M.E.

S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA - QATAR

Notes 2023 - 2024

Section : Boys’ and Girls’ Date : 29/05/2023

Class & Div. : XII (All Divisions) Subject : Biology
Lesson / Topic: Ch.3 ,HUMAN REPRODUCTION
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HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Introduction
 Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous organisms.
 Reproduction is ability to reproduce individuals of same species. The main events in
reproduction include-
Gametogenesis-------> Insemination -------> fertilsation-----> implanation----> gestation--->
delivery/Parturition.

a)Gametogenesis:-
 it is the formation of gametes.
 Male gametes are sperms and female gametes are egg/ovum.
 Formation of sperm is called spermatogenesis
 Formation of egg is called oogenesis.
b)Insemination:-
 it is the transfer of sperms into the female genital tract
c)Fertilisation:-
 It is the fusion of male and female gamete. It results in the formation of zygote
d)Implantation:-
 Attachment of Blastocyst on the inner wall of uterus (Endometrium) is called
implantation
e)Gestation:-
 Embryonic development within the uterus of mother is called gestation. (The duration
between fertilization and parturition is called gestation.)

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  Human gestation period is 9 month.
f)Parturition:-
 Delivery of the baby is the parturition.
 All these reproductive events occur only after puberty.

There are remarkable differences between the reproductive events in the male and in the
female, The sperm formation (Spermatogenesis) continues in old men, but formation of
ovum (Oogenesis) ceases in women around the age of 50 years.

The Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system is located in the pelvis region. It consists of

a)A pair of testis
b)Accessory ducts
c)Glands
d)External genitalia.

a)Testes
 The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity (Extra abdominal ) within a
pouch called scrotum.
 The scrotum helps in maintaining the low temperature of the testes (2–2.5oc lower
than the normal internal body temperature) necessary for spermatogenesis
 The testis is covered by a dense covering.

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  Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules.
 Each Testicular lobule contains one to three highly coiled seminiferous tubules in
which sperms are produced.
 Each seminiferous tubule is lined on its inside by two types of cells called Male germ
cells (spermatogonia) and Sertoli cells.
 The male germ cells undergo meiotic divisions finally leading to sperm formation,
while Sertoli cells (Nursing cells ) provide nutrition to the germ cells.

 The regions outside the seminiferous tubules called interstitial spaces, contain small
blood vessels and interstitial cells or Leydig [Link] immunologically competent
cells are also present.
 Leydig cells synthesise and secrete testicular hormones called androgens.

b)Accessory Duct
 The male sex accessory ducts include
 Rete testis,
 Vasa efferentia,
 Epididymis
 Vas deferens.
 The seminiferous tubules of the testis open into the vasa efferentia through rete testis
(They are irregular cavities present in testes ).

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  The vasa efferentia leave the testis and open into epididymis.
 The epididymis leads to vas deferens.
 Vas deferens receives a duct from seminal vesicle and opens into urethra as the
ejaculatory duct .
 These ducts store and transport the sperms from the testis to the outside through
urethra.
 The urethra originates from the urinary bladder and extends through the penis to its
external opening called urethral meatus.

Seminiferous tubules → Rete testis → Vasa efferentia → Epididymis → Vas deferens→

Ejaculatory duct → Urethra → Urethral meatus.

c)External Genitalia
 The penis is the male external genitalia .
 It is made up of special tissue ( Spongy erectile tissue ) that helps in erection of the
penis to facilitate insemination.
 The enlarged end of penis called the glans penis is covered by a loose fold of skin
called foreskin.

d) Accessory Glands
 It include
i. Paired seminal vesicles,
ii. A prostate and
iii. Paired bulbourethral glands (Cowper’s gland ).

 Secretions of all these glands constitute the seminal plasma which is rich in fructose,
calcium and certain enzymes.
 The secretions of bulbourethral glands also helps in the lubrication of the penis.
 Seminal plasma along with sperm is called Semen

Seminal Plasma + Sperm = Semen

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The Female Reproductive System

 The female reproductive system is located in pelvic region and it consists of

a) A pair of ovaries,
b) Accessory ducts and
c) External genitalia.

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  These parts of the system along with a pair of the mammary glands are integrated
structurally and functionally to support the processes of ovulation, fertilisation,
pregnancy, birth and child care.

a)Ovary
 Ovaries are the primary female sex organs.
 Ovaries produce the female gamete (ovum) and several steroid hormones (ovarian
hormones-Estrogen and progesteron).
 The ovaries are located one on each side of the lower abdomen.
 Each ovary is about 2 to 4 cm in length and is connected to the pelvic wall and uterus
by ligaments.
 Each ovary is covered by a thin epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma.
 The stroma is divided into two zones – a peripheral cortex and an inner medulla
b) Accessory ducts
 Accessory ducts include
i. The oviducts (fallopian tubes),
ii. Uterus and
iii. Vagina

Oviduct :
 Each fallopian tube is about 10-12 cm long), the part closer to the ovary is the funnel-
shaped infundibulum.
 The edges of the infundibulum possess finger-like projections called fimbriae, which
help in collection of the ovum after ovulation.
 The infundibulum leads to a wider part of the oviduct called ampulla.
 The last part of the oviduct, isthmus has a narrow lumen and it joins the uterus.
Uterus (Womb):
 The shape of the uterus is like an inverted pear.
 The uterus opens into vagina through a narrow cervix.

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  The cavity of the cervix is called cervical canal which along with vagina forms the birth
canal.
 The wall of the uterus has three layers of tissue.
i. Perimetrium:- It is the the external thin membranous layer of uterus.
ii. Myometrium:- It is the middle thick layer of uterus. It contains smooth
muscle. The myometrium exhibits strong contraction during delivery of
the baby.
iii. Endometrium:- It is the inner most layer of uterus and is a glandular
[Link] Endometrium undergoes cyclical changes during
menstrualcycle.
External genitalia:
 The female external genitalia include
i. Mons pubis,
ii. Labia majora,
iii. Labia minora,
iv. Hymen and
v. Clitoris
i)Mons pubis:
 It is a cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair.
ii)The labia majora:
 They are fleshy folds of tissue, which extend down from the mons pubis and surround
the vaginal opening.
iii)The labia minora:
 They are paired folds of tissue under the labia majora.
iv)Hymen :
 The opening of the vagina is often covered partially by a membrane called hymen.

The hymen is often torn during the first coitus (intercourse). However, it
can also be broken by a sudden fall or jolt, insertion of a vaginal
tampon, active participation in some sports like horseback riding,
cycling, etc. In some women the hymen persists even after coitus. In
fact, the presence or absence of hymen is not a reliable indicator of
virginity or sexual experience

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v)Clitoris :
 The clitoris is a tiny finger-like structure which lies at the upper junction of the two
labia minora above the urethral opening.

Mammary Gland
 The mammary glands are paired structures (breasts) that contain Glandular tissue and
Variable amount of fat.
 The glandular tissue of each breast is divided into 15-20 mammary lobes containing
clusters of cells called alveoli . The cells of alveoli secrete milk, which is stored in the
cavities (lumens) of alveoli.
 The alveoli open into mammary tubules.
 The mammary tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary duct.
 Several mammary ducts join to form a wider mammary ampulla which is connected
to lactiferous duct through which milk is sucked out.

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Reproductive events :-

The main events in reproduction include-

A)Gametogenesis

B)Insemination

C)Fertilisation Gametogenesis → Insemination → fertilsation→

implanation→ gestation→ delivery/Parturition
D)Implantation

E)Gestation

F)Parturition

A) GAMETOGENESIS

 The process of formation of gamete is called gametogenesis.

 The gametes of male is called Sperm and of female is called Egg/Ovum.
 The process of formation of sperm is called spermatogenesis.
 The process of formation of egg/Ovum is called Oogenesis.

a)Spermatogenesis

 The process of formation of sperm is called spermatogenesis.

 It takes place at testis.
 Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules.
 Each Testicular lobule contains one to three highly coiled seminiferous tubules in
which sperms are produced.
 Each seminiferous tubule is lined on its inside by two types of cells called male germ
cells (spermatogonia/Sperm mother cells) and Sertoli cells.
 Each spermatogonium is diploid and contains 46 chromosomes.

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Steps in Spermatogenesis:-

 Some of the spermatogonia called primary spermatocytes periodically undergo

meiosis.
 A primary spermatocyte completes the first meiotic division (reduction division)
leading to formation of two equal, haploid cells called secondary spermatocytes,
which have only 23 chromosomes each.
 The secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic division to produce four
equal, haploid spermatids.
 The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa (sperms) by the process called
spermiogenesis.
 Spermiogenesis is the conversion of spermatid into sperm.
 After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become embedded in the Sertoli cells, and are
finally released from the seminiferous tubules by the process called spermiation.
 The release of sperm after spermatogenesis from seminiferous tubule is called
spermiation.
 From a single Primary spermatocyte 4 sperms are produced.
 From a single secondary Spermatocyte 2 sperms are produced.

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Hormonal Control of Spermatogenesis: Male reproductive system

Spermatogenesis starts at the age of puberty due to significant increase in the secretion of
gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH-GnRH is secreted by Hypothalamus). The increased
levels of GnRH then acts at the anterior pituitary gland (Adenohypophysis ) and stimulates
secretion of two gonadotropins – luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone
(FSH).

LH (luteinising hormone )

LH acts at the Leydig cells and stimulates synthesis and secretion of androgens. Androgens, in
turn, stimulate the process of spermatogenesis.

FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)

FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and stimulates secretion of some factors which help in the
process of spermiogenesis.

Structure of sperm :

 It is a microscopic structure composed of a head, neck, a middle piece and a tail.

 A plasma membrane envelops the whole body of sperm.

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The sperm head:

The head contains an elongated haploid nucleus, the anterior portion of which is covered by
a cap-like structure, acrosome. The acrosome is filled with enzymes (Hyaluronidase) that help
fertilisation of the ovum.

The middle piece:

Middle Piece possesses numerous mitochondria, which produce energy for the movement of
tail that facilitate sperm motility essential for fertilization.

Tail :

It helps in sperm movement.

The human male ejaculates about 200 to 300 million sperms during a
coitus of which, for normal fertility, at least 60 per cent sperms must have
normal shape and size and at least 40 per cent of them must show
vigorous motility.

Oogenesis :-

 The process of formation of a mature female gamete is called Oogenesis.

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  Oogenesis is initiated during the embryonic development stage when a couple of
million gamete mother cells (oogonia) are formed within each fetal ovary; no more
oogonia are formed and added after birth.
 These cells start division and enter into prophase-I of the meiotic division and get
temporarily arrested at that stage,called primary oocytes.
 Each primary oocyte then gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells and is called
the primary follicle.
 A large number of these follicles degenerate during the phase from birth to puberty.
Therefore, at puberty only 60,000-80,000 primary follicles are left in each ovary.
 The primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells and a new theca
and are called secondary follicles.
 The secondary follicle soon transforms into a tertiary follicle which is characterised by
a fluid filled cavity called antrum. The theca layer is organised into an inner theca
interna and an outer theca externa.
 First meiotic division an unequal division resulting in the formation of a large haploid
secondary oocyte and a tiny first polar body.
 The secondary oocyte retains bulk of the nutrient rich cytoplasm of the primary
oocyte.
 The tertiary follicle further changes into the mature follicle or Graafian follicle.
 The secondary oocyte forms a new membrane called zona pellucida surrounding it.
 The Graafian follicle now ruptures to release the secondary oocyte (ovum) from the
ovary by the process called ovulation.

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Structure of Human egg/ovum

It is round, non motile, haploid, female gamete. The human egg at ovulation is at the
secondary oocyte stage. It has centrally located nucleus and dense cytoplasm. The cytoplasm
stores food material required for the entire process of development.

Menstrual Cycle

 The reproductive cycle in the female primates (e.g. monkeys, apes and human beings)
is called menstrual cycle.
 The first menstruation begins at puberty and is called menarche.

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  Menstrual cycles ceases around 50 years of age; that is termed as menopause.
 Cyclic menstruation is an indicator of normal reproductive phase and extends
between menarche and menopause.
 In human females, menstruation is repeated at an average interval of about 28/29
days, and the cycle of events starting from one menstruation till the next one is called
the menstrual cycle.
 The menstrual cycle may be said to be a combination of ovarian cycle and uterine
cycle.

a)Bleeding phase/Menstrual phase

 This phase lasts for 3-5 days.

 The menstrual flow results due to breakdown of endometrial lining of the uterus and
its blood vessels which forms liquid that comes out through vagina.
 Menstruation only occurs if the released ovum is not fertilised.
 Lack of menstruation may be indicative of pregnancy. However, it may also be caused
due to some other underlying causes like stress, poor health etc.

b)Follicular phase/proliferative phase

 The menstrual phase is followed by the follicular phase.

 During this phase, the primary follicles in the ovary grow to become a fully mature
Graafian follicle and simultaneously the endometrium of uterus regenerates through
proliferation.
 These changes in the ovary and the uterus are induced by changes in the levels of
pituitary and ovarian hormones.
 The secretion of gonadotropins (LH and FSH) increases gradually during the follicular
phase and stimulates follicular development as well as secretion of estrogens by the
growing follicles.
 FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone) stimulate the growth of ovarian follicle to become
mature ovarian follicle (graffian follicle).
 During the growth of ovarian follicle, the growing ovarian follicle secrete Steroid
hormone called Estrogen.
 Estrogen helps in the proliferation of endometrium. Hence this phase of menstrual
cycle is also called Proliferative phase.
 Follicular phase or menstrual phase lasts for about 8-12 days.

c) Ovulatory phase

 Both LH and FSH attain a peak level in the middle of cycle (about 14th day).
 Rapid secretion of LH leading to its maximum level during the mid-cycle called LH
surge induces repture of Graafian follicle and thereby the release of ovum(ovulation).

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d)Luteal phase/Secretory phase

 The ovulation (ovulatory phase) is followed by the luteal phase during which the
remaining parts of the Graafian follicle transform as the corpus luteum.
 The corpus luteum secretes large amounts of progesterone which is essential for
maintenance of the endometrium. Such an endometrium is necessary for implantation
of the fertilized ovum and other events of pregnancy.
 During pregnancy all events of the menstrual cycle stop and there is no
menstruation.
 This phase lasts for about 14 days
 In the absence of fertilisation, the corpus luteum degenerates (and become corpus
albican).This causes disintegration of the endometrium (because level of progesterone
decreased) leading to menstruation, marking a new cycle
 10-17 days of menstrual cycle is called fertile period (The remaining days are called
safety period ). because chance of fertilization is very high during this period.

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B) Insemination

 During copulation (coitus) semen is released by the penis into the vagina
(insemination).
 The motile sperms swim rapidly, pass through the cervix, enter into the uterus and
finally reach the Ampullary region of the fallopian tube .
 The ovum released by the ovary is also transported to the ampullary region where
fertilisation takes place.

C) Fertilisation

 The process of fusion of a sperm with an ovum is called fertilization.

 Fertilisation can only occur if the ovum and sperms are transported simultaneously to
the ampullary region. This is the reason why not all copulations lead to fertilisation
and pregnancy.

How Polyspermy is prevented ?

 During fertilisation, a sperm comes in contact with the zona pellucida layer of the
ovum and induces changes in the membrane that block the entry of additional sperms
(Prevent poly spermy ). Thus, it ensures that only one sperm can fertilise an ovum. The
secretions of the acrosome help the sperm enter into the cytoplasm of the ovum
through the zona pellucida and the plasma membrane.
 This induces the completion of the meiotic division of the secondary oocyte. The
second meiotic division is also unequal and result in the formation of a second polar
body and a haploid egg.
 Soon the haploid nucleus of the sperm and that of ovum fuse together to form diploid
zygote.

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Clevage

 After fertilzation zygote starts mitotic division .

 The mitotic division starts as the zygote moves through the isthmus of the oviduct
called cleavage towards the uterus and forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called
blastomeres.
 The embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres is called a morula .
 The morula continues to divide and transforms into blastocyst as it moves further into
the uterus.
 The blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer layer called trophoblast
and an inner group of cells attached to trophoblast called the inner cell mass.

D) Implantation:-

 Attachment of Blastocyst on the inner wall of uterus (Endometrium) is called

implantation.

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  The trophoblast layer of blastocyst gets attached to the endometrium and the inner
cell mass gets differentiated as the embryo.
 After attachment, the uterine cells divide rapidly and covers the blastocyst. As a result,
the blastocyst becomes embedded in the endometrium of the uterus . This is called
implantation and it leads to pregnancy.
 Immediately after implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo) differentiates into an
outer layer called ectoderm and an inner layer called endoderm. A mesoderm soon
appears between the ectoderm and the endoderm. These three layers give rise to all
tissues (organs) in adults.

Placenta

 After implantation, finger-like projections appear on the trophoblast called chorionic

villi which are surrounded by the uterine tissue and maternal blood.
 The chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other and jointly
form a structural and functional unit between developing embryo (foetus) and
maternal body called placenta.
 The placenta is connected to the embryo through an umbilical cord which helps in the
transport of substances to and from the embryo.

Functions of placenta:-

[Link] placenta facilitate the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo.

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[Link] helps in the removal of carbon dioxide and excretory/waste materials produced by the
embryo.

[Link] also acts as an endocrine tissue and produces several hormones like human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens, progestogens, etc.

In the later phase of pregnancy, a hormone called relaxin is also

secreted by the ovary. hCG, hPL and relaxin are produced in women
only during pregnancy

E) Gestation

 The duration between fertilization and parturition is called gestation.

 1st month of pregnancy=Heart is formed.
 1st sign of growing foetus may be noticed by the listing to the heart sound.
 By the end of second month-Limbs and digits formed.
 By the end of 12 weeks (1st trimester)= major organs formed (Limbs and external
genital organs formed)
 5th month= 1st movement of foetus, appearance of hair on head
 By the end of 24th week (2nd trimsester)= Body covered with fine hairs, eye lids
separate, eye lashes formed.
 By the end of 9 months of pregnancy, =the foetus is fully developed and is ready for
delivery

F) Parturition

 The average duration of human pregnancy is about 9 months.

 Vigorous contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy causes
expulsion/delivery of the foetus. This process of delivery of the foetus (childbirth) is
called parturition.
 Parturition is induced by a complex neuro endocrine mechanism.
 The signals for parturition originate from the fully developed foetus and the placenta
which induce mild uterine contractions called foetal ejection reflex. This triggers
release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary.
 Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle and causes stronger uterine contractions, which
in turn stimulates further secretion of oxytocin. The stimulatory reflex between the
uterine contraction and oxytocin secretion continues resulting in stronger and

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 stronger contractions. This leads to expulsion of the baby out of the uterus through
the birth canal (Cervical canal along with vagina is called birth canal) – parturition.
 Soon after the infant is delivered, the placenta is also expelled out of the uterus.

Lactation

 The mammary glands of the female undergo differentiation during pregnancy and
starts producing milk towards the end of pregnancy by the process called lactation.
This helps the mother in feeding the newborn.
 The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum which
contains several antibodies (IgA) absolutely essential to develop resistance for the
new-born babies. Breast-feeding during the initial period of infant growth is
recommended by doctors for bringing up a healthy baby.

Milk synthesizing hormone is =PRL(Prolactin)

Milk ejecting hormone is =OT(Oxytocin)

Pregnancy hormone =Progesterone

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