls, large dormitories, and ner 1975), and residence hall systems (Daher, Coraz-
student unions, without any attempt to conform to an zini, and McKinnon 1977; Schuh 1979).
existing campus style. Concern for unprecedented and The mainstream of research in post-secondary
unpredictable growth made institutions think about school environments is in the area of university resi-
flexibility. Consequently, the location of new buildings dences. Moos (1979) developed a University Resi-
was based on traffic patterns, densities, and other dence Environment Scale which investigates students'
environmental conditions. Dober (1963) described perceptions of their own interactions, the emphasis in
each building on a campus as a planning unit, where the residence upon social versus intellectual activities,
the manipulation of each would have consequences the extent of order and of innovativeness, and student
for all. Therefore, he argues for constant testing, ad- influence in making decisions about house operations.
justment, and feedback to reach agreement on the Other researchers have also explored the influence of
location of roads, and connections between buildings. the college environment on students and developed
Dober (1992) conceives of campus planning today theories to account for these influences (Astin 1968;
as a product and a process, in which there is a well- Holland 1973; Moos 1979). In general these theories
defined sequence of activities, and an equitable divi- suggest that the degree to which student's character-
sion of labor and responsibility between constituency istics and needs are congruent with various aspects of
representatives and consultants. Campus-wide discus- the environment influences their satisfaction, happi-
sions to inform, to endorse, and to receive comments ness, and achievement. A format that asks about
are integral to achieving an acceptable plan. General perceived discrepancies between the ideal and real
agreement is achieved when there is consensus about environment provides an estimate of the degree of
the meaning and consequences of the findings. their congruence.
The campus environment consists of a number of Studies of the physical environment indicate that
interdependent relationships including physical struc- distance, spatial arrangements, and amenities have
tures, organization, and people (Evans 1983). An ap- been found to influence behavior and attitudes of
proach for understanding the effect of the environment people working or living in various settings. Informa-
on the well-being of students is described as the cam- tion concerning these environmental factors can be
pus ecology model (Crookston 1975). The campus assessed using floor plans, lists of amenities in a par-
ecology movement (Banning 1978, 1980) emphasized ticular location, or rating scales that assess the impres-
the importance of considering the influence of the sions people have of the physical characteristics of an
campus environment on the behavior and performance environment (Evans 1983).
of students and of attempting to change conditions Research in the assessment and manipulation of
that were negatively affecting students' lives. Devel- college and university environments is even more frag-
oped by a task force of the Western Interstate Com- mentary than research into elementary school envi-
mission for Higher Education (WICHE 1973), the ronments. Much of this research is based on
establishment of campus design centers was advo- interaction patterns between individuals and different
cated whose staff would devote full time to the as- meanings associated with the use of environment.
sessment and redesign of campus environments. En- Gump (1987) suggests the ordering of findings into
vironmental assessment and redesign projects in a groups such as site, paths, enclosure, and seating, all
variety of settings have been conducted. A few re- of which are modified and shaped by interpersonal
searchers have attempted to assess the total campus relationships. This ordering would provide a common
environment (Coyne 1975; Tread way 1979). Others framework and the development of cumulative find-
have investigated the environment of a medical school ings.
Florida A&M University School of Architecture
Attitude Survey v
Charette Process |v
Community Meetings
Design-In
Focused Interviews v
Fishbowl Planning \v
Game Simulation
Group Dynamics
Public Forum
Task Force
Training
Workshop

SUMMARY
this process, the School of Architecture and Board of
The Florida State Legislature was not only concerned Regents (BOR) selected a team to conduct a Post-
about producing high quality, energy-conserving Occupancy Evaluation to examine the design and
buildings; they also endorsed a number of innovations construction process and to evaluate the completed
such as selecting an architect by competition, as well building. The results are documented in a Final Report
as modifying some steps in the normal building deliv- prepared by the project team which included Min Kan-
ery system for the new architecture building at Florida trowitz, Project Manager; Craig Zimring, Principal
A&M University. As part of this process a team was Investigator, Georgia Tech; and Edward T. White,
selected to conduct a Post-Occupancy Evaluation Project Officer, Florida A&M University.
(POE) to examine the process of design and construc- The Capital Improvements Office of the BOR served
tion, and to evaluate the completed building. The data as the owner during design and construction. The
were collected in four phases including pre-move eval- university, through its Campus Planning Office, ad-
uation, construction monitoring, settling-in evalua- ministered the contract. The owner also included
tion, and evaluation after one year of occupancy. The the facility users, the School of Architecture, which
results are contained in a final report prepared by the played a more active role in design and construction
College of Architecture, Georgia Institute of Technol- because of their expertise.
ogy, and Min Kantrowitz (1986) and Associates. This The architect was the firm of Clements/Rumpel/As-
POE process was unique in that the responsibility for sociates, winner of the design competition whose pro-
all phases of the project, from identification of issues, gram was prepared by the School of Architecture. The
through data gathering and analysis, to implementa- program established the requirements for image,
tion planning has been shared between the project building function for occupants, and building perfor-
team and students, faculty, and key decision makers mance.
from the university, and the state of Florida.
PROJECT
CLIENT
The FAMU School of Architecture was perceived as
In 1980 the Florida State Legislature, concerned that a continuing experiment and teaching tool. Organizers
state-owned buildings be of highest possible quality intended for students to learn by studying how the
and be delivered quickly and efficiently, explored a building was designed and constructed and by observ-
number of innovations for the new School of Archi- ing what works and wears well over time and what
tecture building. They allowed the Board of Regents does not. By using both the successes and shortcom-
to select the architect by competition, hire a construc- ings of the facility as teaching tools, the entire building
tion management firm, and track the planning, con- becomes a valuable resource in the educational pro-
struction, and occupancy of the building. As part of gram. Several of the experimental aspects of the fa-
143
144 Higher Education Environments

cility involve the passive heating and cooling system. ing was to avoid the large, barn-like rooms in favor of
Other features of the school included the use of small smaller, individual and separate studios which hold
individual studios, the reduced size of faculty offices only one class of 16 students each. The intention was
in favor of shared meeting space, and the open cir- to create an atelier atmosphere in the design classes,
culation system to facilitate human interaction. a sense of ownership of the space, where students
The design competition for the new School of Ar- have their own work station and are encouraged to
chitecture stressed a structure that "pushed the limits move in.
of current definitions of architecture, one that empha-
sized economical construction, programmatic flexibil-
ity, community accessibility, and energy conservation
(Wineman and Zimring 1986)." PROCESS
The building is located on a sloping site along a The School of Architecture was established in 1975 as
major campus road. The library, computer lab, and a result ot "Florida's Plan for Equalizing Educational
lecture hall are contained within a front block, par- Opportunities in Public Higher Education" in 1974 and
tially buried to relate in scale and material to the facing the 1973 State University System's "A Study of Flor-
houses. Perpendicular to the front block are four wings ida's Future Need for Architects." The goals set forth
containing offices, labs, and studios (Figure 4-1). The were to establish a quality professional degree pro-
wings are constructed with low-cost steel framing and gram.
corrugated steel and fiberglass cladding. The school was housed in space designed for and
One of the objectives for the new architecture build- occupied by other academic programs on the A&M
campus. The rapid growth of the program and its space
requirements were not met by the school facilities. As
a result, a School of Architecture building project was
proposed to be consistent with similar programs
throughout the country that would satisfy professional
accreditation requirements.
A facilities program was prepared by the school's
faculty, establishing requirements for image, building
function for occupants, and building performance. A
faculty design charette was used to generate a build-
ing requirements list that was structured into the build-
ing program in four weeks. The architect was selected
through a national two-stage competition held in 1980.
Thirty-four entries were received from across the
nation, of which six were selected for participation
in phase two of the competition. After much delib-
eration, the jury settled on the Clements Rumpel
submission as the first place scheme. In addition, a
construction manager was used rather than a
competitive-bidding process. A major program goal
was to "demonstrate cstate-of-the art' techniques in
passive heating, cooling, ventilation and lighting sys-
tems." Other related goals were to "utilize advantages
in the area's climate," and to "present image of 'lead-
ing edge' quality of school." This was the basis for
selection of the design from the competition. Promot-
ing social interaction between students and faculty and
effective workspace were equally valued goals. Using
the concept of community as an organizing element,
organizers hoped that a new building would support a
sense of social community among the students: "a
place where people would want to go, where they
would want to spend time." Comfort was also seen as
FIGURE 4-1. Building plans (Drawing: Clements/Rumple/Asso- important: "Environmental factors have a significant
ciates, Architects/Planners, Inch- impact on teaching and learning processes."
 Florida A&M University School of Architecture 145

POST-OCCUPANCY EVALUATION PROCESS identified during the walk-through with expectations

and programmatic intent. Documentation consisted
The Post-Occupancy Evaluation (POE) of the Florida of faculty logs, individual interviews with adminis-
A&M University (FAMU) School of Architecture is trators, and walk-throughs with staff, faculty, and
one result of the Florida State Legislature's aim at students.
testing a number of innovations in building design and Evaluation One Year After Occupancy. A follow-up
delivery. The project team selected to conduct the building use analysis and physical condition study
study organized an Advisory Task Force composed of was conducted by a walk-through with faculty, stu-
key decision makers from Florida state government, dents, and staff, observations of student and faculty
Florida A&M University, and the FAMU School of activity, and measurements of noise, light, and tem-
Architecture. Their evaluation addressed many issues perature levels.
related to building use, maintenance, and flexibility.
Of particular concern was how the building met the
A variety of data collection methods were used to
program objectives concerning building image, energy
reflect the client's desire to involve the school and
conservation, social interaction, and security. The
important decision makers in the process.
Task Force relied heavily on walk-through interviews.
Jean Wineman and Craig Zimring (1988) summarize
These interviews helped the faculty feel they were part
the results of an evaluation of the school by stating,
of the process, and that their concerns were heard and
"Students and faculty are proud of their new building
understood. These participatory "self-report" mea-
and bring visitors often. The school is a campus land-
sures were balanced by observation and physical mon-
mark." The building has become a major stop on tours
itoring which allowed more quantifiable information
of Tallahassee by students and faculty. In addition,
to be gathered. newspapers and architectural magazines have praised
The evaluation took place in four phases: the building's visual interest (Figure 4-2). In 1985, an
international jury of the Florida American Institute of
1. Pre-move evaluation Architects gave the building an award for design ex-
2. Construction monitoring cellence.
3. Settling-in evaluation
The consequences of programmatic decisions also
4. Evaluation one year after occupancy
clearly demonstrated conflicts between different
"users" of the building. While the students and faculty
Over a three-year period the project team examined
wanted a building with a strong image, this emphasis
the former building occupied by the School of Archi-
has increased the expense of long-term maintenance
tecture, analyzed the new building construction
and operations for the university. The client and ar-
process, studied the newly occupied School of Archi- chitect were concerned with making a building that
tecture as occupants settled into it, and assessed the would be flexible and efficient for a school of archi-
building after more than a year of occupancy. tecture. Changing uses for the school, however, may
Pre-Move Evaluation. The evaluation team gathered present a serious future problem. While many of the
information about the school's former quarters by spaces can accommodate a variety of uses, they are
conducting walk-throughs with staff, faculty, and not able to change their size easily. The relatively
students. The team studied building use patterns, small studios make it difficult to schedule small or
physical conditions, and the users' assessments of larger classes. As a result some studios are over-
their old building and expectations about the new crowded and are required to utilize space originally
one. Documentation consisted of questionnaires, in- designated for group discussions. In addition, the
dividual interviews, walk-throughs, and observa- small dark studios create a feeling of isolation between
tions of student, faculty, and staff activities. studios and between levels of students. Students feel
Construction Monitoring. The construction process there is insufficient interaction as a result of the design
was monitored to see why changes were made and of the individual studios.
if they affected the design. The team analyzed the While the finger plan and building organization are
program, attended construction meetings, and ana- clear and facilitate easy movement between inside and
lyzed changes to the construction documents. In- outside, segregating faculty into an administrative
terviews with the architect, construction manager, wing received mixed reactions from faculty and was
and client representatives also enabled the team to generally disliked by students. Although most students
examine other issues related to the construction and faculty feel social interaction is enhanced by the
process. ability to see each other on the open walkways, there
Settling-In Evaluation. The team visited the school appears to be greater isolation of faculty from students
ten weeks after initial occupancy to compare issues because of the "wing" organization of the building.
146 Higher Education Environments

FIGURE 4-2. Exterior of building (Photo: Florida A&M School of Architecture).

The faculty-administration wing offers few opportu-

nities for casual faculty interaction which is felt to
exacerbate the feeling of isolation in the school. The
exterior spaces intended for socializing, circulating,
and teaching are heavily used for all of these purposes.
Students and faculty are enthusiastic about the open-
ness of the plan. They enjoy the convenient relation-
ship between interior and exterior spaces and often
take advantage of good weather to hold classes and
meetings outside. The stairs to the street from the first
courtyard come from a natural amphitheater, and ses-
sions with the entire school are frequently held there.
One of the original competition goals was that the
building would serve as a continuing experiment and
teaching resource. The building was to demonstrate
steel-frame construction and leading edge design. To
accomplish this aim, the architect felt that exposing
the mechanical system and joints between materials
would allow students to visually trace the working of
the heating and ventilating system and details of con-
struction (Figure 4-3). This has occurred, and the
building is frequently used as an example in technical
classes. Faculty from the department of education ex-
pressed the desire to develop and formalize ways in
which the building is and can be used as a teaching
tool.
In an effort to achieve a state-of-the-art energy con-
servation system, some of the elements appear to be
overly experimental. Thermal comfort is reportedly
difficult to control, and while the faculty have taken
responsibility for running the complex computer-con-
trolled system, there are substantial complaints about FIGURE 4-3. Interior view showing the building's structure
excessive humidity. It was proposed by the architect (Photo: Florida A&M School of Architecture).
 Florida A&M University School of Architecture 147

as a "hands-on laboratory," yet little can be done to but the evaluation piovided feedback to ... state
alter uncomfortable conditions. about the building process. The evaluation increased
awareness of POE within the FAMU School of Ar-
chitecture and provided an ongoing case study for
Benefits of the POE Process
classes in the school. The POE also enhanced com-
A variety of benefits resulted from the POE process. munication among the organizations involved in the
Not only did the findings help fine-tune the building, state building delivery process.
Kellog Community College, Science Laboratories
I Attitude Survey | |
| Charette Process | |
Community Meetings
Design-In
Focused Interviews v
Fishbowl Planning
| Game Simulation | |
I Group Dynamics | |
| Public Forum | |
Task Force v
Training
Workshop

SUMMARY PROJECT
In the belief that the design and management of a The project was innovative in that HMRC and KCC
college building could affect the quality of the educa- established performance objectives and evaluation
tion given inside it, Kellog Community College (KCC) techniques before the building was built. HMRC then
commissioned Facility Management Institute (FMI), designed the interior space, implemented a materials
a division of Herman Miller Research Corporation handling system, and performed a post-occupancy
(HMRC), to design interiors for a 60,000 ft four-story evaluation.
science-health building. Working together on performance criteria, HMRC
The building, designed by Sarvis Associates, was and KCC agreed that the Roll Building should con-
evaluated after its completion using objectives estab- tribute measurably to the quality of education at KCC
lished in the original program. Using interviews with and be a cost-effective facility. The college was com-
the occupants of the building, as well as observations mitted to a building which would have low mainte-
of lab activities, the evaluation team monitored the nance and change costs over the coming years, and
spatial behavior of administrators, instructors, and which necessitated the use of versatile subsystems to
students (Zimring and Reizenstein 1981). provide an adaptable space configuration.
The objectives of having a building that could adjust An 18-month performance evaluation was con-
to curricula and enrollment changes were approached ducted by FMI using objectives established in the
by the use of a modular laboratory and office furnish- building's original concept documents.
ings, mixing all functions in the same open interior
space. So far, there have been many environmental
CLIENT
changes including the enlargement of faculty offices
and classrooms at costs lower than for a conventional Kellog Community College, Battle Creek, Michigan,
facility as well as increased faculty-student contact. had experienced all the facility problems associated
Findings of the post-occupancy evaluation support the with changing curricula and migrations of students
notion that the environment's performance can be from one program to another. Its existing building,
measured in both facility and human terms. Student only ten years old, had been unable to adapt. A new
interest in science increased and faculty-student con- autotutorial program needed storage space and a lab-
tact doubled in the new building. Operating costs for oratory had been converted to a storeroom. Faculty
inventory storage, materials handling personnel, and and curricula growth resulted in instructors sharing
space rearrangement were all lower than for a con- offices. New science and health courses were being
ventional facility. The college also plans to continue taught in the drama and engineering buildings.
the evaluation process by examining in-lab activity The college trustees approved a new science-health
patterns and guiding plans for reorganization of the program and the college was anxious that the new
environment and the management system. building would avoid the pitfalls of the old one. The
148
 Kellog Community College, Science Laboratories 149

college wanted spatial efficiency without compromis- HMRC and KCC agreed that these concepts and
ing function. The college also intended to house its goals would have top priority in design decisions about
science and health courses in a facility which would physical layout and interior design. Consequently, the
have a positive effect on the quality of health-science building was designed with some unusual features
education and on student interest in the sciences. intended to maximize flexibility. The building was de-
signed with a minimum of permanent walls and col-
umns in order to use demountable partitions varying
from four feet to ceiling height. The exterior walls and
PROCESS the wall separating the corridor from the main area
Changing demographic characteristics are substan- were the only major walls in the building. The only
tially influencing higher education facilities. More corridor in the building ran along the side, rather than
older students are enrolling than ever before, which the center, of the building. To facilitate removal or
has influenced the shift in emphasis of many existing storage, all furniture including lab benches, work sur-
programs. The pressure for changing curricula, cou- faces, book shelves, and work lights were modular
pled with declining enrollments, has forced higher and suspended from the demountable partitions (Fig-
education to accommodate these changes in their ure 4-4). All functioning areas, whether classrooms,
existing facilities. While many college buildings are laboratories, reading areas, offices, project areas, or
obsolete, rising operating costs and short supply of lounges were separated by demountable partitions.
funds have created the dilemma of inappropriate sur- Services such as water, electricity, vacuum, and com-
plus space (FMI 1983). There are, however, institu- pressed air were surface mounted along the full length
tions with the resources to build or reuse buildings of the north and south exterior walls, as well as on
that regard facilities as assets to be managed rather the columns.
than as liabilities to be maintained. The final design for the laboratory areas in the build-
With the assistance of FMI, Kellog Community Col- ing contained a mixture of classrooms, small study
lege (KCC) attempted to enlarge the realm of facility areas, reception, teaching laboratories, with offices
concerns to include work process and people issues, and project work areas on one of the floors (Figure 4-
emphasizing facility performance and ways to measure 5). Teaching laboratories were without doors and were
it when building a new classroom-laboratory building. buffered by reception or reading areas (Figure 4-6),
Although KCC s main laboratory building was only though varied in their arrangement and services. While
ten years old, it could not accommodate the technical the physics area contained work benches without
and material changes necessary in the science and plumbing, the chemistry work areas contained a full
health area. The college trustees therefore approved range of services at the center of each bench with all
a new building whose program was to permit major utilities available for each pair of students (Figure 4-
modifications of space allocations, spatial efficiency 7). Each laboratory area contained storage shelves,
without compromising function, to a facility that space for lockers, and mobile carts which are the main
would have a positive effect on the quality of health- vehicle for the materials management system.
science education and on student interest in the sci-
ences. For this goal, four different approaches were
proposed:

First, to increase creative cross-fertilization of ideas

by increasing contact between disciplines. This
could be accomplished by consecutive use of the
same space by different classes and by visibility of
ongoing classes.
Second, to remove impediments to constructive stu-
dent-faculty contact by spending less classroom
time in noneducational activities, such as searching
for equipment and supplies.
Third, to provide a responsive building which would
allow or encourage faculty to propose new courses
or teaching methods readily accommodated in the
building.
Fourth, to create an attractive, modern building that
would enhance the sciences' general attractiveness FIGURE 4-4. Modular components (Photo: Herman Miller Re-
and modern image. search Corporation).
150 Higher Education Environments

FIGURE 4-5. Layout of science floor (Drawing: Herman Miller Research Corporation).

An important feature of this building was the de-

velopment of a materials management system in which
a fixed staff maintained a central inventory. This sys-
tem eliminated most materials storage in the labora-
tories and relieved instructors and students of many
non-learning tasks. Centralized storage permitted the
total inventory to be reduced and minimized the time
students and faculty devoted to searching for, prepar-
ing, and cleaning up materials (Figure 4-8). This ap-
proach to materials management is referred to as a
"kit" system in educational institutions, a "case-cart"
system in hospital surgery suites, and an "exchange"
system in the military.

FIGURE 4-6. Instructional laboratory (Photo: Herman Miller

Research Corporation). IMPLEMENTATION
There is little doubt that the Roll Building was differ-
ent from all other college laboratories, and most in-
dustrial-clinical laboratories. Because the original
goals of this building influenced its form, describing
the Roll Building is difficult without considering
whether or not it achieved its goals. Working together
on the building performance, HMRC and KCC agreed
that the Roll Building should be cost effective and
improve the quality of education.
Plagued by science buildings that were over-
crowded, obsolete, and full of huge quantities of un-
inventoried supplies, the college wanted a building
that would be able to adjust to curricula and enroll-
ment changes. The college was committed to a build-
ing that would have low maintenance, cleaning, and
change costs. Cost effectiveness was translated into
building objectives related to reduced maintenance,
FIGURE 4-7. Laboratory work area (Photo: Herman Miller Re- avoided high cost for renovation compared to conven-
search Corporation). tionally designed facilities; reduced fixed storage; and
 Kellog Community College, Science Laboratories 151

2. Students will spend more laboratory time per-

forming experiments in contact with instructors.
3. Faculty will spend less laboratory time searching
for, setting up, cleaning up, and putting away
materials.
4. Faculty will spend more laboratory time in con-
tact with students.
5. Faculty will spend less non-laboratory time pre-
paring materials for class.
Time sampling was used in ten classes to monitor the
amount of time spent on different activities by a
sample of students and instructors. Observations
were made over a four-week period during the term
immediately before the move and one year later.
FIGURE 4-8. Central storage system (Photo: Herman Miller Interviews with the faculty were used to determine
Research Corporation). how much time they spent preparing for a typical
laboratory in each course. The results indicated that
contact time between faculty and students doubled
reduced labor costs to operate materials management during a typical lab hour. This was partly because
systems. of the materials management system, but also be-
The Roll Building cost $4.1 million, including furni- cause instructors became able to spend more time
ture and equipment. Per-square-foot cost was about in the labs. A mobile office table in the lab area
the median for college laboratory buildings. Fixed allowed them to do work and class preparation in
storage was reduced by 88 percent. Additional mobile the lab rather than elsewhere. This was a major aim
storage made the total reduction in storage 66 percent. of the faculty and was indicative of the building's
Less equipment is required and expensive laboratory success.
space is no longer being used for storage due to the
Objective. Student interest in science and health tech-
materials management center.
nology courses should increase, and result in in-
The cost effectiveness of the building was demon-
creased enrollment in courses in the building, more
strated by the renovation performed after the building
science majors, and more outside projects and read-
was occupied. Thirteen offices were redesigned at a
ing.
cost far below industry estimates of change costs.
Hypotheses:

QUALITY OF EDUCATION 1. Science credit hours, as a percentage of total

college credit hours, will increase.
Several quality education objectives were stated as 2. Fewer students will withdraw from science
specific hypotheses that were tested as part of the courses after enrolling.
facility performance evaluation. These included fac- 3. More students will choose science majors.
ulty-student contact time, and reduction of student- 4. More students will transfer to science-related
faculty time in materials handling. Data on each of the programs in four-year colleges.
measures were collected before and after the move to 5. More science-related books for outside reading
the new building. The type of data included grades, will be checked out of the library.
library records, enrollment records, and requests for
transcripts, and were used from the three-year period College records were used to measure the increase
prior to the move. In addition, interviews and subjec- in science credit hours. Total enrolled credit hours in
tive impressions were used. In all cases, data-gather- science courses were calculated as a percentage of
ing methods used can be repeated by the college in total credit hours for the college. Figures were ob-
the future. tained from six semesters prior to the opening of the
new building, and three semesters after opening. Col-
Objective. Both faculty and students should be freed
lege records were also consulted for course with-
from the necessity of materials handling and the free
drawal information and transfer information.
time should be used for educational activities.
College records indicated an increase in the per-
Hypotheses:
centage of science credit hours as a percentage of total
1. Students will spend less laboratory time search- college enrollment. Once enrolled, the number of stu-
ing for, setting up, cleaning up, and putting away dents withdrawing from science courses decreased 25
materials. percent. The number of science majors increased by
152 Higher Education Environments

22 percent. Finally, science students withdrew 23 per- In addition, this project showed that facility manage-
cent more science books from the college library after ment had a positive influence on productivity. It was
the new building opened. apparent from this project that ongoing responsiveness
The administrators also hoped that a modern elegant to organizational growth and change were critical fac-
building for science courses replacing outdated build- tors in the management and renovation of existing
ings would improve student interest. Evaluators fol- facilities as well as in new building design. While there
lowed enrollment figures, numbers of science majors, is a growing interest in increasing the range of future
science books withdrawn from the library, and num- options, work environments have to respond effec-
bers of students finishing science courses. All these tively to immediate needs as well. There will be grow-
indicators rose after occupancy. Interviews with the ing interest in determining the extent to which a
program chairman indicated that there was also an facility supports or exhibits a greater number and va-
increase in new course proposals from instructors as riety of activities, user adjustment of interior systems,
well as the initiation of science clubs, and increased and more efficient, less costly organization, storage,
field trips and outreach programs. and retrieval of materials and supplies. Those persons
A cost-effective building and improved quality of responsible for educational facilities will be increas-
education were two specific outcomes of this study. ingly preoccupied with this idea.
Lawrence University, Wriston Art Center
Attitude Survey \v
Charette Process v
Community Meetings I
Design-In J
Focused Interviews I
Fishbowl Planning v
Game Simulation
Group Dynamics
Public Forum
Task Force
Training J
Workshop S

SUMMARY
felt that the art center entrance should face the campus
The Wriston Art Center fulfills a long-standing uni- green and a small plaza located adjacent to a newly
versity goal to make the fine arts an integral part of constructed recreation center. Prior to the design
campus life. The building was designed as a landmark workshops, Jefferson B. Riley of Centerbrook Archi-
on the Lawrence University campus and named in tects discussed the feasibility of renovation compared
honor of a former president, Henry Merritt Wriston. to an entirely new building. Many options were dis-
Henry Wriston believed that the fine arts should have cussed, including saving the existing building and lo-
a significant place in the liberal arts college. In an cating the new art center in a more remote location.
essay on the "Nature of a Liberal College," Wriston The administration reviewed its original goals of the
states that "students should be surrounded with works art center being an integral part of student daily life,
of artistic merit . . . , hear great music and see great and decided to demolish the existing building and lo-
art . . . , find plenty of examples of fine architecture cate the new building on the same site. Site selection
. . . , and give expression to such artistic talents as was discussed prior to the workshops because the
they may have. . . . Beauty apprehended and re- decision to demolish the old building and construct a
sponded to through the discipline of appreciation new one involved major financial considerations.
brings life aspects of fulfillment which no other ex-
perience can contribute." Located at the crossroads
PROJECT
of the campus, the building embodies Wriston's belief
that art should be a central part of the Lawrence A programming committee documented the spatial re-
experience. quirements for the new art facility, as well as inter-
The design process involved students, faculty, and viewed and recommended Centerbrook Architects to
administrators in a series of five workshops consisting the university administration. Prior to the beginning
of the site, building program, discussion of alternative of the workshop process, the committee submitted to
schemes, scheme refinement, and final review of the architect the programming document, which con-
drawings and model. tained very clear architectural implications. Contained
in this document was the belief the building should
integrate the study of art history and supporting
CLIENT
spaces, and the study of studio art. As a result, the
The trustees of Lawrence College initially anticipated architect was well informed about the university's
an addition and renovation of their existing art center needs, as well as the underlying philosophy of the
built in 1949, the Worchester Art Center. This simple building prior to the planning stages.
one-story building stood between the student center A series of five consecutive workshops occurred
and a six-story library. The college administration also within one week in January 1987. With the assistance
153
154 Higher Education Environments

of the building committee, a working group of 44 peo-

ple was formed at the suggestion of the architect,
including the town planner, all the art faculty, the
gallery director, the directors of development, finance,
and physical plant, other faculty members, trustees,
parents, and students. In addition to the working
group, there was an executive committee that made
the final decisions and arbitrated any impasses be-
tween working group participants. Although it initially
seemed like an unwieldy size to some committee mem-
bers, it resulted in an effective and productive group.
From the university's perspective, reported by com-
mittee chairman Michael Hittle, the proposed work-
shop served two main purposes: "Principally, it gave
the architect an opportunity to educate the community
to the nature of architectural decisions. Secondly, it
gave participants the opportunity to raise precise
questions about the nature of the building as it took
shape during the course of the week-long workshop.
There are demonstrable instances where the design
was altered in response to these kinds of interactions
between the members of the Lawrence community
and Jeff Riley and his team."
The first workshop was devoted to site considera-
tions. It was held on a wintry Sunday afternoon. The
architect conducted a site walk and distributed an
accompanying questionnaire, which allowed partici-
pants to rediscover the area that was so familiar to
them. Questions required participants to locate trees,
landmarks, and major routes on a map of the imme-
diate vicinity surrounding the site. Other questions
required participants to estimate distances and heights
of buildings, building materials, and their feelings and FIGURE 4-9. Community workshop (Photo: Centerbrook
Architects).
impressions about neighboring buildings, and the area
in general. After the site walk, the architects and par-
ticipants returned to a lounge in the student union
where they set up an office for the duration of the of the campus, the nature of the building's users, the
workshops. The lounge was in a popular location and image, and character of the environment. This was
heavily used by students and faculty. It was also lo- achieved by asking the participants questions about
cated adjacent to the site for the new art center. "building philosophy." Should the center be a benign
Participants had written comments during their site shelter for the works of art, or should it provide a
walk, stimulating a discussion about important site context for works of art? The architects also ques-
features (Figure 4-9). The architect pointed out critical tioned how the center could help the arts become a
aspects of the site unnoticed by the community mem- greater part of the lives of the Lawrence and Appleton
bers, and how those characteristics might shape the communities.
design of the building. Comments were also freely Another workshop activity was described as a
voiced by the participants about features of the site beauty contest, in which slides were shown of a wide
they valued and wished to preserve. This generated a variety of building images. Participants responded on
common understanding among all participants, pro- a ballot sheet whether the images were either liked or
vided clear insights to the architect about their desires, disliked, and appropriate or inappropriate for the new
and allowed the discussion to proceed to the next art center.
stage. That same evening, a programming workshop The major results of the first two workshops were
explored community feelings about the building. Since that the building should not face the green as had been
the faculty of the art department had previously pre- assumed by the programming committee and college
pared the spatial requirements for the building, the administration, but rather should be accessible from
architects tried to gain insights into the collective spirit the major campus paths, as well as provide easier
 Lawrence University, Wriston Art Center 155

access to a variety of parking possibilities. This deci- versy. Some feared that ultraviolet intrusion would
sion supported one of the major goals of the center, damage the collection of paper and fabric works, while
which was for it to be a town-wide asset and attrac- others favored natural light as a means to overcome
tion. The other factor that surprised the architects was "museum fatigue." This conflict was resolved by in-
for the new building to provide some form of visual troducing natural light through light towers located at
relief to the predominant use of brick and beige stone the transition spaces between the three galleries. Sim-
on most of the campus buildings. ilarly, the conflict between those who felt that the
Workshop three consisted of a discussion of two creative purposes of the studio could diminish the
alternative schemes prepared in a period of 12 hours. reflective purpose of the classroom, lecture hall, and
The schemes dealt largely with site issues, and with galleries, and those who wanted everyone to mix
the relationship between the new building to the stu- together, was resolved by the design solution. The
dent center to the south, the campus green to the west, studios were located below grade with daylight intro-
the high rise library to the north, and Law Street to duced through lightwells and large windows on the
the east. One scheme was designed with an entrance southside that were made possible by virtue of a
onto the green, while the other faced the building sunken amphitheater. As a result, the studio noise is
toward the library, leaving an outdoor space between separated but visible from inside and outside, and
it and the student center. This scheme had the advan- people meet through a central stairwell. It is at this
tage of relating to the social center of the campus, and location in the building where the art office is located
it was the scheme that was selected. This scheme which monitors the access to any of the three major
prevailed, explains Riley, "without much controversy, functions.
and I believe this was due to the fact that everyone Another issue that required an innovative solution
saw the same information, understood the reasons was the location of the loading docks where art work
why one scheme was better than another, even though is brought in on semi-trailers, and trash is removed
they had come with a preconceived notion of where from the studios. This location, at the front door of
the building should face." the building, resulted from the conflict of having ac-
Another issue considered in the development of the cess to the building from all sides making it difficult
alternatives was circulation between the three major to provide these services. The solution was to create
functional groups occupying the building. One group two loading dock towers that could be accessed by
consisted of the faculty offices and the art history large trucks. As Riley observes, "They became in
department with its slide room and lecture hall; the effect the symbols of the building itself. The one load-
second was the art gallery group; and the third was ing dock tower being for the arrival of raw materials
the two- and three-dimensional studios. Circulation for the studios and symbolizing the making of art, and
was necessary to allow all groups to meet yet remain the other being the tall tower for the loading dock to
separate. Public lectures and gallery openings, too, the art galleries and symbolizing the study of art."
suggested the need for formal gathering of large At this point, workshop four, the scheme was con-
groups. siderably refined and consequently more detailed com-
On the following day, the office, which was located ments were offered. By the end of the evening, most
in the lounge, was open to the public for people to of the major issues were resolved. The following two
review the sketches displayed on the wall, and to write days were devoted to preparation for the final pres-
their comments on the plans or on index cards. The entation to the trustees. A mechanical engineer was
preferred scheme was further refined where the space brought in to make some preliminary determinations,
between the Art Center and the student union was and passers-by also stopped to make comments. While
shaped, giving some form to the galleries, and how the design solution may not have answered everyone's
the three functions of history of art, gallery display of concerns, everyone was given an opportunity to par-
art, and the making of art would come together in one ticipate. The process was open and explanations were
place. given to allow all participants the opportunity to un-
At this scheme refinement workshop, disputes derstand why particular objections were not com-
emerged over the galleries. One group envisioned a pletely satisfied. The most outspoken opponents of
flexible, non-descriptive space in which anything the design solution became the strongest proponents
could be done, while the other group voiced concern after the building was constructed.
for permanent spaces with architectural character. In retrospect, participants reported that the virtue
This conflict was resolved by the design solution in the design workshop was that they recognized the
which featured a series of galleries, with greatest flex- reasons that led to the different kinds of design solu-
ibility provided in the largest, and a progression of tions proposed by the architect. For the participants,
rooms allowing for architectural character and variety. the building design made a great deal of sense. They
The issue of natural light, too, aroused some contro- described the principal function of the workshop as
156 Higher Education Environments

FIGURE 4-10. Building exterior (Photo: Paul Warchol).

theater and sunken plaza, providing an informal gath-

eringplace and a formal place for concerts and perfor-
mances (Figure 4-11). Devoted to art history and
exhibition, the upper level includes a serpentine gal-
lería for the display of study reproductions and tran-
sitory exhibits (Figure 4-12); a 150-seat auditorium; a
slide library; and faculty offices. The west side of the
lobby features three galleries of ascending size. A
curving staircase descends from the upper to the lower
lobby, which opens into the center's studios and out-
door amphitheater. The studio complex includes a
flexible area for painting, drawing, and print making;
a multipurpose studio with facilities for computer art;
a photography suite; and studios for ceramics, metal,
and sculpture (Figure 4-13).

FIGURE 4-11. Axonometric of building (Drawing: Centerbrook

Architects).

that of educating and preparing them for an intelligent

continuing dialogue with the architect over the re-
maining months.

IMPLEMENTATION
The dark red brick and blue metal art center, set apart
from the surrounding beige buildings, is located at the
crossroads of three main pedestrian paths (Figure 4-
10). To the north is a small garden plaza, and to the
south, an elevation opens onto a recessed amphi- FIGURE 4-12. View from gallery (Photo: Paul Warchol).
 Lawrence University, Wriston Art Center 157

FIGURE 4-13. Floor plans of art center (Drawing: Centerbrook Architects).

158 Higher Education Environments

As Lawrence University President Richard Warch shell of the art center. At a more detailed level, the
states, "The building beckons us not only on behalf of gallería leading to the auditorium has become a teach-
itself, but on behalf of what goes on inside it." ing space, since it is used to display work related to
art history lectures. Slides of the lecture are also avail-
able for public viewing in the gallería area.
AFTER-OCCUPANCY RESPONSES
Most of the features disliked about the building were
Responses from the faculty to the positive and nega- more detailed in character, except for comments re-
tive features of the building appeared to be consistent. garding the outdoor amphitheater. The long, cold Wis-
Generally, there is a strong sense of awareness of the consin winters preclude outdoor events for seven
spaciousness of the building which is attributed to the months of the year. The few warm months occur dur-
planning. The spatial organization appears to be clear ing the summer when there are no classes, and at the
to occupants as well as to visitors. Light quality also beginning and end of terms, which are difficult periods
contributes to the spaciousness, and is welcome dur- in which to stage a production. During the period from
ing Wisconsin's long winter. Above all, the building is April to June, however, there are informal social
pleasing and inviting, and is a contrast to the surround- events, and noon-hour concerts. While the outdoor
ing buildings. One of the original objectives was to area was a controversial issue from the outset of the
make the building visible on the campus. This effect project, it was generally agreed that this would be the
has also been achieved by allowing students and fac- only public gathering area on the campus and a valu-
ulty to take a path through the art center on route to able asset.
the cafeteria from the student union or academic build- Daylight in buildings is often perceived as an amen-
ing. People passing through the art center also observe ity; for art galleries, though, it is sometimes difficult
the activities of the lower-level studios (Figure 4-14). to control the lighting of art. The windows and sky-
Consequently, the movement pattern on the campus lights in the art center's gallery proposed those prob-
has been altered by allowing people to penetrate the lems for some of the respondents. The storage and
movement of art between galleries was also reported
to be cumbersome and awkward because of narrow
corridors and floor level differences.
Interestingly, the majority of people who responded
to this survey are recent faculty and staff who were
not involved in the design workshops conducted in
1987. While it was difficult to ascertain their working
conditions prior to coming to Lawrence University,
they all perceived the building as offering many op-
portunities to expand their teaching approach.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author wishes to thank Jeff Riley of Centerbrook
for his vivid recollection of the workshop process
which he narrated into a microcassette recorder. Also,
thanks to Michael Hittle, Building Committee chair-
man, for his comments about the workshop process.
FIGURE 4-14. Outside view of the lower level studios (Photo: Finally to Christa Decker, who organized the faculty
Paul Warchol). reactions about the building.
Michigan State University, Laboratory Classroom
Attitude Survey J
| Charette Process | |
Community Meetings v
Design-In
Focused Interviews v
Fishbowl Planning
Game Simulation
Group Dynamics
Public Forum
Task Force
Training
Workshop

SUMMARY
tables, and a central "wet" lab bench. The results of
An examination of the influence of the physical envi- the new program became the keystone of a proposed
ronment on the satisfaction and proficiency of students facility experiment in which HMRC would demon-
and faculty was the subject of an experiment jointly strate that a more responsive facility management ser-
sponsored by Michigan State University, Herman vice could effect improved educational efficiency and
Miller Research Corporation (HMRC), and Herman a more intensive use of building space.
Miller, Inc.
Two older conventional laboratory classrooms were PROJECT
converted to an experimental environment designed
to support innovative programs. Organizers proposed The project intended to conduct an experiment in
that a more responsive environment supported by a which two older, conventional laboratory classrooms
facility management plan could improve educational with fixed lab benches and casework would be con-
proficiency and a more intense use of building space. verted to an experimental environment. The research
A year-long evaluation was conducted by The Her- team proposed the development of a Resource Service
man Miller Research Corp. comparing the perfor- Store in the new facility which would provide raw
mance of the experimental workplace with that of the materials, assistance, and service to students and fac-
same environment prior to renovation. Using inter- ulty. Its staff would be responsible for the day-to-day
views, observation, and departmental records that operations and facility management of the experimen-
measured formal and informal space use and personali- tal environment. The premise of the experiment ar-
zation, the performance of the experimental workplace gued that the satisfaction and proficiency of students
was judged to be better than the university averages and faculty would be significantly affected by the di-
for class-lab space in conventional new facilities. rect physical environment of the educational facility.
The first step in the program was to analyze and
CLIENT document the effects of the conventional setting on
the functions and activities of the educational pro-
At Michigan State, a group of educational administra- grams operating in that space. The second step was
tors had been exploring the need for more effective to develop and implement an experimental facility
and efficient educational programs and the type of aimed at supporting an innovative educational pro-
services and facilities to support them. Within the gram. The third step was to gather data on the per-
Crop and Soil Science Department, an innovative ed- formance of the new facility and to compare it to the
ucational program had been underway since 1965, uti- effects of the conventional setting and the perfor-
lizing learning objectives and an auto-tutorial format. mance of university classroom-laboratory facilities in
The department converted a conventional teaching general.
laboratory into a learning center with carrels, display The experimental test site consisted of rooms form-
159
160 Higher Education Environments

ing an L-shaped space connected by a door passage- ways it hindered or helped by features of the physical
way between the two rooms. Rooms 219 and 220B, environment. The research team obtained abundant
and 218 (an adjacent storage space) comprised 2600 information and ideas on use and needs before it en-
square feet of space. The rooms were dominated by gaged in design activity. After several weeks of brief-
tall windows running along two sides of each room. ings, the group focused on the conceptual possibilities
Mounted side by side, the nine-foot-high windows cre- for the test setting. The tonality and expression of the
ated glazed areas 12 feet long. The original purpose of place were discussed. What should the place tell stu-
such extensive glazing was to maximize the amount dents and professors when they enter? What capability
of natural ventilation and lighting. But even with the for visual display and graphic communication should
addition of ceiling-hung fluorescent lights, the lighting be provided?
quality in the rooms ranged from glare on bright days As a result of the assessment of the existing labo-
to mild gloom on overcast days or in the evenings. ratory and description of new users and needs, the
The smaller of the two rooms, 220B, was set up as a research team explored the conceptual possibilities
conventional laboratory with two fixed lab benches and arrived at a proposal for the new facility that
down the center of the room. would include a wet laboratory in close proximity to
Originally a research laboratory, room 219 had been the auto-tutorial area. There would be a Resource
converted to a combination lecture-laboratory space. Service Store that would serve the auto-tutorial pro-
A portion of one of the lab benches had been removed gram by checking out course materials and assigning
to make room for a group of tablet armchairs. The carrels. There would be a place for reception and
rows of chairs were located near the entrance of the casual interaction as well as a sense of entrance. Ar-
room facing a small chalkboard. In the center of the chitects presented the concept drawings to the user
room were two rows of double laboratory benches team in a series of meetings to insure that there was
like those in room 220B. an operational understanding of the potential view of
Located adjacent to room 219 was a storage area the new facility. In order to give the user group a
filled with forgotten, obsolete equipment and materi- highly tangible impression of the new facility, archi-
als. As a result of extensive interviews, direct obser- tects prepared a bird's eye perspective drawing (Fig-
vations, and university and departmental records, or- ure 4-15). The experimental facility was installed and
ganizers noted that a growing number of faculty chose used for the test year almost exactly as presented in
not to teach there, increasing the load on other edu- the conceptual sketches.
cational spaces in the college. This situation was due
to the fact that teaching methods have changed, and
laboratory courses have become less wet, while the IMPLEMENTATION
original space was dominated by rigid furnishings de- The analysis of the experiment focused on the envi-
signed for educational programs now outmoded. The ronment's ability to contribute to satisfaction and pro-
limited vocabulary of functional settings, i.e., a formal ficiency. A comparison of the conventional facility to
lecture, or wet-lab activity, did not permit new edu- the experimental setting was expressed by a series of
cational activities, nor the use of new instruments as ratios, derived from various measurement techniques.
teaching aids. The limited storage facilities inhibited
the development of a storage retrieval and dispensing
service of materials and laboratory equipment. Mate-
rials, soil samples, and displays were frequently lost
and wasted. There was no place for the preparation
of display and laboratory exercises nor was there any
way to provide individual students with auto-tutorial
review materials.
Rooms 219 and 220B were examples of facilities
whose furnishings were designed originally to be
nearly indestructible. However, failure inevitably oc-
curs, either in appearance or function, and a long
period follows in which they are disliked by everyone
before a decision can be made to dispose of them.
The dominant thrust of the experiment was that the
new facility should support the daily program intention
of the teachers, administrators, and students who pro-
posed to use the place. Meetings with the users re- FIGURE 4-15. The experimental environment (Drawing: Her-
vealed the importance of the teaching mission and the man Miller Research Corporation).
 Michigan State University, Laboratory Classroom 161

FIGURE 4-16. The learning center features auto-tutorial carrels

(Photo: Herman Miller Research Corporation).

The Facility Response Index was a measure based

on the number and variety of activities the facility
accommodated; user adjustment of the environment;
and amount of time required for organization, storage,
and retrieval of lab supplies and course materials.
Comparisons of utilization patterns of the facility be-
fore and after renovation revealed a significant change
in both scheduled and informal use of the space. The
number of regularly scheduled classes held in the ex-
perimental environment increased 3.4 times over the
use of the same space in the control year. The flexi-
bility of the experimental environment allowed for the
use of a variety of instructional formats in the new
center (Figure 4-16). Providing auto-tutorial facilities
in the new center was the major factor in expanding
the use of space.
The Negotiation Index was a measure of the number
and variety of services offered to students and faculty
as well as the number of interactions with the Re- FIGURE 4-17. Areas of informal student use (Photo: Herman
source Store for services and assistance. In the facility Miller Research Corporation).
before renovation no mechanism existed for providing
services directly to faculty or students. Services to
students were the individual responsibility of every six-week period. At random times throughout the day,
faculty member to his or her own classes. In contrast, observers recorded the number of students using the
the experiment provided a Resource Service Store that informal areas of the center, which included the coffee
was continuously staffed by part-time students which lounge, the display and sitting area in the traffic cor-
handled an average of 165 student-initiated events per ridor, and the sitting area in the lab and lecture areas
day. In interviews, faculty members were consistently when not being used by scheduled classes (Figure 4-
enthusiastic about the introduction of these support 17). The data revealed that the informal areas of the
services. center were being used 69 percent of the time. The
The informal use of the facility by students, and the major activities that students were involved in in-
amount of user originated display, was termed a Pos- cluded reading magazines and catalogues from the Re-
session Index. Acts of possession were most evident source Store mini-library, interacting in the coffee
in the uses of a facility that go beyond the formal lounge, studying or visiting in the lecture-lab space,
programs and organized activities. Observers docu- and getting advice from the tutors. In contrast, direct
mented the pattern of informal student use of the fa- observation of informal use of the facility before ren-
cility through daily observations conducted over a ovation showed very little student use or student-ori-
162 Higher Education Environments

FIGURE 4-18. Examples of personalization (Photo: Herman Miller Research Corporation).

ented displays. The space was not personalized to any tal facility over the same space before renovation.
noticeable extent. After renovation, articles and news Substantial portions of the increase resulted from the
clippings appeared in addition to prints and oil paint- auto-tutorial programs brought into the new facility
ings (Figure 4-18). Students also began to bring in with their high utilization efficiency, along with an
special projects for the display area. increase in the number of lecture, laboratory, and sem-
The efficient use of space measured by credit hours inar classes being taught in the experimental environ-
and student class hours per square foot was classified ment. The results of the experiment substantiated the
as the Utilization Density Index. The data on credit initial premise that the physical environment has the
hour and student class hour generation shows a dra- potential to enhance and improve productivity and
matic increase in utilization density in the experimen- satisfaction.
University of Oregon, Willamette Hall
Attitude Survey
Charette Process
Community Meetings
Design-In v
Focused Interviews
Fishbowl Planning v
Game Simulation v
Group Dynamics
Public Forum I
I Task Force |v \
Training
Workshop v

SUMMARY
analyze it in terms of available information, and sug-
The rapid expansion of the University of Oregon in gest ways in which problems might be resolved. Many
the 1970s and the tradition of faculty participation in of the pattern statements organizers drew from The
university governance led to a new planning process. Pattern Language (Alexander 1977).
The university retained the Center for Environmental A planning team began work at the university in
Structure, which resulted in the publication of The 1985. The team consisted of The Ratcliff Architects,
Oregon Experiment (Alexander et al. 1975), the prin- who brought workshop experience and a knowledge
ciple basis for future campus planning. Integral to the of the pattern language through Christie Johnson Cof-
University of Oregon's planning process is the premise fin's asssociation with Christopher Alexander. Moore
that people who are affected by an environment should Ruble Yudell brought considerable experience in par-
be involved in the process for its modification or ticipatory planning workshops, and McLellan and Co-
change. The success of such a process, however, re- penhagen brought experience in detailed planning of
quires support at the institutional level. laboratory space. A series of participatory design
The Oregon Experiment consists of major principles workshops produced sketches and collages that indi-
such as piecemeal growth, coordination, diagnosis, cated priorities for allocating and reorganizing depart-
and patterns, all of which are implemented by means mental space. The workshops exposed goals in a
of user participation. Piecemeal growth suggests that common forum so that all participants were aware of
environmental changes should be small in scale, rep- the necessity of accommodating diverse and conflict-
resenting the commonly held values of the community, ing needs. Yudell states (1991), "They unleashed the
since smaller projects are less likely to be disruptive enormous creativity of individuals who were enfran-
to the environment than large projects. Consequently, chised as creative participants in the making of their
the university agreed that the new science complex workplace and community." Opening day ceremonies
should consist of several smaller buildings, each de- were four years after the first workshop.
signed to stand alone.
Coordination reflects the fact that more than 100
CLIENT
individuals were directly involved in planning the sci-
ence complex. Many were involved in the diagnostic The University of Oregon's long history of faculty
process to understand what was right and wrong about involvement in its overall decision-making process
the campus environment. The diagnosis, developed in carried over into the planning of new facilities as a
the early stages of planning for the science complex, result of The Oregon Experiment, a process for in-
resulted in a "Manual for Prospective Architectural volving the university community in developing its
Consultants" that became the charge to the design environment. Overcrowded conditions in the science
team. Pattern statements describe a design situation, facilities led to the planning of a new science complex.
163
164 Higher Education Environments

The science faculty of the University of Oregon are where they would make a difference, and delegated
appointed within a department as well as affiliated with the rest of the work to faculty, staff, and consultants.
interdisciplinary research units. These institutes are The university administration was represented
tightly integrated with the departments. Faculty mem- throughout the planning and design process, and also
bers wanted the new science complex to facilitate their supported the participatory process by compensating
interactions within both groups. John Moseley, the the faculty and staff for the considerable time devoted
university's vice president for research and active par- to this project.
ticipant in the process stated, "The ideal arrangement
of space would allow a faculty member's office, lab-
oratory, and research assistants to be located in a PROJECT
place that was physically connected to both the de- The process for the design of the new science complex
partment and the institute with which the faculty mem- consisted of a series of participatory design workshops
ber was affiliated" (1991). This integration required conducted on campus over a four-month period. These
making connections between new and existing build- workshops brought together people representing a
ings. Thus, the two basic issues in planning the new broad range of viewpoints, and encouraged their par-
science facility was the allocation and organization of ticipation in decisions about a variety of campus, spa-
space. In order to achieve "piecemeal growth" as sug- tial, and laboratory planning issues.
gested by The Oregon Experiment, the user group Early in the process, the planning team attempted
decided that the science complex should consist of to develop a common visual vocabulary with faculty
small buildings in scale with the other buildings in this and staff by presenting slides representing a wide va-
area of the campus. These concerns were resolved riety of historic and contemporary buildings. Partici-
successfully because they were addressed by the peo- pants were asked to respond to two questions about
ple at the university who would be most affected by each slide: Do you like it? and Do you like it for the
the results, as well as state and DOE officials, U.S. science complex? Generally, pictures depicting build-
Senator Mark Hatfield and his staff, three architectural ings in well-landscaped settings were favored to more
and seven engineering practices, artists, and contrac- austere settings lacking landscape features. The con-
tors, many of whom were geographically scattered. cerns that emerged from these discussions were green
Architect Christie Coffin described several factors space, human scale, durable materials, and friendli-
that contributed to the successful implementation of ness.
the new science complex, which was funded and Workshop participants represented a broad cross-
constructed within a very short period of time. Most section of backgrounds and experiences. Participants,
important was the commitment and decision respon- ranging from 50 to 80 individuals in each workshop,
sibility taken by all participants, the continuity of most included faculty, planning staff, students, and admin-
of the participants throughout the process, the effec- istrators. A member of the planning team introduced
tive delegation of tasks to people who were knowl- each workshop to establish goals and expectations.
edgeable, and the mutual trust of all participants, Workgroups from five to eight people discussed ideas,
which allowed discussions to be open and fair. developed plans, and worked collaboratively to reach
Initially three user groups were identified. The "di- decisions. Each group included a member of the plan-
rect" users of the science complex — the faculty and ning team who acted as a facilitator, answered ques-
staff who would occupy the new buildings — were tions, took notes, stimulated discussion, and remained
represented by the Science Facilities User Group. careful not to influence the discussion.
They established several "major task groups" to con- The initial workshop consisted of a review of spe-
tribute in defining the spatial program. This group cific outdoor places on campus that were successful
discussed the list of space requests and eliminated as well as where patterns were ignored. This workshop
overlapping requests in order to seek more efficient was based on one of the most significant patterns,
use of spaces, and to compare the space requests with namely "Site Repair," which suggests that the location
national norms for comparable programs. Before se- of new buildings should be used to repair places that
lecting an architect, this group published guidelines do not work (Figure 4-19). The architects and work-
for the architect consisting of diagrammed connections shop participants walked the campus, recording po-
among the various disciplines and anticipating cross- tential building sites and general campus conditions
disciplinary work. on maps that also indicated special views and paths
The Campus Planning Committee, an ongoing body (Figure 4-20). Small groups consisting of representa-
consisting of the campus planner David Rowe and tives from science departments, the campus planning
faculty representation, monitored the process accord- office, students, staff, and administrators considered
ing to the principles expressed in The Oregon Exper- alternative schemes for the location and massing of
iment. The Campus Planning Office focused its efforts buildings.
 University of Oregon, Willamette Hall 165

sues. The maps were synthesized by the planning team

and were discussed with all participants.
An important idea that emerged from this workshop
was the possibility of creating south-facing courtyards
(a pattern particularly suited to the Oregon campus)
by the organization and location of new buildings.
These new buildings could enhance important views
and conceal unattractive views. This proposal led to
the opportunity for the creation of a pedestrian path
which was later to become Science Walk, for science
students and faculty.
Workshops pertaining to departmental issues con-
sisted of small groups organized according to disci-
pline; these groups discussed spatial relationships
between faculty, graduate research assistants, staff, and
undergraduate students. Using colored paper to de-
note spatial categories such as laboratories, offices,
FIGURE 4-19. "Site-repair" workshop (Photo: Stephen Harby: and service areas, teams produced diagrams repre-
Moore Ruble Yudell).
senting group consensus on the ideal organization of
departments (Figure 4-21). All groups incorporated
key patterns from The Pattern Language that were
introduced by the planning team at various times.
"Department Hearth," for example, is a pattern that
recommends a focal space that can become the social
center of the department (Figure 4-22). The physicists
presented a three-dimensional model that described
horizontal and vertical connections to other depart-
ments, stood organized around an atrium that allowed
for social interaction, and served as a focus for the
entire science community.
Another pattern, "South Facing Outdoor Space,"
encourages a southern orientation for gathering
spaces, and is particularly suited for a damp northern
climate (Figure 4-23). The geologists, with an orien-
tation towards the outdoors, opted for south-facing
social spaces adjacent to south-facing porches and
courtyards. The ideas generated in these workshops
substantially influenced the design and planning of the
science complex.
The Willamette Hall atrium became the heart of the
science complex and one of the major meeting spaces
on campus. Science Walk became an important social
spine.
The laboratory workshop allowed for discussions
about the research process and spatial requirements.
An introductory talk presented examples that were
related to necessary trade-offs between laboratory size
and related services, which workshop participants
FIGURE 4-20. Site-planning exercise (Drawing: Courtesy
Moore Ruble Yudell). would need to consider. Using a "kit of parts," partic-
ipants were able to manipulate scale models in order
to develop desired relationships between work spaces
and offices (Figure 4-24).
During this workshop, participants became sensi- Workshops occurred at intervals of four to six
tized to a variety of issues. Campus planners became weeks apart, with the intervening time used for sum-
aware of the needs and work patterns of scientists, marizing the results of previous sessions and planning
while scientists became aware of campus planning is- future events. In addition to the workshops, the plan-
166 Higher Education Environments

FIGURE 4-21. Departmental workshop (Drawing: Courtesy Moore Ruble Yudell).

FIGURE 4-23. South-facing outdoor space (Photo:

Timothy Hursley).

ing an equitable model for spatial organization led to

FIGURE 4-22. Plan of "department hearth" based on a pattern
to create a social center for each department where seminars, dis- a high degree of "ownership" in the project. This sense
cussions, and socializing over coffee would occur (Drawing: of ownership made it easier for administrators to cope
Courtesy of Ratcliff Architects). with problems that arose during the design and devel-
opment stages of the project. While a large number of
faculty and staff were involved in the process, it al-
ning team conducted numerous interviews and re- lowed for consensus decisions that would have other-
ceived information from user committees in order to wise been impossible.
develop a comprehensive program.
Dr. Moseley noted that involving the users so early
AFTER-OCCUPANCY RESPONSES
and so substantively in the planning process allowed
for substantial acceptance in the complex process of In 1991, after the building was completed, The Ratcliff
allocating space. Also, the users' success in develop- Architects were seeking user responses to the occu-
 University of Oregon, Willamette Hall 167

FIGURE 4-24. Departmental model (Photo: Stephen Harby: Moore Ruble Yudell).

pied building. They were interested in answers to

questions related to the satisfaction of the architects'
original intentions as stipulated in the program. When
the architects learn of a problem, reports Christie Cof-
fin, "we want to help fix it and devise strategies to
avoid repeating the mistake." Reports from the Core
Users Group indicated a satisfactory arrangement of
rooms and friendly spaces that support collaboration
in science. Scientists indicate success in recruiting
excellent new scientists to use the new labs. Dr. Mose-
ley comments, "Faculty who work in these buildings
report that both planned and spontaneous interactions
with other faculty in their department are enhanced
by the easy connection between the buildings and by
the attraction of the open space" (Figure 4-25(a)). Vis-
its to the atrium coffee shop often result in meeting
with colleagues and meaningful discussions.
Building users who responded to a more recent eval-
uation questionnaire conducted by this author re-
flected on the achievement of many of the original
goals. The opportunity for random, unplanned meet-
ings with people from different disciplines in the com-
mon area supported the goal of a sense of community.
Similarly, the grouping of people with similar research
interests was said to support collaboration. The atrium
was seen as a good idea, but consumed an excess of
space, especially since many of the perimeter offices
were very small. Windowless offices, too, was cited
as a dissatisfaction, particularly when laboratories
with windows were shielded with foil.
The building appearance, the quality of light, and FIGURE 4-25(a). Atrium space (Photo: Timothy Hursley).
168 Higher Education Environments

FIGURE 4-25(b). Building exterior (Photo: Timothy Hursley).

the views to the mountains were all amenity features was in keeping with the university's tradition of col-
of Willamette Hall (Figure 4-25(b)). Several com- laborative decision making.
ments, however, pertained to the unattractive "hos-
pital green" interior color scheme, and one irate re- ACKNOWLEDGMENT
spondent was outraged with the busts on the facade, This section was summarized with permission from
which was described as "low art." Other building oc- the authors from the following articles contained in
cupants commented on more specific malfunctions Places: l'A 1991.
such as the lack of a freight elevator, making it difficult
to elevate heavy equipment. Several problems iden- Coffin, C.J., "Making places for scientists."
tified by the users resulted from the inability of the Moseley, J., "From partnership to ownership: How
architects, consultants, and user committees to accu- users shaped the science complex."
rately predict the way in which the building would be Yudell, B., "Building community through participa-
used. This is not an unusual occurrence as we have tion."
seen described in many other unique school buildings. In addition, valuable comments pertaining to the
The design process was striking for its openness process were provided by Christie Johnson Coffin,
and high level of participation among a diverse group project director of the new science complex for the
of consultants and university representatives, which Ratcliff Architects.
Pembroke State University,
Native American Center
I Attitude Survey | |
I Charette Process | |
Community Meetings v
I Design-In | |
Focused Interviews v
Fishbowl Planning
Game Simulation I
I Group Dynamics |v \
I Public Forum |/ |
I Task Force | |
I Training | |
Workshop I
SUMMARY
A Native American community organization was versity, the design team conducted a series of open
formed to enable the preservation of a building that workshops aimed at exploring options for a new Indian
served as their cultural symbol. The principal goal of Educational and Cultural Center as a regional resource.
the Old Main Commission was to conduct a feasibility
study for the renovation of a partially demolished
CLIENT
building situated on the site of the nation's first Indian
school. Located on the Pembroke State University The citizens of the town of Pembroke initiated the Old
campus in North Carolina, Old Main was devastated Main Commission to act as advocates for the preser-
by fires that left only the outer walls standing. In an vation of a campus building initially scheduled for
effort to restore the building, a commission was demolition by state university officials. Pembroke, the
formed and a partnership was established between the center of the Lumbee people, is the largest of North
citizens of Pembroke, representatives of Pembroke Carolina's Indian population. Pembroke State Univer-
State University, and a design team from North Car- sity was also the site of the first Indian college in the
olina State University. The university president's United States, established in 1887. The Commission
office, in conjunction with the governor's office, re- was concerned with the historic documentation of
quested assistance from the design team. "Old Main," as well as with the investigation of the
As a result of numerous group meetings and sur- social and economic impact of the building's renova-
veys, a building program developed to reflect the tion on the attitudes of the Lumbee community.
needs of the Native American community and the
local university. The design proposal, developed by
PROJECT
North Carolina State University's Community Devel-
opment Group, directed by Henry Sanoff, became the The Old Main building on the Pembroke State campus
focus for legislative action which yielded 1.5 million was not only the site of the first Indian School in the
dollars required for renovation. Public participation in country, but also it served as an important landmark
the development of the building program was an ef- and symbol of the Lumbee people. In the early 1970s,
fective strategy, since it made the process highly vis- plans were announced by university officials that Old
ible in the community and in the state. Main would be demolished to provide for a new fed-
The purpose of the project was to explore alterna- erally financed auditorium to serve the university
tive uses for a university building that would addition- community. Various forms of protest arose until a
ally serve the community's educational interests. "Save Old Main Movement" appeared with strong
Working with Pembroke citizens, local public agen- support from National Indian organizations. On the
cies, and representatives from Pembroke State Uni- same day that the fate of Old Main was under review
169
170 Higher Education Environments

FIGURE 4-26. Old Main after the fire (Photo: Ken Lambia).

by campus, community, and state education officials, sume a new role as a gathering place and information
two fires virtually gutted the interior of the building. center for Robeson County's Native American citi-
The only visible remains were its outer brick walls zens, and as a major regional Indian center east of the
and four white columns (Figure 4-26). Political pres- Mississippi.
sure mounted at the local and state levels until leaders Initial discussions with community members and
of the Lumbee community formed a commission to university officials helped to formulate the building's
focus their concerns. purpose as an Indian Studies and information center,
The Coastal Plains Regional Commission, a multi- a community assembly area, and a museum as a re-
state organization, provided a grant to North Carolina positor of Indian artifacts. According to the Lumbee
State University's Community Development Group to leaders, the principal requirements of any design so-
conduct a building feasibility study that would be used lution were that the renovated facility would essen-
by the Old Main Commission in securing renovation tially provide a place for Indian activities, and that the
funds. The design team including Ken Lambia, John building's appearance would remain substantially un-
Meecham, and Carter Reese used the commission as altered.
as client and a catalyst for generating community in- Although the process for reaching decisions is pre-
terest. They began a series of open meetings to explore sented in seemingly linear and sequential stages, it
ways in which the emerging Indian Studies program was an iterative process, consisting of long and some-
at Pembroke State University, staffed by six faculty times confused meetings between members of the de-
located in different departments, could become part sign team and the commission. The results of these
of the new vision for the restored educational and efforts were not only explicit desires for renovation,
cultural center. but also a better understanding on the part of com-
To begin the process, the Old Main Commission mission members for the types of information neces-
considered Indian Studies and the display of cultural sary for making design decisions.
artifacts according to four areas of social impact. First, The Indian Studies program, staffed by six faculty
the renovation of Old Main could be perceived as a members, and the commission's Indian Studies com-
reinforcing influence for positive campus-community mittee, which included students, educators, and ad-
relations in the town of Pembroke. Second, the ren- ministrators, developed the building program working
ovation process could restore faith in government together with the design team.
within the Lumbee community, a faith that had been An activity analysis included space requirements
severely shaken in the past as a result of previous and descriptions, or scenarios of the learning areas.
government action. Third, the renovation of Old Main The analysis was based on a systematic assessment of
could represent to the Lumbee people the restoration the adequacy of places and their corresponding areas
of their only remaining community symbol. And, currently used by faculty and students. This facility
fourth, the revitalized Old Main building would as- assessment revealed that most spaces were designed
 Pembroke State University, Native American Center 171

to accommodate traditional lectures, whereas to sat-

isfy the curriculum requirements, a variety of spatial
configurations were necessary to include opportunities
for informal discussion, small-group work, indepen-
dent research, and reading. Students and faculty
voiced a major concern for a spatial layout that would
encourage greater social interchange and subsequently
increased cooperation. These discussions took into
account students' feelings of isolation and needs for
stronger out-of-class involvement between students
and faculty.
The "suite" evolved as a spatial concept for describ-
ing the academic areas. The suite would include lis-
tening booths in the instructional materials center for
recording oral history as told by members of the Pem-
broke community, and student work areas for individ-
ual projects (Figure 4-27). The public role of Old Main
was developed by the museum committee, whose ob-
jectives included the collection of existing documents
and artifacts related to the Lumbee origins, and co-
operation with community and regional schools and
civic organizations. The museum committee proposed
to establish interest areas for displays and the contin-
uation of geographical and archaeological research. FIGURE 4-28. Conceptual diagram of the cultural center.
The concept of "museum" is one which describes a
range of institutions varying considerably in types of
exhibit structure, organization, size, and location. The tified that would enhance the management of the In-
committee agreed that Old Main would serve as a dian Studies program, since a number of community
resource center containing exhibits and film material, functions occurred in different campus locations. The
conducting workshops in dance and music, and serv- integration of functions such as Placement and Guid-
ing as a clearing house for information pertaining to ance, Public Information, Alumni Affairs, and Human
Lumbee and other Native American groups (Figure 4- Services, into a Support Services area was proposed
28). The 80-person assembly area would act as a nu- to substantially enhance community-university rela-
cleus for the resource center's large-group activities tions.
that would be shared with the Indian Studies program. The objectives that evolved for the new facility in-
Through close collaboration with university admin- cluded:
istrators and staff, additional space needs were iden-
• To preserve the existing building facade
• To support and initiate programs directed at coop-
eration between university and community
• To integrate the Indian Studies program, the mu-
seum, and the community assembly area into a cul-
tural center
The original Old Main building consisted of a central
two-story auditorium with classrooms around the pe-
rimeter of each of the two levels. The requirement of
supportive services increased the spatial needs beyond
the limited area within the existing building, necessi-
tating a departure from the original two-story building.
Since the building goal was to contain the spatial re-
quirements within the walls of the existing building,
the proposed design solution consisted of a three-level
core (A, B, and D) with two levels (A and C) around
the perimeter (Figure 4-29). The assembly area and
FIGURE 4-27. Conceptual design of the educational compo- resource center were located on the first level (A) to
nent. provide direct access for community members using
172 Higher Education Environments

FIGURE 4-29. Axonometric floor plan (Drawing: Ken Lambia).

the building. University functions, such as the Indian American Cultural Center, located on the first floor.
Studies program, were located on level C. The increased area required for media support could
not be accommodated within the volume of the exist-
ing building; consequentially, a one-story extension
IMPLEMENTATION
was proposed by the architects at the rear of the orig-
Although a proposed budget of 2.2 million dollars was inal building.
recommended by the design team to the North Caro- The Department of Indian Studies on the second
lina State Legislature for the renovation of Old Main, floor also contained university Support Services,
only 1.5 million dollars were appropriated, and the which corresponded to the intentions of the prelimi-
architectural firm of Jordan, Snowdon, and McVicker nary design proposal. Except for the small extension,
was selected to implement the building program. Dur- the two-story part of the project was constructed
ing the six years between the completion of the fea- within the limits of the exterior walls of the 1923 build-
sibility study and the construction starting date, the ing, as recommended by the design programming team
spatial needs increased by 20 percent. The increased (Figure 4-31).
requirements necessitated some modification to the The architects Jordan, Snowdon, and McVicker
preliminary design proposal. maintain that the university-community involvement
The basic concept of the cultural center was incor- in the programming process permitted them to pursue
porated by the architects, Jordan, Snowdon, and effectively the necessary modifications to the building
McVicker into the final design scheme, though the design because the working groups had already de-
media center expanded considerably from the original veloped good communication links.
program (Figure 4-30). This change resulted from the The Native American Resource Center at Pembroke
increase in use of the campus radio station and tele- State University has been in operation since 1982. The
vision studio, which were important community func- center includes a variety of authentic Indian artifacts,
tions. The central assembly area surrounded by handicrafts, art, books, cassettes, andfilmstrips about
exhibition space was the dominant theme of the Native Native Americans, with special emphasis on the Lum-
 Pembroke State University, Native American Center 173

FIGURE 4-30. Floor plan of completed building (Drawing: Sam Snowden).

FIGURE 4-31. Restored building (Photo: Henry Sanoff ).

bee Indians of Robeson County. The permanent ex- various campus and community organizations, work-
hibit includes prehistoric tools and weapons, 19th- shops, and film viewing. The reading room contains
century Lumbee household and farm equipment, and books, records, and film strips on many Indian tribes.
contemporary Indian art. Indian cultures from all sec- Tours are continuous throughout the year for school
tions of the United States are represented by charac- groups, senior citizens, and civic and community or-
teristic artifacts. ganizations.
The assembly room is well utilized for meetings of
 5
Participatory Theories and Methods

175
Participatory Design Principles

An important point in the participatory process is in- cations. It means sharing with each other so that
dividual learning through increased awareness of a the understanding, objectives, and expectations of
problem. In order to maximize learning, the process all participants become resources for planning and
should be clear, communicable, and open. It should not hidden agendas that could disrupt the project
encourage dialogue, debate, and collaboration. This later on.
learning process is valuable to all sides: school users, Decision Making. This phase concentrates on work-
planners, and designers. ing from awareness and perception to a program for
the situation under consideration. In it, participants
A planner who previously used citizen participation only make actual physical designs based on their priori-
to educate the public as to his or her professional recom- ties, which professionals use as a resource to syn-
mendations may also learn that he or she can equally well thesize alternative and final plans.
be educated from public involvement (Williams 1976). Implementation. Many participatory processes stop
with awareness, perception, and decision making,
The types and degrees of participation depend on often with fatal results to a project because it ends
several factors and vary in accord with the circum- people's responsibilities just when they could be of
stances. For Alexander (1972), most value: when the how-to, where-to, when-to,
and who-will-do-it must be added to what people
. . . the most modest kind of participation is the kind want and how the building will look. People must
where the user helps to shape a building by acting as a
stay involved throughout the processes; in other
client of an architect. The fullest kind of participation is
the kind where users actually build their building for them- words, take responsibility with their professionals
selves. to see that there are results (Hurwitz 1975).

Jim Burns (1979) classifies participation into four cat-

egories or "experiences" that can lead to ultimate Purposes of Participation
agreement about what the future should bring:
Participation (from the Latin "pars," a part) means to
Awareness. This experience involves discovering or be and to act as a part of a larger order of a higher
rediscovering the realities of a given environment totality or wholeness. Participation refers to the fact
or situation so that everyone in the "Take Part" or conditions of sharing in common with others, and
process is talking the same language based on their refers to making decisions with regards to the common
experiences in the field where change is proposed. good. Participation implies the presence of the users
Perception. This experience entails going from during the whole course of the architectural operation,
awareness of the situation to understanding it and which passes through three phases: the definition of
its physical, social, cultural, and economic ramifi- the problem, the elaboration of the solution, and the

177
178 Participatory Theories and Methods

evaluation of the results. Participation has a number • Is it to disseminate information?

of synonyms such as citizen involvement, citizen in- • Is it to resolve some identified conflict?
fluence, cooperation, co-decision, and self-decision. • Is it to measure opinion?
This definition implies that participation is a general • It is to review a proposal?
concept covering different forms of decision-making • Or is it merely to serve as a safety valve for pent-
by a number of involved parties (Wulz 1985). Partici- up emotions?
pation, however, is a concept laden with ideology and
assumptions. Often the arguments made for partici- The list of possible participation objectives will dif-
pation are not based on a clear conceptual understand- fer from time to time and from issue to issue. Once
ing or on an appropriate organizing framework. the goals and objectives of participation are stated,
Important issues in any framework must include fac- participation is perceived differently depending on the
tors such as who is participating, how people are par- type of issue and the people involved. If differences
ticipating, and what are the effects of participation. in perception and expectations are not identified at the
Participation means different things to different peo- outset, and realistic objectives are not made clear, the
ple and different things to the same people, depending expectations of those involved in the participation pro-
on the issue, its timing, and the social and political gram will not have been met and they will become
setting in which it takes place. Participation can be disenchanted.
addressed effectively if the task is conceptualized in One of the stumbling blocks to an effective partici-
terms of what is to be accomplished when the need is pation program is the difficulty associated with the
acknowledged to involve users. Conceptualizing the articulation of participation goals and objectives. Yet
issue means asking simple questions of who, what, it is this articulation that forms the basis of any wise
where, how, and when? choice of participation methods. The difficulty in de-
termining goals, objectives, and methods may be
caused by confusion over what is meant by the plan-
1. Who are the parties to be involved in the partici- ning of a participation program (Rosner 1978).
pation process? A goal is nothing more than a generalized statement
2. What are the specifications we wish to have per- of intended accomplishment. It is usually abstract and
formed by the participation program? somewhat ambiguous. An objective is more specific.
3. Where do we wish the participation road to lead? It is a statement of the changes on conditions that
4. How should people be involved? some activity is expected to produce; put another way,
5. When in the design process is participation needed it is a function to be performed. A method is a vehicle
or desired? by which an objective is to be achieved.
When participation goals and objectives are not
These are simple questions, yet rarely are they clearly articulated, participants will have different ex-
asked prior to the development of a participation pro- pectations of what participation is to achieve.
gram. Many architects and public officials find the involve-
What architects and public officials should realize ment of users time consuming, inefficient, irrational,
is that participation is like a professional sport: it takes and not very productive. However, when the purposes
place in a public forum where there is competition are made clear, then it is possible to plan activities
between individuals and groups with conflicting goals; that are directly related to the objectives. Examples
individuals and groups that participate play different of objectives would be:
roles at different times; the playing conditions change
from time to time; the planning of strategies is a major • To disseminate information
activity; no one group wins every contest; and there • To solicit and identify the attitudes and opinions of
is an ongoing need to evaluate performance in order user groups
to succeed. Like the manager of a professional sports • To facilitate participation
club, the designer of a participation program needs to • To generate new ideas and alternatives
think about goals and objectives, about options and • To establish priorities
plays, resources and timing, strategy and perfor-
mances. And, like sports, planning for a successful These objectives would be the functions to be per-
participation program involves a great deal of thought formed by some set of participation activities, and are
and analysis prior to the first public performance. the purposes to which some participation will be
The planning that accompanies the design of any matched.
participation program should first include a determi- Planning for participation needs considerable time
nation of goals and objectives. For example: prior to the taking of any action. When sufficient time
is allowed to analyze the issues, participants, re-
• Is the participation intended to generate ideas? sources, and participation goals and objectives prior
• Is it to identify attitudes? to the choosing of participation methods, the chance
 Participatory Design Principles 179

of success is greatly enhanced. Poorly planned partic- 3. A design or planning task can be made "trans-
ipation actions create a lack of confidence in public parent." Steps taken and alternatives considered
agencies and generate a stronger demand by people by the architect-planners (traditionally in their own
for the monitoring of agency activities. minds in the privacy of an office) can be brought to
The steps to successful participation planning are the surface for the users to discuss. By understand-
(Rosner 1978): ing the components of planning and design decisions
and by "shopping" among the alternatives, the users
1. Identify the individuals or groups who will or in effect generate their own plan rather than react
should be involved in the participation activity to one provided for them. The final product is more
being planned. likely to succeed because it is better understood by
2. Decide where in the planning process the partici- the people who will use it.
pants should be involved; that is, in development, 4. All individuals and interest groups should come
implementation, evaluation, or some combination together in an open forum. In this way people can
thereof. openly express their opinions, make necessary com-
3. Articulate the participation goals and objectives in promises, and arrive at decisions that are acceptable
relation to all participants who will be involved; to all concerned. By involving as many interests as
that is, elected officials, public administrators, the possible, not only is the product strengthened by
affected people. the wealth of input, but the user group is strength-
4. Identify participation methods to objectives in ened as well by learning more about itself.
terms of the resources available. 5. The process is continuous and ever changing. The
5. Match alternative methods to objectives in terms product is not the end of the process. It must be
of the resources available. managed, re-evaluated, and adapted to changing
6. Select an appropriate method to be used in the needs. Those most directly involved with the prod-
achievement of specified objectives. uct — the users — are best able to assume those
7. Implement chosen participation activities. tasks.
8. Evaluate the implemented methods to see to what
As a summary, four essential purposes of partici-
extent they achieved the desired goals and objec-
pation can be identified:
tives.
1. Participation is inherently good.
It is not suggested that taking the eight proposed
2. It is a source of wisdom and information about
steps will automatically ensure success, but it can be
local conditions, needs, and attitudes, and thus im-
claimed that the process will minimize failure.
proves the effectiveness of decision making.
A collective review of the theories and practices of
3. It is an inclusive and pluralistic approach by which
participation are synthesized into the following five
fundamental human needs are fulfilled and user
statements:
values reflected.
1. There is no "best solution" to design problems. 4. It is a means of defending the interests of groups
Each problem has a number of solutions. Solutions of people and of individuals, and a tool for satis-
to design problems are traditionally based on two fying their needs, which are often ignored and dom-
sets of criteria: (a) facts — the empirical data con- inated by large organizations, institutions, and their
cerning material strengths, economics, building inflated bureaucracies.
codes, and so forth; and (b) attitudes — interpre-
tation of the facts, the state of the art in any partic- Forms of Participation
ular area, traditional and customary approaches,
and value judgments. Thus design and planning de- Participation can be active or passive. A rough division of
cisions are by nature biased and depend on the these two extremes results in opposing poles of expert-
values of the decision maker(s). autonomous and user-autonomous architecture. The con-
2. "Expert" decisions are not necessarily better than cept of expert-autonomous architecture denotes architec-
"lay" decisions. Given the facts with which to make ture stemming from the architect's own subjective ideas
decisions, the users can examine the available al- and values. Planning and design decisions are made by the
ternatives and choose among them. The architect or architect himself alone, denying exposure to other opin-
ions, i.e. the 'artistic' architect. At the other end of the
planner involved in such an approach should be
scale, in user-autonomous architecture, the architect is
considered a participant who is expected to state more or less eliminated from the planning, design, and
his opinion, provide technical information, and dis- construction process. These two forms of architectural ex-
cuss consequences of various alternatives, just as tremes may not appear very often today in their pure
the users state their opinions and contribute their forms, but they do serve to illustrate the two opposing
expertise. poles of the architectural design process: one where the
180 Participatory Theories and Methods

architect reaches his own decisions and sets his personal normative (cooperation), and whether it changed
stamp on his architecture, and the other, where the indi- over time
vidual makes his own decisions and will not submit to • Motivation: what goals participants sought
anyone else's 'stamp' (Wulz 1986). • Competence: capacity of participants to take ef-
fective roles in public decision making
In the practical world of building, these two extremes • Internal cohesiveness: extent to which group
are forced to reach a compromise with each other. members are united behind leaders
The question is which one of the two is to make the
decisive decisions in connection with the design of the Analytical Assumptions. More interesting than the in-
architectural environment. The different forms and dividual, structural, and behavioral factors are the
stages of participation are a result of the differences potential relationships among them. Three primary
of influence by the architect and the user. The scale types of analytical assumptions may be identified:
between those two poles provide the stages of influ- • Social control: in which the author views the re-
ence by the architect and by the user. It is a reciprocal lationship between citizens and government from
scale in which the decreasing influence of the architect the side of the authorities and their system-wide
is followed by increasing users' influence. goals, as in Litwak and Meyer (1966)
• Exchange: in which citizen-government relation-
ships are seen in terms of transactions in which
Levels of Participation
each side calculates its costs and benefits, as in
As a convenient organizing system, a review of the Mitchell (1967)
literature will examine participation as a function of • Partisan influence: in which citizens attempt to
the type of structure in which it occurs. There are influence government decisions, as in Lipsky
important qualitative differences in participation (1968)
within small groups, organizations, and communities;
yet it is not always recognized that community partic-
ipation involves all three structural levels.
Units of Participation
Structural Factors. Certain factors appear to influ-
As a background to this theoretical discussion, general
ence both participant behavior and participation
participation studies have been categorized in terms
outcomes. These important structural factors in-
of whether the size of the unit of analysis was the
clude:
small group, the organization, or the community. All
• Group type: small face-to-face group, formal or- of these different groups depend on the number of
ganizations, or larger community of multiple participants involved, the topic, and the social rela-
groups and organizations tionship.
• Purpose of participation: social control, partisan
influence, or exchange
• Degree of autonomy: extent to which participants
Small-Group Participation
have an independent supply of resources
• Participant characteristics: race, socioeconomic Participation has been studied in small groups in which
status each participant has direct control over the innovation
• Structural conduciveness: legal and organization or strategy through intimate communication. In a re-
procedures, intra- and interorganizational rela- view of the relevant literature, Godschalk (1972) notes
tionships, and roles for participants that small-group participation occurs when members
• Resources available: tangible and symbolic re- communicate on a face-to-face basis and are aware of
wards controlled by participants each other as individuals. The small-group studies pro-
duced evidence for the "participation hypothesis," as
Behavior Factors. In addition to structural factors,
Verba (1961) states that " . . . significant changes in
certain behavioral factors are also relevant to our
human behavior can be brought about rapidly only if
view of participation. These include:
the persons who are expected to change participate in
• Exchange process: participation in planning, in- deciding what the change shall be and how it shall be
novation, or conflict made."
• Participation outcome: whether the act succeeded The basis for the participation hypothesis stems
or failed in terms of its goal from the nature of the influence of the small group
• Type and sequence of interaction: whether the over its individual members, causing them to conform
interaction between participants was primarily to group standards, once these have been set. Thus
coercive (conflict), utilitarian (competition), or conformity in one form or another is the typical de-
 Participatory Design Principles 181

pendent variable in small-group studies. Conformity Participation as an Organizational Strategy

results from compliance with group norms, or rules,
that describe expected behavior and prescribe punish- Many of the social characteristics of society are inte-
ments for noncompliance. grally connected to the behavior of organizations and
Small-group members tend to conform to group to the delivery of goods and services. In organizational
norms because of individual needs, internal pressures development, participation refers to an approach that
within the individual to be accepted by the group, and is rooted in trust, intimacy, and consensus. This re-
external pressures and sanctions imposed on the non- lationship has been described by William Ouchi as
conformist by the group (Verba 1961). The character Theory Z (1981), where Theory X is an assumption
of the small group itself also affects the susceptibility about human behavior stating that people are inher-
of member opinions to group influence. Small groups ently lazy and need to be constantly watched; and
tend to exert a great influence on member opinions Theory Y assumes that people are hard working and
because the member does not have the opportunity to need only to be supported and encouraged. This dis-
be selective about the information he will expose him- tinction is significant since there is a growing number
self to (unlike in the mass media); relations among of type Z organizations where the decision-making
members are diffuse and general, rather than specific process is typically a consensual, participative one.
to any particular type of behavior; and informal de- Egalitarianism is a central feature of type Z orga-
cision methods emphasize consensus, unlike voting nizations. Egalitarianism implies that each person can
which allows for opinion differences (Verba 1961). apply discretion and can work autonomously without
In the small-group participation method, the group close supervision because they are to be trusted. This
leader acts as the medium between external enforce- feature accounts for high levels of loyalty and produc-
ment and internal demands. Democratic (participa- tivity in type Z organizations. Social scientists have
tory) or authoritarian (coercive) decision methods may described this as a democratic (as opposed to auto-
be applied, but, in general, members have been found cratic or apathetic) process in which many people are
to prefer a democratic (normative) leadership style, drawn into the shaping of important decisions. In type
and more readily accept decisions in which they have Z organizations, the decision making may be collec-
participated (Lewin, Lippitt, and White 1939). The tive, but the ultimate responsibility for decisions still
"participation effect" in small groups has been de- resides in one individual. The consensus process is
scribed in terms of a type of social physics. Norms one in which members of the group may be asked to
supposedly set up a "field of forces" acting on the accept responsibility for a decision that they do not
group. Participation lowers the forces opposed to prefer, but that the group, in an open and complete
change, while external direction increases them and discussion, has settled upon. This combination of col-
causes group tension and aggression. In this view the lective decision making with individual responsibility
field of forces must appear to be influenced from demands an atmosphere of trust. Through many years
within the group, so that group and individual goals of research, Ouchi and others have demonstrated that
can be fused. For effective participation, members type Z organizations were more profitable, and had
must make a positive commitment by actively dis- emotionally more healthy employees than did auto-
cussing the subject. The force for decisions must come cratic organizations.
from the group, and members must perceive other Theory Z emphasizes participatory management in
members as changing (Verba 1961). A major criticism an holistic atmosphere, in which the culture of an
of the early small-group participation studies was that organization is considered. In order to implement
the structure did not offer alternatives for group de- changes, it is necessary to understand the organiza-
cisions, but merely sought member endorsement of tion's culture. Lindemer suggests type Z organizations
the leader's goals. The underlying analytical assump- function similar to an open system, where there is
tion appears as one of social control: individual con- continual interaction with the environment and a state
formity as the desired outcome where leadership was of balance or harmony is achieved. Interaction with
a means of changing group attitudes. Participation has the environment implies listening, but may also
also been linked to conflict behavior in small-group necessitate internal adjustments within the organiza-
studies based on game theory, in which the underlying tion's structure. Corporate CEOs and school admin-
analytical assumption is one of exchange. Game the- istrators are discovering that to implement changes
ory assumes that it is possible to assign values to the they must first know the organization's culture before
various choices in conflicting issues, so that there is introducing such techniques as quality circles, a form
an explicitly measurable basis for determining pref- of teaming and participatory management. The quality
erences. The game theory approach defines conflict as circle is a participative management tool designed to
an exchange process based on competition or coop- harness systematically the brain power of employees
eration (Abt 1970). to solve an organization's problems of productivity
182 Participatory Theories and Methods

and quality. While there are differences in the way Second, to the user group in design:
industry and education operate, they do share one • An increased reconciliation of individual objectives
attribute: The public distrusts the quality of their prod- • An increased sense of having influenced the design
ucts. Whether it is American cars or American high
decision-making process
school graduates, both are perceived as not as good
• An increased awareness of the consequences of de-
as they used to be. Quality circles are different than
cisions made
committees or task forces, since leaders and members
are trained in specific techniques of the circle process, Third, to the designer:
including brainstorming and consensus decision mak-
• Setting up a logical basis for interdisciplinary design
ing. The circle itself determines what problems will be
ventures, operating through a mutual complement
analyzed and solved.
of professionals and nonprofessionals rather than
This theory and approach opens the way for people
through a domination of one group over the other
to find and pursue points of communality involving
• Supplying the designer with more relevant and up-
their own interests and those of the organizations for
to-date information than was possible before
which they work. This approach can also serve to
• Creating a methodological framework for an effec-
enhance the performance and experience of everyone
tive use of rational design methods and accurate
involved in an organization. People do indeed gain
design tools (such as the computer) without affecting
satisfaction from feeling competent, in control, and
the role and nature of creative processes now aug-
free to choose for themselves. Personal involvement
mented by lay productions
in the shaping of the schoolroom will aid the devel-
opment of responsibility, cooperation, and self-moti- • Enriching professional designers with nonprofes-
vation. sional aspects of social activity
Since schools are operating from a dynamic base, • Expanding the role of professional designers to in-
type Z management styles are a natural extension of clude the function of instructor and designer of the
their thrust. Theory Z emphasizes the environment design process, which, admittedly, burdens them
beyond the local community and recognizes a new with new duties and responsibilities, but at the same
generation with diverse values. time increases their social standing, esteem, and
respect
The potential benefits offered by an organized ap-
proach to design participation constitutes logical,
Conclusion emotional, technological, and economic tenets for its
Participation might be seen as direct human involve- use. A collective review of the theories and practices
ment in decision-making processes. In this type of of participation can be summarized as follows:
participation, students, teachers, administrators, and
public officials share in decisions that determine the 1. The designer's job is no longer to produce finished
quality and direction of their educational program. and unalterable solutions, but to extract solutions
This approach requires the provision of effective com- from a continuous confrontation with those who
munication media in order to provide suitable grounds will use his or her work. The designer's energy and
for school user participation in designing. The expe- imagination will be completely directed to raising
riences in design participation show that the main the level of awareness of the school users in the
source of user satisfaction is not so much the degree discussion, and the solution will come out of the
to which particular needs have been met, but the feel- exchanges between the two; the designer states his
ing of having influenced the decisions. However, there or her opinions, provides technical information,
are many benefits accruing from such an approach for and discusses the consequences of various alter-
community, users, and designers (Wrona 1981). natives, just as the users state their opinions and
First, from the social point of view: contribute their expertise.
2. Participation has a diversity of expression, and a
• It results in a greater meeting of social needs, and design task resulting from this approach can be
an increasingly effective utilization of resources at made "transparent" because the final decisions are
the disposal of a particular community. understood by the people who made them.
• It enhances democracy in the whole investment sys- 3. Public forums should be convened and participa-
tem. tion by all members of the community should be
• It has a didactic effect leading to increased social encouraged. In this way people can openly express
awareness, and a generally higher intellectual level their opinions, make necessary compromises, and
of school community. arrive at acceptable decisions. This method not
 Participatory Design Principles 183

only strengthens the product by the wealth of in- Architecture in the future can be characterized by
put, but also strengthens the user group by learning an increasing participation of the user in its organi-
more about itself. zational and formal definition. In order to respond to
4. Although participation in the design process can this situation, professionals will need to do everything
create technological specialization by bringing nu- possible to make design solutions less representative
merous specialists in various fields to cooperate in of its designers and more representative of its users.
the design process, a general effort should be made Even though many difficulties in applying design par-
to educate the school community about various ticipation arise from the concept of democratic partic-
strategies that can be employed to achieve effective ipation, the consideration for the interests of future
and efficient participation in designing. users, and organizational and methodological prob-
5. Public comments and representation should be ac- lems reflect true participation.
cepted into the design process continuously. The
final decision is not the end of the process. It re-
quires management, evaluation, and adaptability to
changing needs.
Planning for Participation

Participation in design and planning has come to be open, and encourages dialogue, debate, and collabo-
construed by professionals and policymakers as an ration. As more participants learn about environmen-
acceptable concept that can be applied to different tal issues and impacts, the decisions they make will
community problems. However, in most instances, have broad effects on the quality of the environment.
serious demands and responsibilities are placed upon Thus, the designer's role is to facilitate the user
participants. In addition to concern with technical group's ability to reach decisions pertinent to the en-
complexity, sound design principles must also be in- vironment through a communicable procedure. Most
corporated into the development process. Without often this approach will take the form of creating
guidance, community groups may respond only to cri- awareness which permits citizens to be critical of en-
sis situations and subsequently cannot achieve the vironmental alternatives. Such design assistance is
broad goals that originally united the group. Often oriented toward sensitizing groups to environmental
community participants cannot draw upon personal issues.
experiences for resolving building conflicts and may The facilitator's role is to help people develop their
select courses of action that create unforeseen, dele- existing and/or potential resources in ways that will
terious consequences. Therefore, the management of benefit themselves and others. Facilitation helps bring
participatory efforts directed at environmental change people together to determine what they wish to do and
is important. helps them find ways to work together in figuring out
People will join together if it is clear that change ways to do it. A facilitator's role is to make everyone
can and will occur. Participation can function if it is know that they are included in what is going on and
active and directed, and a sense of achievement is that what they have to say is being listened to by the
experienced by those who get involved. At the same group. Facilitation can also include systematic pro-
time, it requires a reexamination of traditional design cedures by which people untrained in design can or-
procedures to ensure that participation becomes more ganize themselves to create a planned action. The
than an affirmation of the designer's intentions. The basic ingredient in the participatory process is individ-
guidance of user participation directed at environ- ual learning through increased awareness of a prob-
mental change requires new skills of the design pro- lem.
fessional, both design skills and skills for ensuring If people are to discover the principle of quality for
community participation in the design process. themselves, they are more likely to do so in small
Structuring group efforts can take many forms cor- groups. Above and beyond this, small-scale organi-
responding to the diverse array of environmental zation is needed to reduce alienation and to allow
issues that confront communities daily. The basic ingre- people to come to grips with rapid change. Significant
dient in the participatory process is individual learning changes in human behavior can be brought about rap-
through increased awareness of a problem. Learning idly only if the persons who are expected to change
occurs best when the process is clear, communicable, participate in deciding what the change shall be and
184
 Planning for Participation 185

how it shall be made. Participation, however, can take nected with each other and with the designer. The role
place through many modes of involvement including of the designer in this process is not only as the pro-
simulated experiences and structured group decision cess facilitator, but as the technical specialist who
making. makes recommendations and develops the necessary
Simulation methods are primarily educational since design documents. Since the process is open to lay
their purpose is to prepare people to act. Such meth- people, communication systems that everyone can
ods are based on an abstraction of complex processes read clearly must be employed.
achieved by compressing time and capturing the in-
terest of participants through "parlor game" strategies.
Gaming simulations devised by architects ask partic-
Organizing the Workshop
ipants to assume the decision roles normally included
in "real life" situations. After participation in a game The term "workshop" is used to emphasize that par-
process, individuals may confront their own commu- ticipants engage in those experiences that provide the
nity problems with an increased awareness of the gen- material for learning about human relations. The as-
eral issues, the process by which decisions are made, sumption is that learning is most functional when it
and appropriate decision strategies. This approach is grows out of personally involving experiences that
utilized to make individuals more sensitive to issues require reflecting, developing, and testing of new in-
and alternatives, and ultimately to influence individual sights and approaches to problem solving. These pro-
behavior. cesses come into focus when participants are obliged
Another form of participation is the direct involve- to resolve their differences in pursuit of a common
ment of community residents in a systematically goal.
organized decision process. This process can be profes- Workshops are an appropriate setting to achieve a
sionally designed for a specific community issue, or a high level of interaction between people sharing a
general planning process can be utilized for typical common purpose. A workshop is a planned event
classes of problems. Success in this approach is as- whereby participants can learn from each other as they
sociated with the quality of guidance through the de- explore issues. An important component in the de-
cision procedure. Leadership is necessary to insure velopment of a workshop is building cohesion. Op-
that all the participants contribute to the fullest of their portunities should be provided for groups to get so
abilities. Similarly, the procedures are tailored to the involved with each other that they begin to see each
willingness of people who are required to work to- other as persons and, therefore, invest interest in each
gether, yet are not intended to force involvement other. It is the intent of this experience to facilitate
beyond a participant's competence. Overzealous at- learning that might otherwise be haphazard and dif-
tempts at total involvement of community residents in fuse. In order to accomplish this, the experience must
all stages of the design process may lead to their early be structured to insure that there is a focus to the
withdrawal, particularly if progress toward implemen- group process. It should also increase the probability
tation is slow. that certain learning will occur for the participants.
An effective process for involving people must be The structured experience, however, does not dictate
carefully designed. The random involvement of people what a participant should learn.
without a clear sequence of events and without clearly The structured experience is a function of the ob-
understood roles can result in chaos. There are a few jectives of the experience, the content, and the tech-
essential ingredients for success in any type of partic- niques employed to focus learning. The learning goals
ipatory effort. Initially there needs to be a shared view of a structured experience may include cognitive, af-
of the goals of the project and what the participants fective, and skill-building aspects. The cognitive as-
want to achieve. As the process moves ahead the goals pect of the experience may include an awareness of
may change, yet the structure should be adhered to the content or uses and how they can be effectively
since open-ended processes that permit people to join organized. The participant's self-awareness, insight,
and drop out usually end in frustration. To ensure and empathy illustrate the effective aspects of learning
continuity of the process, a steering committee, ex- goals. Development and implementation of character-
ecutive board, citizens council, or building committee istics such as listening and problem solving are skill-
should be formed at the outset. Their role should also building aspects of the goals. The content areas refer
include the need to maintain open communication be- to individual and group events, and include methods
tween all participants at all times. Open dialogues of interpersonal communication, group problem solv-
often provide protection against hidden agendas that ing, sensory awareness, giving and receiving feed-
may emerge. The process must also have a clear be- back, and team building. Techniques employed to
ginning and end, through which participants under- direct learning include activities such as making or
stand their responsibilities and how they are intercon- building something, discussions, summarizations,
186 Participatory Theories and Methods

board games, interviews, inventories or check lists, participants should be divided into groups of five to
role playing, and tasks. nine people, since groups of fewer than five people
An appropriate combination of objectives, content, may lack the knowledge or critical judgments available
and techniques will produce a structure that will gen- to analyze the problem and arrive at a decision. As
erate an opportunity for learning. Workshops can vary groups enlarge beyond nine people, opportunities to
widely in topics, time lengths, and goals, so all three participate decline, and dissatisfaction occurs. A
elements must be carefully chosen. The content and group leader or facilitator is needed to help members
quality of the experience is important enough to create share activities and learn to work together.
the highest quality environment possible. Since the Antagonism and conflicts arise when groups create
workshop participants will be using various awareness together just as they do in "real-life" situations. In
activities to heighten their sensitivity to the environ- both situations negative and destructive forces can
ment, the meeting space and graphic quality are emerge which can destroy personal relationships and
important factors that may contribute towards a suc- group cohesiveness, or they can be used as positive
cessful session. The quality of meeting space should forces for dynamic change and interchange. The core
reflect an awareness of the environment by insuring of the issue is to recognize conflict and to make it
adequate ventilation and light, movable furniture, and acceptable and visible, not attempt to squelch it or
a general setting that would make the participants feel deny its validity. Conflict, when looked upon as an
comfortable. Arrangements setting the audience apart important resource, can become useful rather than
from the speaker are not desirable since it is important destructive. One major source of conflict in commu-
to establish a feeling of informality and encourage nity workshops occurs when participants feel that
interaction. their viewpoints are not being heard and, for this rea-
Generally it is useful to promote an upcoming work- son, they become belligerent and antagonistic. It is
shop, especially those open to the public, with mail the responsibility of the group facilitator to see that
flyers, press releases to the newspaper, and television conflicts, when they arise, are settled amicably and
and radio coverage. Participants attending workshops constructively. One of the important ways of resolving
should receive an information packet including the conflicts is for the leader to listen to what is said and
program and workshop schedule. It is also useful to then to repeat it, making sure of what the person or
document the workshop by taking photographs, slides, the group has said. This is called the language of
video tapes, or audio cassettes as well as recording acceptance, which means that one person accepts the
the decisions that were made. other person for what he or she is and how he or she
Certain activities are basic to any environmental feels, even though there may be disagreement.
workshop. First, it is necessary to clearly state the A recorder working with each group is also an im-
workshop's goals, schedule, and events. Participants portant contributor to the successful operation of the
will become involved if they know what to expect. As process. The recorder's function is to keep notes
an opening activity it is desirable to provide the par- about what everyone in the group says so that in
ticipants with the opportunity to have a tangible per- feedback sessions, each person has the assurance that
sonal experience that will relate to what they will he or she is being listened to and input is being valued.
encounter. This overview might take the form of a Summaries is one method of group feedback which
simple lecture, the presentation of environmental is- helps to resolve conflicts. After each session, the
sues, or a slide show that introduces basic concepts group leader can summarize the important points that
of awareness, understanding, and action. The focus were made, insuring that everyone's point of view has
should be on active participation in activities that in- been accurately stated. This approach insures that the
volve all the senses, allowing discovery and encour- process evolves on a basis of common agreements and
aging exploration. Each participant should carry away people can identify and accept accomplishments be-
from the workshop new information and fresh insights. fore proceeding to the next activity.
When individuals come together to engage in group Opinions, biases, and judgments have their place in
tasks, perceptions of why the group was formed will participatory sessions, but their purpose is to allow
affect their performance. It is important that there be choice and to encourage input rather than to prevent
a leader who will clarify the members' roles and group ideas from flowing. Summaries during the session al-
objectives of the workshop. Appropriate role defini- low the group to perceive what has been happening
tions will help reduce status barriers among members, and to determine how to proceed. Agreements can be
encourage free communication, and decrease the ten- reached or disagreements can be made visible so they
dency for high-status individuals to be unduly verbal. can be resolved constructively.
Workshop participants need to understand the context Concurrent with the exploration of people's percep-
of their discussions and see the potential of their col- tions of the issues, designers and planners need to
lective creativity before the process starts. Workshop develop a thorough data base in order to understand
 Planning for Participation 187

the technical aspects of the problem and synthesize meetings with appropriate groups and may be pre-
them into issues, objectives, and activities. Finally, sented to the larger community for approval. The in-
this information is diagrammed in a series of easily tention is to arrive at a consensus about which of the
understood drawings and models. Based on the objec- design solutions best responds to the concerns of all
tives that were agreed upon in the workshops, a series participants. This final public forum, workshop, or
of program alternatives can be developed in diagram- design is a necessary step prior to implementation of
matic design form. These findings are discussed in the project.
Participatory Techniques

Gaming is a participatory approach to problem solving tal and social forces, they can also be used to provide
that engages a real-life situation compressed in time insights into situations so familiar that their charac-
so that the essential characteristics of the problem are teristics are not perceived. Games help sharpen per-
open to examination. This technique permits learning ceptions.
about the process of change in a dynamic environment
and requires periodic decisions. Essentially, a com-
RELATING OBJECTIVES FOR LEARNING
plex problem is identified, its essence is abstracted,
and the end result is a process referred to as simula- TO EDUCATION (ROLE)
tion. This exercise encourages a dialogue among teachers,
The basic format of this section is people working students, parents, administrators, and designers. Par-
towards group consensus decisions. All the exercises ticipants explore aspects of the school environment
are based on the premise that there should not be by considering a variety of approaches to teaching and
losers in design decision making. Every participant learning. Educational objectives and learning methods
should be a winner. Therefore, the traditional process were selected from the educational literature to allow
of voting is replaced by the consensus process. participants the possibility of discussing numerous op-
In each exercise the individual makes choices, holds tions (Figure 5-1). Introducing them stimulates a dis-
positions, and debates them, but the final goal of the cussion about the purpose of learning, and the types
exercise is a plan of action for an entire group of of physical settings that would enhance student learn-
people; a goal which requires some compromising. ing. In planning for efficient and effective achievement
Participants in these design groups learn about each of educational objectives, it is necessary to consider
others' value differences, and use the game props to the following:
clarify and reconcile them.
Each exercise provides props in the form of objec- • Learning methods to be used to accomplish the ob-
jectives
tives and environmental settings. The range of possi-
• Role relationships between student and teacher,
bilities has not been exhausted. It would be appropri-
whether student or teacher directed (The difference
ate to add or eliminate items from any list of
is primarily who makes the decision about the learn-
objectives, as well as maintain the opportunity for
ing activity.)
participants to include their own choices of objectives
or settings. • Settings or environments in which learning methods
will be accomplished
The games included in this section have been de-
veloped to facilitate an understanding of strategies for This game is played by groups of three to five peo-
solving school environment problems, and to impart ple. To begin, each player selects individually, from
information in a meaningful way. While games help to the list provided, no more than four objectives which
understand the complex interweaving of environmen- seem to be the most important. Brief notes should be
188
 Participatory Techniques 189

FIGURE 5-1. Educational objectives and learning methods. FIGURE 5-2. Record sheet noting group decisions.

made justifying each choice. After each player has

made choices, the individual lists are pooled. Through
discussion, the group chooses from the aggregated list
no more than four objectives that are agreeable to all
participants. Group members are urged to support
their individual choices forcefully, even if other mem-
bers did not make the same choice, until they persuade
or are persuaded by others that an objective should or
should not be included in the final list. When consen-
sus is reached, the group should record its choices.
The game record sheet (Figure 5-2) is used to report
the final decisions. Next, participants should examine
each objective to identify the appropriate learning
methods (Figure 5-1) necessary to accomplish the ob-
jective. Three learning methods should be selected for
each objective. Individual choices are then pooled for
a group discussion, reaching a consensus about four
learning methods for each objective. Each learning
method should be qualified whether teacher directed
(TD) or child directed (CD). (Note: This approach has
also been used in many non-English speaking coun-
tries, as shown in the Japanese translation in Figure
5-3.)
Combining these two components — objectives and
learning methods — the best setting (Figure 5-4)
should be identified to fulfill the requirements estab-
lished by the group. All decisions are to be noted on
the game record sheet. A final discussion of all groups FIGURE 5-3. Japanese version of educational objectives and
might consist of representatives from each group re- learning methods.
190 Participatory Theories and Methods

FIGURE 5-4. Photographs of a variety of educational settings that are matched to learning methods.
 Participatory Techniques 191

FIGURE 5-4. (continued)

192 Participatory Theories and Methods

porting their collective decisions, with a total group

summation of all decisions.

LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS FOR

CHILDREN
Planning the children's center or playroom is a task
requiring the specialized knowledge of the architect as
well as that of the early childhood teacher. The prob-
lem is similar to a child's puzzle. A number of pieces
must fit together in some logical manner. Unlike a
puzzle, however, there is not one correct solution or
best fit of puzzle pieces. The differences may stem
from a variety of values, goals, and needs of teachers,
parents, and communities. Yet, the common aspect to
all groups is the nature of activities children of all ages
engage in, what they enjoy doing, and how they learn.
While goals are generalized statements about the
overall purpose of an educational program such as to
advance and develop the child's functioning knowl-
edge of his or her environment, learning objectives are
statements that describe the desired characteristics to
be achieved by each child. From the goal statement,
the following learning objectives might be generated:

• Positive self image

• Language development

An activity area or learning center is a place within

the children's playroom described by materials and
boundaries where particular learning experiences oc-
cur. The basic arrangement of the playroom is a func-
tion of the appropriate learning objectives and the
organization of activity centers.
Planning appropriate environments for young chil-
dren is a strategy for effectively accomplishing learn-
ing objectives. This interactional game process FIGURE 5-5. Developmental objectives and activity centers for
consists of three stages: young children.

• Stating learning objectives

• Identifying and matching appropriate children's ac- ters are identified where each objective can be accom-
tivity centers plished. All decisions can be noted on the record sheet
• Planning the playroom or center similar to the previous exercise.
To allow the effective participation of individuals
This structured experience can be used by groups not familiar with the purposes of activity centers, short
of three to five people, although many groups can scenarios are provided for each group. In addition to
simultaneously participate. To begin, each person se- a description of the activity centers, there is a list of
lects from the list provided no more than three objec- learning objectives that can be achieved in each center
tives which seem to be most important to a particular (Figure 5-6). It may be evident that the same objective
age group, such as infants, toddlers, two-year-olds, may be achieved by different activity centers.
etc. (Figure 5-5). The list of objectives have been The game pieces represent what is common to all
culled from the early childhood literature. Through children's centers. How they go together, or what
collaboration, the participants should agree to three pieces are included, may vary between participating
statements that could be incorporated into a unified groups. This exercise, however, can provide the pre-
program for their age group. Then, two activity cen- liminary steps in planning for physical changes.
 Participatory T e c h n i q u e s 193

Art. The art work of children is a visual expres- Manipulative Play. Manipulative skill is the abil-
sion of their feelings. To express these feelings ity to use one's hands and fingers with dexterity.
visually, children must think about themselves It is important for young children to develop such
and their physical and social environment. For skill so that they may later learn to read without
this reason art activities are valuable for: 1) in- difficulty. Puzzles, pegboards, and construction
tellectual development, 2) self-image, 3) self-ex- sets encourage children to learn both about their
pression, 4) communication, 5) problem solving, 6) exploration, 7) physical manipulations and about the relationships resulting from
experimentation. these actions. As a result, they develop: 1) eye-hand coordination,
2) perceptual skills, 3) concept formation, and 4) small motor skills.
Block Play. Block play is another area where
building structures from blocks allows children Music. The basic elements of music are sound
to express themselves. Children use their struc- and sound-making. This is quite evident when
tures in both a realistic and imaginative manner. observing the activities of children. Making mu-
When children explore their ideas structurally, sic and responding to it can enhance all areas of
they observe physical principles and form con- development. Singing, playing an instrument,
cepts of size, weight, shape, and fit. Block play enables children to and dancing are important to: 1) oral language
learn how to work and cooperate with their peers: 1) concept for- development, 2) concept reinforcement, 3) cooperation in the social
mation, 2) problem solving, 3) eye-hand coordination, 4) visual environment, 4) self-concept, 5) motor development.
discrimination, 5) large-small muscle development, 6) cooperation,
7) self-expression, 8) positive self-concept. Reading. If a pre-school child is to meet with
later success in learning and enjoying reading,
Construction. Children delight in building activi- then he or she needs to become acquainted with
ties in a construction area. They begin to develop books as early as possible. At this age, children
skills in planning by defining the steps needed to are involved with learning a language and are
reach a finished product. The hammering, saw- fascinated with words and sounds. Provide op-
ing, and drilling develop: 1) large and small motor portunities, support, and encouragement for reading experiences
coordination, 2) eye-hand coordination, 3) visual whenever possible. Objectives: 1) recognition of symbols, 2) oral
discrimination, 4) problem solving, 5) self-confidence, 6) self-con- language, 3) concept formation, 4) visual-auditory discrimination.
cept.
Science. Pre-school children are born scientists.
Dramatic Play. Fascinated by the experiences of They are equipped with an imaginative curiosity
everyday life, children enjoy interpreting these to touch, see, hear, smell, taste. A science area
experiences and re-enacting them. They learn integrates natural and man-made objects into the
what it is like to be mother, father, police officer, world of children and nurtures their curiosity and
storekeeper, and what their peers feel about peo- understanding of the environment and the inter-
ple in such roles. They begin to learn: 1) social- relationships within it. Objectives: 1) concept formation, 2) experi-
ization skills, 2) experimenting, 3) oral language, 4) pretending. mentation, 3) sensory development, 4) problem solving.
They will begin to discover themselves as individual beings, similar
to others, yet unique in their own way. Sand-Water Play. Flexibility, in form and func-
tion, is a primary characteristic of water and
Indoor Activity. Children tend to become exces- sand, and because of this flexibility, it offers chil-
sively active and excited. Under usual circum- dren many opportunities for experimentation.
stances, they are able to exercise and reduce Playing with varying objects in the water-sand
their excitement during active outdoor play. and measuring introduce to children concepts of
However, when weather conditions prevent nor- floating, sinking, and quantity. Objectives: 1) concept formation, 2)
mal outdoor activities, children must still have sensory development, 3) eye-hand coordination, 4) small muscle
some means of releasing energy. An indoor active center can pro- development, 5) experimentation, 6) exploration.
vide children with a variety of activities for energy release and large
muscle development. Climbing and active games are two types of
play that can be facilitated in this center. Objectives: 1) large-small
muscle development, 2) eye-hand coordination, 3) positive self-
image. FIGURE 5.6. Learning objectives for activity centers.
194 Participatory Theories and Methods

Each of the symbol diagrams represents an activity • Each activity symbol should be placed on a vacant
center in the playroom, as well as activity areas in the grid.
children's center (Figure 5-7). Through comparisons • Symbols should not overlap or occupy more than
between the activity symbols, it is possible to decide one grid cell.
which centers should be adjacent to one another and • Blank space between activity symbols should be
which require some separation. To facilitate the plan- provided for circulation.
ning process, a grid should be prepared to correspond • Activity centers should be located on the basis of
with the size of the activity symbols. The size of the their requirements for privacy, quiet, or accessibility
activity symbols corresponds to the area necessary for to each other.
the activity center, which usually accommodates two
to four children. Therefore the spaces between the While many of the activity centers appear to be
symbols correspond to area for movement and circu- related, their placement will require a decision about
lation. The rules for locating the symbols are as fol- which are the most important relationships.
lows:

FIGURE 5-7. Symbol diagrams corresponding to activity centers (from Sanoff, H. & J.
Learning Environments for Children. Humanics Ltd. 1988).
 Participatory Techniques 195

A final stage in the process explores the physical 5-8). While the drawings are not intended to offer
features of activity centers. Several drawings of dif- design solutions, they can be instrumental in increas-
ferent and unidentified centers are used to promote a ing participants' awareness to the "silent messages"
discussion among participants about the appropriate conveyed by the physical environment.
character of the center and the image it evokes (Figure

FIGURE 5-8. Drawings of activity centers (from Sanoff, H. & J., Learning Environments for Children).
196 Participatory Theories and Methods

PLANNING OUTDOOR PLAY most frequently made. As a result of making these

linkages, the subsequent choice of play equipment and
Planning for outdoor play is an integral part of the play areas is based on a clear understanding of the
design process and is a vital component of the child developmental needs that the outdoor play area should
care center. Typically perceived as a staging area for serve. Other types of individual or quiet activities,
large muscle development, the outdoor play area is group games, and opportunities for exercising imagi-
not only important for the child's health but contrib- nation are also appropriate for outdoor use, but may
utes to the child's learning experiences (Threlfall not necessarily require the construction of special
1986). Outdoor play space offers opportunities for ad- equipment.
venture, challenge, and wonder in the natural envi- An analysis of the building site and its topography
ronment (Frost and Klein 1983). The only substantial would influence the location and options for various
difference between indoor and outdoor activity is that play settings. A site map should be used as the basis
one has a roof over it. Both, however, need architec- for planning areas where play settings can be clustered
tural and landscape definition, and both need to pro- according to similarity of requirements. Play zones
vide for the multiplicity of children's developmental include areas for drama, nature, adventure, and large
needs. For example, a play yard with 12 tricycles, a muscle development. Equipment and zone choices are
rocking boat, a tumble tub, a jungle gym, a dirt area, then related to specific site requirements, such as solar
and a sand table with water, has 17 separate play units orientation.
but only four different kinds of things to do (Kritch-
evsky, Prescott, and Walling 1974). Variety can be an
important measure of interest. Complexity, or the Process
number of subparts of a piece of equipment, such as
Planning outdoor play is a method of facilitating the
a sandbox with play materials, water, climbing boards,
design of children's outdoor play areas. Participants
and crates, can also add to a child's interest.
involved in the playroom exercise can continue plan-
The process of creating outdoor play spaces is age- ning for their age group in an outdoor area contiguous
group oriented and begins with developmental objec- to their playroom. Using the same list of educational
tives that help to generate the activities in which chil- objectives found in playroom planning, participants
dren engage (Sanoff 1982). The teaching staff and de- can select three activities, using the same consensus
sign team work together to establish linkages between decision making process. Each objective would then
objectives for outdoor play, the related children's ac- be matched to three outdoor activities from the ex-
tivities, and the play settings required. panded list (Figure 5-9). The numbered activity
To complement the indoor environment, the out- settings (Figure 5-10) can then be matched to the ap-
doors provides play settings that stress muscle devel- propriate activity as shown in the drawings. The set-
opment as well as natural settings that provide ting drawings are provided to aid in visualizing how
experience in the life cycle of plants and animals. The the activities can be spatially organized. When all ac-
props used to enable the teachers to make spatial tivities are selected, they can be grouped into play
decisions included drawings of different play settings zones (Figure 5-11) which range from active to passive
as well as statements of objectives and lists of activi-
ties. The planning group moves through a series of
collaborative stages in which all members should
reach consensus. Finally, the activities and play set-
tings are organized into play zones which range from
passive to active play, and from private to group ac-
tivities (Sanoff 1982). This part of the planning process
helps generate discussions about the purpose of out-
door play, usually dispelling many of the myths sur-
rounding large muscle development as the primary
purpose of children's outdoor activities.
Learning objectives for outdoor play are discussed
in a similar way to those in the planning of the play-
rooms. Objectives such as problem solving, concept
development, and social development are key con-
cerns of the teachers. Supporting activities like role
playing, climbing, feeling and handling, balancing,
sliding, and construction compose the array of choices FIGURE 5-9. List of outdoor play-activity settings.
 Participatory Techniques

FIGURE 5-10. Drawings of outdoor play-activity settings (from Sanoff, H., Planning Outdoor Play. Humanics, 1982).
197
198 Participatory Theories and Methods

FIGURE 5-11. Outdoor play zones.

play, and private to group activities (Figure 5-12). something to say about the people who occupy build-
Zones are a planning strategy for enabling activities ings as well as the people who created these buildings.
with similar requirements to be clustered together. Similarly, people read these cues, make judgments,
The diagrams of outdoor play equipment (Figure 5- and act accordingly. These messages play an impor-
13) are drawn to scale and allow participants to or- tant role in people's comprehension of the environ-
ganize and locate the equipment on an actual site. ment. Specific environments can be evaluated about
the appropriateness of the messages conveyed. An
effective method for eliciting responses to the envi-
PHOTO QUESTIONNAIRES
ronment are through the use of visual techniques, such
Buildings and spaces convey messages reflecting the as drawings, photographs, and video.
inner life, activities, and social values of the users. Photo questionnaires and interviews are an effective
Characteristics like shape, color, or arrangement en- means used to elicit evaluative comments about phys-
able the making of vividly identified mental images of ical settings. People interpret the identity and meaning
the environment. These environmental cues have of their environment from the interaction of and their
 Participatory Techniques 199

using the same descriptive statements, as well as be-

tween the actual and ideal classroom. The technique,
described as a Q-sort, consists of descriptive state-
ments (below) printed on separate cards. Students sort
the cards into piles according to the issue under con-
sideration, such as "most like my classroom" or "most
not like my classroom" (David 1982). This technique
which David (1982) describes as a Classroom Envi-
ronment Q-sort is most effective when it supplements
other information-gathering approaches.
Classroom environment descriptive statements fol-
low:

1. I have enough space to work without others

crowding me.
2. My room has places where you can be by yourself
if you want to.
3. I have a place of my own where I can keep my
things.
4. In my room it's easy to concentrate on what
you're doing.
5. I get to choose where I sit.
6. I can see everything that goes on in our room
from where I sit.
7. I spend most of the day at my desk.
8. The furniture in my room is arranged to help us
work together easily.
9. I feel like I have a place here that belongs to me.
10. I can fix up my place the way I want it.
11. There are lots of good places to work in my room.
12. It's quiet enough for me in my room.
13. We often change the way my room is arranged.
14. My room is neatly arranged.
FIGURE 5-12. Zones, activities, settings record sheet. 15. My room is clearly organized.
16. My room is just the right size for me — not too
big and not too small.
interaction with a wide variety of physical features. 17. My room is pleasant to look at.
In the school environment, there are entrances, path- 18. My room is a special place for me.
ways, and a variety of inside places that evoke either 19. There are lots of comfortable places in my room.
good or bad feelings (Figure 5-14). 20. I get to help decide how our room will be ar-
Becoming aware of perceived environmental effects ranged.
is a necessary first step in striking the delicate balance 21. There are lots of interesting things to do in my
between familiarity and monotony and boredom, and room.
between variety and confusion and disorientation. 22. I get to help add things to my room to make it
With an understanding of how physical surroundings even better.
affect us psychologically, we can become more aware 23. There are places for me to display my work.
of our effects on them, and on ourselves, when we
allow them to be changed. We will then start to realize
the importance of our concern for our surroundings,
ROLE PLAYING
and eventually work toward the improvement of their
quality. Direct human involvement in decision making inte-
grates thought and action. With increased participa-
tion comes the inevitability of conflict resulting from
CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT RATINGS
value differences among participants. An effective ap-
The physical assessment of classrooms can be accom- proach to solve a problem within a controlled set of
plished by comparing user ratings of different settings circumstances can be achieved through role playing,
200 Participatory Theories and Methods

FIGURE 5-13. Outdoor play equipment (from Sanoff, H., Planning Outdoor Play).

in which a plot or basic conflict situation is designed. Typical profiles or scenarios for the composition of
Information is given to each participant in the form of such a committee can be constructed (see box on page
a profile which describes the character and the factors 204). The scenario can identify the purpose of the
influencing the players' behavior. A scenario describes meeting with a playing time limited to between one
the setting in which the role playing activity will occur. and two hours. An observer can lead a follow-up dis-
In a free role play, compared to a structured event cussion with the participants to ask several questions.
with rules, participants begin interacting immediately What kinds of decisions were made? What influenced
after receiving the profiles and scenario. the decisions made? What did the participants learn?
For example, a school building committee with What did they feel they had done wrong? Were conflict
broad-based representation from the administration, situations successfully resolved? How closely did the
the teaching staff, the parents and students, and the role-playing situation approximate a real one?
architects has the potential for conflict during many In addition to the analytic component of a role-play
stages in the design process, particularly in the earliest simulation, there is an emotional, dramatic element as
stages of establishing educational goals. From the ar- well. Participants openly express their beliefs and
chitect's point of view, one of the main objectives of opinions, all of which are a reflection of their attitudes
a role playing simulation is to prepare the design team and values. The recognition of value differences that
for the unexpected conflicts that might occur during generate conflict early in the planning process enables
community meetings. designers to identify means for reconciliation of those
 Participatory Techniques 201

1. Please select in order of preference where you would like to ATTEND CLASS.

A B C D-

2. Your 1st choice is selected because :

3. Your last choice is due to :

FIGURE 5-14. Photo questionnaires (Photo: Henry Sanoff & Tun Sing Chen).
202 Participatory Theories and Methods

1. Please select in order of preference where you would like to CONVERSE WITH OTHER PEOPLE.

A B C _ D

2. Your 1st choice is selected because :

3. Your last choice is due to :

FIGURE 5-14. (continued)

 Participatory Techniques 203

1. Please select in order of preference where you would like to HAVE LUNCH.

B C
B C D_

2. Your 1st choice is selected because

3. Your last choice is due to :

FIGURE 5-14. (continued)

204 Participatory T h e o r i e s and M e t h o d s

differences. Conflicts can be resolved when dissenting lyze and practice solving specific problems that arise
participants are asked to restate ideas they oppose by during the school design process. They simulate the
identifying and stating the positive features of those communication of information and decisions in the
ideas. This procedure attempts to maintain a positive actual situation in which they may be employed (Abt
discussion while enhancing individual listening skills. 1970).
Role-playing games can enable participants to ana-

Profiles of Committee Members for a Private Alternative School

Parent No. 1. You are sending your child to this school so he can Building Committee Member — Builder. You, the builder, are
be with children of his social level. The public schools expose concerned with the cost of construction. To you, a good school
your child to children you would not want him to become involved means sound brick construction at a low cost. You will support
with — "children not of his own kind." most ideas about education as long as they do not interfere with
a sound building.
Parent No. 2. You feel that this school can offer your child better
academic opportunities. You are interested in your child learning Building Committee Member — Minister. You, the minister, are
the three R's and getting good grades so that she can succeed in concerned with religious education. You desire that more time be
life. committed to the teaching of the Bible as an important part of the
educational objectives.
Parent No. 3. You feel that the public schools don't understand
Building Committee Member — Doctor. You, the doctor, feel that
your child. He does not get along with the teachers. They pick on
academic achievement is of utmost importance. There should be
him for things he does not do and accuse him wrongly. You feel
an emphasis on learning facts and information and do away with
that in this school with small classes and better teachers, he will
all this freedom nonsense of the child pursuing his or her own
be better understood and do well.
interests. Learn and get good grades so your child can get into a
good college.
Headmaster. You, the headmaster, feel that education is self-di-
rected. Each child pursues his/her own interests at his/her own Teacher No. 1. You believe in a strict schedule: All children do
rate of development. Each child receives individual instruction as all activities together. They are assigned tasks and must fulfill
required. their assignments. One afternoon a week is set aside for "free
time."
The Architect. You are designing a school for this community. To
successfully achieve this end, you must find out from the building Teacher No. 2. You believe that with appropriate materials and
committee, parents, teachers, and headmaster what the educa- guidance in their use, children can proceed at their own rate and
tional objectives are. Each of the participants' contributing ideas interest. They are free to question the teacher and ask for help
may create conflict. Your role is to direct the group to reach some when needed. Children can move about freely with the teacher's
agreement about goals and objectives. permission,
 Participatory Techniques 205

GLOSSARY OF PARTICIPATION The table shown in Figure 5-15 identifies the unique
TECHNIQUES features associated with each technique. Usually sev-
eral techniques are combined in the development of a
The projects in this book employ a wide range of plan for participation.
participatory techniques. They all require different re-
sources and respond to different objectives identified
by the architect or by the client. Each technique is
briefly defined below, and their deployment is noted
at the beginning of each project.

Attitude survey a technique statistically representative of

all people that does not allow direct contact between
architect and client(s)

Charette a process which convenes interest groups in in-

tensive interactive meetings lasting several days

Community meetings planned by organizations to focus on

a particular project or issue

Design-in a technique in which people work with plans

and models to provide a clear idea of the impact of
design solutions

Fishbowl planning refers to an open decision-making pro-

cess that involves the use of several participatory
techniques.

Focused group interview structured interview consisting of

several individuals permitting discussion of ideas

Game simulations a technique of abstracting the essential

elements of a problem without the normal constraints

Group interaction interpersonal techniques used to facili-

tate group interaction and problem solving

Public forum an open meeting held by an organization or

FIGURE 5-15. Comparison of participatory techniques and their
agency to present information about a project at any
time during the process advantages.

Task force a special purpose committee sponsored by an

organization to be involved with a clearly defined task

Workshop working sessions to discuss issues in order to

reach an understanding of their importance
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Index

Activity program, 3, 21, 36, 75, 80, 84, 120, 124, 129, 134, 136,
datasheets, 31, 34, 84, 137, 199 144, 149, 153, 159, 164
diagrams, 33, 37, 194 scale, 17, 21, 116
symbols, 12, 31, 32, 36, 191, 193, 194
Activity centers, 9, 31-34, 124, 192-195 Campus planning and design, 3, 66, 114, 141, 142, 164
Activity planning process, 11, 12, 170 Charette process, 131, 132, 134, 136, 144
Adjacency analysis, 27 Child care facilities, 3, 6, 8, 21, 25, 31, 35
Adolescents Child-centered education, 127
academic effectiveness of, 42 Child development goals, 5, 9, 31, 35
development of, 46-48 Child health care, 20, 120
needs of, 42, 47 Children's centers, 7, 16, 30, 31
pregnant, 119 Children's drawings of schools, 59, 66, 72, 85, 133, 134
After-occupancy responses, 21, 56, 69, 93, 105, 117, 120, Classroom
125, 129, 136, 143, 145, 148, 158, 166, 167. See also action center, 42
Post-occupancy evaluation arrangement, 21, 47, 62, 120
Alternative schools, 97, 98 assessment, 44, 77, 195
Architectural character of schools, 47 character, 81, 115, 116
Arts education, 17, 104, 116, 153 class size, 42
Assessment evaluation, 77, 78, 199
classroom environments, 44, 77, 135, 195 ideal, 44, 134, 199
elementary schools, 93 organization, 5, 27, 115
middle-grade schools, 46, 78 social density, 42
needs, 8, 24, 30 workrooms, 124
university environments, 142, 160 Classroom environment ratings, 78, 195, 199
At-risk students, 119 Client, 3 , 8 , 10, 14, 21, 36, 112, 113
Atrium. See Courtyards non-paying, 3, 30, 32, 34, 36
-user, 8, 14, 36, 113, 120, 145
Behavior settings, 44, 51 Cognitive maps, 84, 85
Brainstorming, 54 Cognitive development, 13
Building Collaborative design process, 4, 6, 10, 24, 26, 30, 35, 65,
committee, 20, 80, 82, 119, 132, 153, 154, 182, 200 66, 80, 84, 171
concept, 20, 21, 34, 41, 54, 63, 68, 144, 145, 172 Collective creativity, 3
design, 62, 68, 71, 82, 101, 124, 129, 134, 148 Color in the playroom, 21, 54
energy conserving, 143, 146 Color in the school, 104, 117, 120, 124, 126
image (appearance), 53, 59, 61, 86, 103, 105, 129, 137, Community design committee, 54, 56
144, 145, 152, 154, 164, 167 Community meetings, 11, 54, 66, 72, 91, 103
objectives, 148, 154 Community participation in design, 10, 72, 132

213
214 Index

Community-school interaction, 65, 66, 75, 78, 84, 101, 103, Learning environment, 119, 124, 190, 192
124 Learning methods, 135, 188, 189
Community workshops. See Workshops Learning objectives, 50, 136, 159, 190, 192, 194
Computer technology, 124, 125
Conflict resolution, 186, 204 Middle Grades Assessment Program, 46, 50
Consensus decision making, 11, 50, 67, 135 Middle schools, 46, 50, 114, 128
Courtyards, 16, 17, 20, 53-55, 59, 61, 64, 68, 90, 93, 165 Models of buildings
block, 17, 21, 103
Daylight scale, 25, 28, 31, 32, 34, 72, 165
in the building, 54, 69, 155, 158 Models of classrooms, 31-33, 167
in the classroom, 30, 34, 86 Montessori schools, 98
Decision making, 10, 66, 112, 149 Multi-age grouping, 27, 30
Design center
East Orange School Design Center, 71, 72 Needs
Design competition, 143, 144 adolescents', 43, 47
Design development of schools, 8, 112, 171 assessment, 8, 24, 30
Design process, 35, 66, 71, 80, 103, 120, 153, 168, 170, 183 child care, 30
Design research, 8, 26, 30, 44 development, 43
Diana School (Italy), 15 space, 20
Non-toxic building materials, 105
Early childhood education program, 30
Early Childhood Environmental Rating Scale, 3 Objectives, 11
Elementary schools, 41, 44, 57, 65, 80, 90, 131 developmental, 27, 31, 135, 192
Educational goals, 98, 131, 135, 189 educational, 50, 135, 144, 146
Educational Facilities Laboratory, 71 Observation of physical facilities, 47, 49, 64, 108, 145, 161
Educational specifications, 57, 58, 71, 91 Occupancy analysis, 79
Environment Open classroom, 41, 44
individualized, 19, 23, 123 Open schools, 41, 73, 79, 94
learning, 119, 124, 190, 192 Outdoor play, 62, 73, 81, 129, 196, 198
Outdoor space, 13, 17, 21, 30, 34, 48, 59, 78, 81, 88
Facilities program, 144 courtyards, 17, 53-55, 59, 61, 64, 68, 90, 93, 129
Facilitation group, 108
Facilitators, 110, 184 Paired comparisons rating method, 135
Facility performance, 149 Parent cooperatives, 24
Facility Response Index, 161 Parent planning, 12, 65
Flow process, 28, 109 Parent-student participation, 124
Parent-teacher board, 15, 16
Game simulation, 28, 181, 185, 188, 189 Parent-teacher participation, 16, 24, 25, 57, 66, 124, 127,
Graphic symbols used in space planning, 12, 31, 32, 36, 132
191, 194 Parkway School, 98
Group discussion, 20, 50, 120, 124, 135, 155, 164-166 Participant groups, 25, 103, 110
Group interaction, 7, 25, 47, 58, 154, 164, 170, 180, 181, Participation, 12, 29, 160, 188
189 forms of, 179
"grass roots," 66
High schools, 44, 45, 83, 119, 120 planning for, 179, 184
purposes of, 177, 178
Independent learning, 124 small group, 180, 181
Individualized environments, 19, 23, 123 Participation techniques glossary, 205
Individualized learning groups, 127 Participatory management, 181
Infant playroom, 9, 13, 19, 24, 27, 32 Participatory process, 55, 58, 163, 177-179, 184-185
Instruction Passive solar building, 101, 104, 107, 144
individualized, 127 Pattern Language, 163
team teaching, 43, 57 Performance evaluation, 148
video-based, 124 Personal Growth Plan, 123, 126
Interviews Personalization of place, 48, 78
open-ended, 27, 58, 61, 75, 79, 90, 120 Photographs of school settings, 50, 51, 59, 67, 78, 86, 87,
with students, 50, 75, 79, 148 198, 201-203
with teachers, 50, 58, 148, 160 Planning educational facilities, 65, 75, 132
Planning game, 110, 192
Laboratory classrooms, 149, 159, 160, 165 Planning Outdoor Play (POP), 196
Learning (interest) centers, 9, 124, 132, 133, 192, 193, 195 Planning process, 65, 66, 134
 Index 215

Play yards. See Outdoor play Social development, 3, 128

Playroom, 21, 31 Social environment, 9
adjacencies, 14, 31, 192 Social exchange, 16
infant, 9, 13, 19, 24, 27, 30 Social interaction between parents and children, 11
modeling, 31 Spatial
organization, 32, 33, 192 layout, 8, 32, 142
toddler, 9, 16, 30 proximity, 9
Polar-opposite adjective rating scale, 78, 133 Spatial requirements, 9, 20, 84, 170
Post-occupancy evaluation, 21, 56, 69, 93, 105-107, 117, Staff-child ratios, 27, 91
120, 125, 129, 136, 143, 145, 148, 151, 158-159, 166, Student participation, 43, 47, 120
167 Student perceptions, 41, 59, 71, 78, 171
Post-occupancy evaluation process, 145 Student surveys, 48, 78, 79, 85, 86, 151
Post-secondary schools, 142 Student/teacher relations, 42, 135, 149, 188
Preschools, 4, 16, 20 Summerhill School, 98
Pregnant teenagers, 119, 120 Symbol diagrams, 21, 31, 32, 191, 194
Priority setting using paired comparisons, 135 Synectics, 2
Privacy requirements, 12, 41, 78
Program for a building, 21, 36, 54, 75, 80, 84, 120, 124, Teacher workshops, 57, 128
129, 144, 149, 159 Teaching laboratories, 149
Programming workshops, 124, 154 Teaching methods, 47, 59
Team teaching, 43, 57
Quality circles, 182 Teenage mothers, 122
Questionnaires, 76-78, 105 Theory Z, 181
photo, 51, 87, 198, 201-203 Time sampling methods, 151
Toddler playroom, 13, 20, 27, 30
Rank-ordering method, 108, 135 Tracking studies, 85, 86
Relating Objectives for Learning to Education (ROLE), Trump plan, 42
135, 188
Research laboratory, 160, 164-165 University Resident Environment Scale, 142
Role play, 131, 134, 199, 200, 204 Unobtrusive tracking of students, 85, 86
User-client, 8, 14, 36, 113, 120, 145
Scale, 17, 21, 116 Utilization Density Index, 162
Scale models, 28, 32
School assessment, 46, 76, 78, 84, 93, 142, 160
School-based management, 99 Video-based instruction, 124
School building types
egg carton, 41 Waldorf schools, 98, 100, 103, 104
free, 97, 98 Walkthrough evaluation, 31, 53, 58, 66, 75, 131
open, 41 touring interview, 107, 108, 145
pod, 91 Wish poem, 11, 59, 133, 135
without walls, 41 Work groups, 23, 24
School image. See Building image Workshop organization, 185, 186
School improvement projects, 46, 50 Workshops, 9, 11, 13, 72, 153
School settings. See Settings in the environment building image, 53, 59, 86, 129, 144, 154, 164, 167
School size, 44, 45 children's, 59,66, 133, 134
Self-assessment, 46, 50, 75 gaming, 108, 110
Self-report, 145 in-service, 52, 57
Sense of community, 17, 58, 115, 167 objectives, 185, 186
Sense of history, 55, 63, 82, 83, 85 parent-staff-teacher, 58
Settings in the environment, 8, 44, 51, 52, 86, 188-190, participatory design, 154, 163, 164
191, 197 programming, 66, 108, 120, 154, 165
Site planning, 21, 24, 26, 59, 154, 164 site planning, 24, 25, 27, 59, 154, 165
Skylights, 23, 34, 120 teacher, 57, 128